Velocity and Acceleration

Distance Displacement
Distance is a scalar quantity. It is a measure of Displacement is a vector quantity. It is a measure
the total length you have moved. of how far you are from the starting position.

If you complete a lap of an athletics track: distance travelled = 400m

displacement = 0
Distance and Displacement are measured in metres, m

Speed Velocity
Speed is a measure of how the distance changes Velocity is measure of how the displacement
with time. Since it is dependent on speed it too is changes with time. Since it depends on
a scalar. displacement it is a vector too.
d s
speed  v
t t
Speed and Velocity are is measured in metres per second, m/s
Time is measured in seconds, s
Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity changes. Since velocity is a vector quantity, so is acceleration.
With all vectors, the direction is important. In questions we decide which direction is positive (e.g.  +ve)
If a moving object has a positive velocity: * a positive acceleration means an increase in the velocity
* a negative acceleration means a decrease in the velocity
(it begins the ‘speed up’ in the other direction)
If a moving object has a negative velocity: * a positive acceleration means an increase in the velocity
(it begins the ‘speed up’ in the other direction)
* a negative acceleration means a increase in the velocity
If an object accelerates from a velocity of u to a velocity of v, and it takes t seconds to do it then we can write
(v  u ) v
the equations as a  it may also look like this a  where Δ means the ‘change in’
t t

Acceleration is measured in metres per second squared, m/s2

Uniform Acceleration
In this situation the acceleration is constant – the velocity changes by the same amount each unit of time.
For example: If acceleration is 2m/s2, this means the velocity increases by 2m/s every second.
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Velocity (m/s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Acceleration (m/s2) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Non-Uniform Acceleration
In this situation the acceleration is changing – the velocity changes by a different amount each unit of time.
For example:
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Velocity (m/s) 0 2 6 10 18 28 30 44
Acceleration (m/s2) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
 Motion graphs
In motion graphs, we often use the gradient of a line and the area under a line to find values of quantities.
Gradient
We calculate the gradient by choosing two points on the line and calculating the change in the y axis (up/down)
and the change in the x axis (across). y
gradient 
Area under graph x
In IB Physics, we will not be asked to calculate the area under curves, only straight lines.
We do this be breaking the area into rectangles (base x height) and triangles (½ base x height).
Displacement-time graphs

A B C
Graph A shows that the displacement stays at 3m, it is stationary.
Graph B shows that the displacement increases by the same amount each second, it is travelling with constant
velocity.
Graph C shows that the displacement covered each second increases each second, it is accelerating.
y s
Since gradient  and y = displacement and x = time  gradient   gradient  velocity
x t
Velocity- time graphs

A B C
Graph A shows that the velocity stays at 4m/s, it is moving with constant velocity.
Graph B shows that the velocity increases by the same amount each second, it is accelerating by the same
amount each second (uniform acceleration).
Graph C shows that the velocity increases by a larger amount each second, the acceleration is increasing (non-
uniform acceleration).
y v
Since gradient  and y = velocity and x = time  gradient   gradient  acceleration
x t
area = base x height  area = time x velocity  area = displacement

This graph show the velocity decreasing in one direction and increasing in
the opposite direction.
If we decide that is negative and is positive then the graph tells us:
The object is initially travels at 5 m/s 
It slows down by 1m/s every second
After 5 seconds the object has stopped
It then begins to move 
It gains 1m/s every second until it is travelling at 5m/s 
 Equations of Motion

Defining Symbols
The following letters are assigned to represent each variable:
Displacement =s m metres
Initial Velocity =u m/s metres per second
Final Velocity =v m/s metres per second
Acceleration =a m/s2 metres per second per second
Time =t s seconds

Equations of Motion
Equation 1
(v  u )
If we start with the equation for acceleration a  we can rearrange this to give us an equation 1
t
at  (v  u )  at  u  v v  u  at

Equation 2
We start with the definition of velocity and rearrange for displacement
velocity = displacement / time  displacement = velocity x time

In situations like the graph to the right the velocity is constantly changing, we
need to use the average velocity.
displacement = average velocity x time
(u  v)
The average velocity is give by: average velocity =
2
We now substitute this into the equation above for displacement
(u  v) (u  v)
displacement = x time  s  t s  12 (u  v)t
2 2

Equation 3
With Equations 1 and 2 we can derive an equation which eliminated v. To do this we simply substitute
v  u  at into s  12 (u  v)t
s  12 (u  (u  at ))t  s  12 (2u  at )t  s  12 (2ut  at 2 ) s  ut  12 at 2

This can also be found if we remember that the area under a velocity-time graph represents the distance
travelled/displacement. The area under the line equals the area of rectangle A + the area of triangle B.
(v  u )
Area = Displacement = s = ut  12 (v  u )t since a  then at  (v  u ) so the equation becomes
t
s  ut  12 (at )t which then becomes equation 3

Equation 4
(v  u )
If we rearrange equation 1 into t  which we will then substitute into equation 2:
a
(v  u )
s  12 (u  v)t  s  12 (u  v)  as  12 (u  v)(v  u ) 
a
2as  (v 2  uv  uv  u 2 )  2as  v 2  u 2 v 2  u 2  2as

Any question can be solved as long as three of the variables are given in the question.
Write down all the variables you have and the one you are asked to find, then see which equation you can use.

These equations can only be used for motion with UNIFORM ACCELERATION.
 Terminal Velocity and Projectiles
Acceleration Due To Gravity
An object that falls freely will accelerate towards the Earth because of the force of gravity acting on it.
The size of this acceleration does not depend mass, so a feather and a bowling ball accelerate at the same rate.
On the Moon they hit the ground at the same time, on Earth the resistance of the air slows the feather more
than the bowling ball.
The size of the gravitational field affects the magnitude of the acceleration. Near the surface of the Earth the
gravitational field strength is 9.81 N/kg. This is also the acceleration a free falling object would have on Earth. In
the equations of motion a = g = 9.81 m/s.
Mass is a property that tells us how much matter it is made of.
Mass is measured in kilograms, kg
Weight is a force caused by gravity acting on a mass:
weight = mass x gravitational field strength w  mg
Weight is measured in Newtons, N
Terminal Velocity
If an object is pushed out of a plane it will
accelerate towards the ground because of its
weight (due to the Earth’s gravity). Its velocity will
increase as it falls but as it does, so does the drag
forces acting on the object (air resistance).
Eventually the air resistance will balance the
weight of the object. This means there will be no
overall force which means there will be no
acceleration. The object stops accelerating and
has reached its terminal velocity.

Projectiles
An object kicked or thrown into the air will follow a
parabolic path like that shown to the right.
If the object had an initial velocity of u, this can be
resolved into its horizontal and vertical velocity (as
we have seen in Lesson 2)
The horizontal velocity will be ucos and the vertical velocity will be usin. With these we can solve projectile
questions using the equations of motion we already know.

Horizontal and Vertical Motion

The diagram shows two balls that are released at the same time, one is released and the other has a horizontal
velocity. We see that the ball shot from the cannon falls at the same rate at the ball that was released. This is
because the horizontal and vertical components of motion are independent of each other.

Horizontal: The horizontal velocity is constant; we see that

the fired ball covers the same horizontal (across) distance
with each second.
Vertical: The vertical velocity accelerates at a rate of g
(9.81m/s2). We can see this more clearly in the released ball;
it covers more distance each second.

The horizontal velocity has no affect on the vertical velocity. If

a ball were fired from the cannon at a high horizontal velocity
it would travel further, but still take the same time to reach
the ground.
 Forces and Dynamics
Force is a vector quantity and the SI units for the measurement of force is the Newton (N).
Forces act on masses and can produce changes in velocity or shape of an object when there
is an overall net (or resultant) force acting.
Weight
The weight of a body is the gravitational force experienced by that body. On earth the
formula give is:
W = mg
m - mass of the body measured in kilograms (kg)
g - the gravitational field strength of the earth which is measured in Newton’s per kilogram
(N kg-1) or sometimes m s-2. On the surface of the earth g= 9.81 N kg -1.
Weight can be considered as a single force acting from the centre of gravity directly down
towards the centre of the Earth.
Free-body force diagrams
We can identify the forces acting on an object and represent these as arrows on a force
diagram. A force diagram showing just the forces acting on a single object is known as a
free-body force diagram.

Tension
Tension is always a pull force. Tension (T) is the force in an object when it is stretched.

The wire is being stretched by the downwards pull of the

weight. There is a tension T stretching the wire. The wire pulls
back up on the block with a force T’

Normal Reaction force:

If an object is in contact with another object, there is a reaction force(R) between the two
bodies. This force is perpendicular to the body exerting the force:

An object on a table. The reaction force R is the force that the table exerts on the object
perpendicular to and pointing away from the surface
Drag Force:
Drag forces are forces that oppose the motion of a body through a fluid (gas or liquid). They
act in the opposite direction to the velocity of the body. The size of the drag force depends
on the speed of the body, with a higher speed giving a higher drag force.

The drag force always opposes the

motion of an object moving through
a fluid.

Up thrust:
An object placed in a fluid will experience upthrust. If the upthrust force on a body is equal
to the weight, the body will float in the fluid.

Frictional Forces:
Frictional forces (f) are forces that oppose the motion of a body.

A box on the floor being pulled along A box sliding down a slope, there is a
has a frictional force f acting to oppose frictional force f acting back up the
the motion. slope, in the opposite direction to Ws.

Hooke’s Law:
Hooke’s law states that up to the limit of proportionality, the extension, x of a spring is
proportional to the tension force, F:
Fαx
F = kx
The constant of proportionality k is called the spring constant. SI units of spring constant are
N m-1.
 A force-extension graph for a spring, showing where the
spring obeys Hooke’s Law

Resultant force
The resultant force is the overall force acting on an object when the effect of all the
individual forces acting are added together.
To find the resultant force, we need to add the individual force vectors, considering the size
and direction of each force.

a) There are 3 forces acting on b) These forces are combined

an object by vector addition to give
the resultant force FR

Solid friction
Friction is the force which acts between two surfaces in contact.

Static friction is when there is no relative movement between the surfaces. Dynamic friction
is when there is movement. As pulling force increases on an object, if there is no slip, then
friction is static. When pulling force exceeds the static friction, there will be a resultant
force on the object and it will start to move. As the object starts to move, the friction
reduces to a lower level than the static friction – this is the dynamic friction. Both types of
friction depend on the nature of the surfaces (roughness etc) in contact.

Coefficient of friction

The coefficient of friction, µ, is a measure of the amount of friction existing between two
surfaces. A low value of coefficient of friction indicates that the force required for sliding to
occur is less than the force required when the coefficient of friction is high.

R – normal reaction

P – pull force

F – frictional force

Static and dynamic friction are defined individually by their constants µs and µd respectively.

Static friction: Fs = µs R

Dynamic friction: Fd = µd R
 Newton’s Laws of Motion
Newton’s 1st Law
An object will remain at rest, or continue to move with uniform velocity, unless it is acted upon by an external
resultant force.
Newton’s 2nd Law
The rate of change of an object’s linear momentum is directly proportional to the resultant external force. The
change in the momentum takes place in the direction of the force.
Newton’s 3rd Law
When body A exerts a force on body B, body B exerts an equal but opposite force on body A.
Force is measured in Newtons, N
Applying Newton’s Laws
Newton’s 1st Law
If the forward and backward forces cancel out, a stationary object will remain stationary.
If the forward forces are greater than the backwards forces, a stationary object will begin to move forwards.
If the forward and backward forces cancel out, a moving object will continue to move with constant velocity.
If the forward forces are greater than the backward forces, a moving object will speed up.
If the backward forces are greater than the forward forces, a moving object will slow down.
Newton’s 2nd Law
The acceleration of an object increases when the force is increased but decreases when the mass is increased:
F
a but we rearrange this and use F  ma
m
Newton’s 3rd Law
Forces are created in pairs.
As you sit on the chair your weight pushes down on the chair, the chair also pushes up against you.
As the chair rests on the floor its weight pushes down on the floor, the floor also pushes up against the chair.
The forces have the same size but opposite directions.

Example – riding on the bus

Newton’s 1st Law
You get on a bus and stand up. When the bus is stationary you feel no force, when the bus accelerates you feel
a backwards force. You want to stay where you are but the bus forces you to move. When the bus is at a
constant speed you feel no forwards or backwards forces. The bus slows down and you feel a forwards force.
You want to keep moving at the same speed, but the bus is slowing down so you fall forwards. If the bus turns
left you want to keep moving in a straight line so you are forced to the right (in comparison to the bus). If the
bus turns right you want to keep moving in a straight line so you are forced left (in comparison to the bus).
Newton’s 2nd Law
As more people get on the bus its mass increases, if the driving force of the bus’s engine is constant, we can see
that it takes longer for the bus to gain speed.
Newton’s 3rd Law
As you stand on the bus you are pushing down on the floor with a force that is equal to your weight. If this was
the only force acting, you would begin to move through the floor. The floor is exerting a force of equal
magnitude but upwards (in the opposite direction).

Example - taking the Lift

Newton’s 1st Law
When you get in the lift and when it moves at a constant speed you feel no force up or down. When it sets off
going up you feel like you are pushed down, you want to stay where you are. When it sets off going down you
feel like you are lighter, you feel pulled up.
Newton’s 2nd Law
As more people get in the lift its mass increases, if the lifting force is constant, we can see that it takes longer
for the lift to get moving. Or we can see that with more people the greater the lifting force must be.
Newton’s 3rd Law
As you stand in the lift you push down on the floor, the floor pushes back.
 Work, Energy and Power
Energy
We already know that it appears in a number of different stores and may be transferred from one store to
another. But what is energy? Energy is the ability to do work.
We can say that the work done is equal to the energy transferred
Work done = energy transferred W E

Work Done
In Physics we say that work is done when a force moves through a distance and established the equation
Work Done = Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force W  Fs
Work Done is measured in Joules, J
Force is measured in Newtons, N
Distance is measured in metres, m
The distance moved is not always in the direction of the force. In the diagram we can see that the block moves
in a direction that is  away from the ‘line of action’ of the force. To calculate the work done we must calculate
the distance we move in the direction of the force or the size of the force in the direction of the distance
moved. Both of these are calculated by resolving into horizontal and vertical components.
Work Done = Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force
Work Done = Size of Force in the direction of movement x Distance moved
Work Done = Fs cos

 or
Power
Power is a measure of how quickly something can transfer energy. Power is linked to energy by the equation:
Power is measured in Watts, W
EnergyTransferred E Energy is measured in Joules, J
Power  P
timetaken t Time is measured in seconds, s
But Work Done = Energy Transferred so we can say that power is a measure of how quickly work can be done.
WorkDone W
Power  P
timetaken t
Now that we can calculate Work Done we can derive another equation for calculating power:
W Fs s
We can substitute W  Fs into P  to become P  this can be separated into P  F .
t t t
s
 v so we can write P  Fv
t
Velocity is measured in metres per second, m/s or ms-1
Efficiency
We already know that the efficiency of a device is a measure of how much of the energy we put in is wasted.
Efficiency = useful energy transferred by the device this will give us a number less than 1
total energy supplied to the device
Useful energy means the energy transferred for a purpose, the energy transferred into the desired form.
Since power is calculated from energy we can express efficiency as:
Efficiency = useful output power of the device again this will give us a number less than 1
input power to the device
To calculate the efficiency as a percentage use the following:
percentage efficiency = efficiency x 100%
 Conservation of Energy
Energy Transfer
We already know that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one store (type) to
another and transferred from one thing to another. Eg a speaker transfers electrical energy to sound energy
with the energy itself is being transferred to the surroundings.
An isolated (or closed) system means an energy transfer is occurring where none of the energy is lost to the
surroundings. In reality all transfers are not isolated, and all of them waste energy to the surroundings.

Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy a moving object has. Let us consider a car that accelerates from being stationary
(u=0) to travelling at a velocity v when a force, F, is applied.
v
The time it takes to reach this velocity is give by v  u  at  v  at  t 
a
v v2
The distance moved in this time is given by s  (u  v)t  s  (v)t  s  (v)  s  2
1
2
1
2
1 1
2
a a
Energy transferred = Work Done, Work Done = Force x distance moved and Force = mass x acceleration
v2
E  W  E  Fs  E  mas  E  ma 12 E K  12 mv 2
a
Velocity is measured in metres per second, m/s
Mass is measured in kilograms, kg
Kinetic Energy is measured in Joules, J
Gravitational Potential Energy
This type of potential energy is due to the position of an object. If an object of mass m is lifted at a constant
speed by a height of h we can say that the acceleration is zero. Since F=ma we can also say that the overall force
is zero, this means that the lifting force is equal to the weight of the object  F=mg
We can now calculate the work done in lifting the object through a height, h.
WD  Fs  WD  (mg )h  WD  mgh
Since work done = energy transferred E P  mgh
Height is a measure of distance which is measured in metres, m
Gravitational Potential Energy is measured in Joules, J
Everyday energy transfers
In many situations gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy, or vice versa. Some everyday
examples of this are:
Swings and pendulums If we pull a pendulum back we give it GPE, when it is released it falls, losing its GPE but
speeding up and gaining KE. When it passes the lowest point of the swing it begins to rise (gaining GPE) and
slow down (losing KE).
Bouncing or throwing a ball Holding a ball in the air gives it GPE, when we release this it transforms this into KE. As it
rises it loses KE and gains GPE.
Slides and ramps A ball at the top of a slide will have GPE. When it reaches the bottom of the slide it has lost all its
GPE, but gained KE.

Work done against resistive forces

In each of these cases it appears as though we have lost energy. The pendulum doesn’t swing back to its original
height and the ball never bounces to the height it was released from. This is because work is being done against
resistive forces.
The swing has to overcome air resistance whilst moving and the friction from the top support.
The ball transforms some energy into sound and overcoming the air resistance.
Travelling down a slide transforms energy into heat due to friction and air resistance

The total energy before a transformation = The total energy after a transformation
 Momentum and Collisions
Momentum
The momentum of an object is given by the equation: momentum = mass x velocity p  mv
Since it depends on the velocity and not speed, momentum is a vector quantity. If we assign a direction to be
positive for example if  was positive, an object with negative velocity would be moving . It would also have
a negative momentum.
Momentum is measured in kilogram metres per second, kg m/s or kg m s -1

Conservation
In an isolated system (if no external forces are acting) the linear momentum is conserved.
We can say that: the total momentum before = the total momentum after
The total momentum before and after what? A collision or an explosion.

Collisions
There are two types of collisions; in both cases the momentum is conserved.
Elastic – kinetic energy in conserved, no energy is transferred to the surroundings
If a ball is dropped, hits the floor and bounces back to the same height it would be an elastic collision with the
floor. The kinetic energy before the collision is the same as the kinetic energy after the collision.
Inelastic – kinetic energy is not conserved, energy is transferred to the surroundings
If a ball is dropped, hits the floor and bounces back to a lower height than released it would be an inelastic
collision. The kinetic energy before the collision would be greater than the kinetic energy after the collision.

Before After
In the situation above, car 1 and car 2 travel to the right with initial velocities u1 and u2 respectively. Car 1
catches up to car 2 and they collide. After the collision the cars continue to move to the right but car 1 now
travels at velocity v1 and car 2 travels a velocity v2. [ is positive]
Since momentum is conserved the total momentum before the crash = the total momentum after the crash.
The total momentum before is the momentum of A + the momentum of B
The total momentum after is the new momentum of A + the new momentum of B
We can represent this with the equation: m1u1  m2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v2

Explosions
We look at explosions in the same way as we look at collisions, the total momentum before is equal to the total
momentum after. In explosions the total momentum before is zero. [ is positive]

Before After
If we look at the example above we can see that the whole system is not moving, so the momentum before is
zero. After the explosion the shell travels right with velocity v2 and the cannon recoils with a velocity v1.
The momentum of the system is given as: m1u1  m2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v2
So the equation for this diagram would be: 0  m1v1  m2 v2
But remember, v1 is negative so: 0  m1v1  m2 v2  m1v1  m2 v2
 Force and Impulse
Force
If we start with F = ma we can derive an equation that links force and momentum.
(v  u )
F  ma we can replace a in this equation with a 
t
(v  u )
F m multiplying out makes the equation
t
mv  mu  ( mv)
F or F where ∆ means ‘the change in’
t t
This states that the force is a measure of change of momentum with respect to time. This is Newton’s Second
Law of Motion:
The rate of change of an object’s linear momentum is directly proportional to the resultant external force.
The change in the momentum takes place in the direction of the force.

If we have a trolley and we increase its velocity from rest to 3m/s in 10 seconds, we know that it takes a bigger
force to do the same with a trolley that’s full of shopping. Ever tried turning a trolley around a corner when
empty and then when full?
Force is measured in Newtons, N
Car Safety
Many of the safety features of a car rely on the above equation. Airbags, seatbelts and the crumple zone
increase the time taken for the car and the people inside to stop moving. Increasing the time taken to change
the momentum to zero reduces the force experienced.

Catching
An Egg: If we held our hand out and didn’t move it the egg would smash. The change in momentum happens in
a short time, making the force large. If we cup the egg and move our hands down as we catch it we make it take
longer to come to a complete stop. Increasing the time taken decreases the force and the egg remains intact.
Cricket Ball: If we didn’t move our hands it would hurt when the ball stopped in our hands. If we make it take
longer to stop we reduce the force on our hands from the ball.

Impulse
mv  mu
F multiply both sides by t  Ft  mv  mu
t
(mv)
F multiply both sides by t  Ft   (mv)
t
We now have an equation for impulse. Impulse is the product of the force and the time it is applied for.
An impulse causes a change in momentum.
Impulse is measured in Newton seconds, Ns

Since Ft   (mv) , the same impulse (same force applied for the same amount of time) can be applied to a
small mass to cause a large velocity or to a large mass to cause a small velocity

Ft = m= vv m
Force-Time Graphs
The impulse can be calculated from a force-time graph, it is
the same as the area under the graph.
The area of the first graph is given by:
height x length = Force x time = Impulse