A.

1 Kinematics

Essential idea: Motion may be described and analysed by the

use of graphs and equations.

Nature of science: Observations: The ideas of motion are

fundamental to many areas of physics, providing a link to the
consideration of forces and their implication. The kinematic
equations for uniform acceleration were developed through careful
observations of the natural world.
Understandings:
• the motion of bodies through space and time can be described
and analysed in terms of position, velocity, and acceleration
• velocity is the rate of change of position, and acceleration is
the rate of change of velocity
• the change in position is the displacement
• the difference between distance and displacement
• the difference between instantaneous and average values of
velocity, speed and acceleration, and how to determine them
• motion with uniform and non-uniform acceleration
• the behaviour of projectiles in the absence of fluid resistance,
and the application of the equations of
• motion resolved into vertical and horizontal components
• the qualitative effect of fluid resistance on projectiles, including
time of flight, trajectory, velocity,
• acceleration, range and terminal speed.
Guidance:
• A quantitative approach to projectile motion will be limited to
situations where fluid resistance is absent or can be neglected.
• The trajectory of projectile motion is parabolic in the absence
of fluid resistance, but the equation of the trajectory is not
required.
• Familiarity with projectiles launched horizontally, at angles
above, and at angles below the horizontal is required.
Data booklet reference:

International-mindedness:
International cooperation is needed for tracking shipping, land-
based transport, aircraft and objects in space

Theory of knowledge:
The independence of horizontal and vertical motion in projectile
motion seems to be counter-intuitive. How do scientists work
around their intuitions? How do scientists make use of their
intuitions?
Distance and displacement
Mechanics is the branch of physics which concerns itself with
forces, and how they affect a body's motion.

Kinematics is the sub-branch of mechanics which studies only a

body's motion without regard to causes.

Dynamics is the sub-branch of mechanics which studies the

forces which cause a body's motion.

The two pillars of

mechanics
Galileo Newton
Kinematics Dynamics
(Calculus)
Distance and displacement
Kinematics is the study of displacement, velocity and
acceleration, or in short, a study of motion.
A study of motion begins with position and change in position.
Consider Freddie the Fly, and his quest for food:

chip
e
olat
hoc
c
lt ed
Me
d=6m
The distance Freddie travels is simply how far he has flown,
without regard to direction. Freddie's distance is 6 meters.
Distance and displacement
Distance is simply how far something has traveled without regard
to direction. Freddy has gone 6 m.
Displacement, on the other hand, is not only distance traveled,
but also direction.

Distance = 6 m
Displacement = 6 m
in the positive x-direction

This makes displacement a vector. It has a magnitude (6 m) and a

direction (+ x-direction).
We say Freddie travels through a displacement of 6 m in the
positive x-direction.
Distance and displacement
Let’s revisit some previous examples of a ball moving through
some displacements…
Displacement A
x(m)
Displacement B
x(m)
Displacement A is just 15 m to the right (or +15 m for short).
Displacement B is just 20 m to the left (or -20 m for short).

FYI
Distance A is 15 m, and Distance B is 20 m. There is no regard for
direction in distance.
Distance and displacement
Now for some detailed analysis of these two motions…
Displacement A
x(m)
Displacement B
x(m)

Displacement ∆x (or s) has the following formulas:

∆x = x2 – x1 displacement
s = x2 – x1 where x2 is the final position
and x1 is the initial position

FYI
Many textbooks use ∆x for displacement, and IB uses s. Don’t
confuse the “change in ∆” with the “uncertainty ∆” symbol. And
don’t confuse s with seconds!
Distance and displacement
∆x = x2 – x1 displacement
s = x2 – x1 where x2 is the final position
and x1 is the initial position

EXAMPLE: Use the displacement formula to find each

displacement. Note that the x = 0 coordinate has been placed on
the number lines.
1 2
Displacement A x(m)
2 0 1
Displacement B x(m)

SOLUTION:
FYI
For A: s = (+10) – (-5) = +15 m.
The correct direction (sign)
For B: s = (-10) – (+10) = -20 m. is automatic!
Speed and velocity
Velocity v is a measure of how fast an object moves through a
displacement.
Thus, velocity is displacement divided by time, and is measured in
meters per second (m s-1).

v = ∆x / ∆t velocity
v=s/t

EXAMPLE: Find the velocity of the second ball (Ball B) if it takes 4

seconds to complete its displacement.

SOLUTION:
For B: s = (-10) – (+10) = -20 m.
But t = 4 s. Therefore v = -20 m / 4 s = -5 m s-1.
Note that v “inherits” its direction from s.
Speed and velocity
From the previous example we calculated the velocity of the ball
to be -5 m s-1.
Thus, the ball is moving 5 m s-1 to the left.
With disregard to the direction, we can say that the ball’s speed is
5 m s-1.
We define speed as distance divided by time, with disregard to
direction.

PRACTICE: A runner travels 64.5 meters in the negative x-

direction in 31.75 seconds. Find her velocity, and her speed.

SOLUTION:
Her velocity is -64.5 / 31.75 = - 2.03 m s-1.
Her speed is 64.5 / 31.75 = 2.03 m s-1.
Acceleration
Acceleration is the change in velocity over time.

a = ∆v / ∆t acceleration
a = (v – u) / t where v is the final velocity
and u is the initial velocity

Since u and v are measured in m/s and since t is measured in s, a

is measured in m/s2, or in IB format, a is measured in m s-2.

FYI
Many textbooks use ∆v = vf - vi for change in velocity, vf for final
velocity and vi initial velocity. IB gets away from the subscripting
mess by choosing v for final velocity and u for initial velocity.
Acceleration
a = ∆v / ∆t acceleration
a = (v – u) / t where v is the final velocity
and u is the initial velocity
EXAMPLE: A driver sees his speed is 5.0 m s-1. He then
simultaneously accelerates and starts a stopwatch. At the end of
10. s he observes his speed to be 35 m s-1. What is his
acceleration?

SOLUTION: Label each number with a letter:

v = 35 m s-1, u = 5.0 m s-1, and t = 10. s.
Next, choose the formula: a = (v – u) / t.
Now substitute and calculate:
a = ( 35 – 5 ) / 10 = 3.0 m s-2.
Acceleration
a = ∆v / ∆t acceleration
a = (v – u) / t where v is the final velocity
and u is the initial velocity

PRACTICE:
(a) Why is velocity a vector?
(b) Why is acceleration a vector?

SOLUTION:
(c) Velocity is a displacement over time. Since displacement is a
vector, so is velocity.
(d) Acceleration is a change in velocity over time. Since velocity
is a vector, so is acceleration.
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration

Back in the 1950s, military aeronautical engineers thought that

humans could not withstand much of an acceleration, and
therefore put little effort into pilot safety belts and ejection seats.
An Air Force physician by the name of Colonel Stapp, however,
thought humans could withstand higher accelerations.
He designed a rocket sled to accelerate at up to 40g (at which
acceleration you would feel like you weighed 40 times your normal
weight!).
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
The human to be tested would be Stapp himself.
An accelerometer and a video camera were attached to the sled.
Here are the results:
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
Here are the data.
In 1954, America's original Rocketman, Col. John Paul Stapp,
attained a then-world record land speed of 632 mph, going from a
standstill to a speed faster than a .45 bullet in 5.0 seconds on an
especially-designed rocket sled, and then screeched to a dead
stop in 1.4 seconds, sustaining more than 40g's of force, all in the
interest of safety.
There are TWO accelerations in this problem:
(a) He speeds up from 0 to 632 mph in 5.0 s.
(b) He slows down from 632 mph to 0 in 1.4 s.
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
There are TWO accelerations in this problem:
(a) He speeds up from 0 to 632 mph in 5.0 s.
(b) He slows down from 632 mph to 0 in 1.4 s.
EXAMPLE: Convert 632 mph to m/s.
SOLUTION: Use “well-chosen” ones…
632 mi × 5280 ft × 1 m × 1 h = 280 m
1h 1 mi 3.28 ft 3600. s s
EXAMPLE: Was Stapp more uncomfortable while he was
speeding up, or while he was slowing down?
SOLUTION: While slowing down. Why?
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
There are TWO accelerations in this problem:
(a) He speeds up from 0 to 632 mph in 5.0 s.
(b) He slows down from 632 mph to 0 in 1.4 s.
EXAMPLE: Find Stapp’s acceleration during the speeding up
phase.
SOLUTION:
v
a= = v f - v i = 280 m/s - 0 m/s = 60 m/s2
t t 5s
EXAMPLE: Find Stapp’s acceleration during the slowing down
phase.
a = v - u = 0 m/s - 280 m/s = - 200 m s-2
t 1.4 s
Determining instantaneous and average values for velocity, speed
and acceleration

Consider a car whose position is changing.

A patrol officer is checking its speed with a radar gun as shown.
The radar gun measures the position of the car during each
successive snapshot, shown in yellow.

How can you tell that the car is speeding up?

What are you assuming about the radar gun time?
Determining instantaneous and average values for velocity, speed
and acceleration
We can label each position with an x and the time interval
between each x with a ∆t.

Then vA = (x2 - x1)/∆t,

vB = (x3 - x2)/∆t, and finally
vC = (x4 - x3)/∆t.

Focus on the interval from x2 to x3.

Note that the speed changed from x2 to x3, and so vB is NOT really
the speed for that whole interval.
We say the vB is an average speed (as are vA and vC).
vA vB vC
∆t ∆t ∆t

x1 x2 x3 x4
Determining instantaneous and average values for velocity, speed
and acceleration

If we increase the sample rate of the radar gun (make the ∆t

smaller) the positions will get closer together.
Thus the velocity calculation is more exact.
We call the limit as ∆t approaches zero in the equation v = ∆x / ∆t
the instantaneous velocity.

For this level of physics we will just be content with the average
velocity. Limits are beyond the scope of this course.
Determining instantaneous and average values for velocity, speed
and acceleration

By the same reasoning, if ∆t gets smaller in the acceleration

equation, our acceleration calculation becomes more precise.
We call the limit as ∆t approaches zero of the equation a = ∆v / ∆t
the instantaneous acceleration.

For this level of physics we will be content with the average

acceleration.
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration
The equations for uniformly accelerated motion are also known as
the kinematic equations. They are listed here

Displacement
Velocity
Timeless
Average displacement
They can only be used if the acceleration a is CONSTANT
(uniform).
They are used so commonly throughout the physics course that
we will name them.
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration

From a = (v – u)/t we get

at = v – u.

Rearrangement leads to v = u + at, the velocity equation.

Now, if it is the case that the acceleration is constant, then the
average velocity can be found by taking the sum of the initial and
final velocities and dividing by 2 (just like test grades). Thus

average velocity = (u + v) / 2.

But the displacement is the average velocity times the time, so

that s = (u + v)t / 2, the average displacement equation.
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration
We have derived v = u + at and s = (u + v)t / 2.
Let’s tackle the first of the two harder ones.

s = (u + v)t / 2 Given
s = (u + u + at)t / 2 v = u + at
s = (2u + at)t / 2 Like terms
s = 2ut/2 + at 2/ 2 Distribute t/2
s = ut + (1/2)at 2 Cancel 2

which is the displacement equation.

Since the equation s = (u + v)t/2 only works if the acceleration is

constant, s = ut + (1/2)at 2 also works only if the acceleration is
constant.
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration
We now have derived v = u + at, s = (u + v)t / 2 and
s = ut + (1/2)at 2. Let’s tackle the timeless equation.

From v = u + at we can isolate the t.

v – u = at
t = (v – u)/a

From s = (u + v)t / 2 we get: Multiply by 2

2s = (u + v)t t = (v - u)/a
2s = (u + v)(v – u) / a Multiply by a
2as = (u + v)(v – u) FOIL
2as = uv – u2 + v2 – vu Cancel (uv = vu)
v2 = u2 + 2as
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration
Just in case you haven’t written these down, here they are again.

s = ut + (1/2)at2 Displacement kinematic

v = u + at Velocity equations
v2 = u2 + 2as Timeless a is constant
s = (u + v)t/2 Average displacement

We will practice using these equations soon. They are extremely

important.
Before we do, though, we want to talk about freefall and its special
acceleration g.
Determining the acceleration of free-fall
experimentally
Everyone knows that when you drop an object, it
picks up speed when it falls.

Galileo did his famous freefall experiments on the

tower of Pisa long ago, and determined that all
objects fall at the same acceleration in the
absence of air resistance.

Thus, as the next slide will show, an apple and a

feather will fall side by side!
Determining the acceleration of
free-fall experimentally

Consider the multiflash image of

an apple and a feather falling in a
partial vacuum:

If we choose a convenient spot

on the apple, and mark its
position, we get a series of marks
like so:
Determining the acceleration of
free-fall experimentally

Now we SCALE our data. Given

that the apple is 8 cm in
horizontal diameter we can
superimpose this scale on our
photograph. 0 cm

-9 cm
Then we can estimate the
position in cm of each image. -22 cm

-37 cm

-55 cm
Determining the acceleration of
free-fall experimentally

Suppose we know that the time

between images is 0.056 s.

We make a table starting with the 0 cm

raw data columns of t and y.
-9 cm

We then make calculations

-22 cm
columns in t, y and v.
t(s) y(cm) t y v
.000 0 -37 cm

.056 -9 .056 -9 -161

.112 -22 .056 -13 -232
.168 -37 .056 -15 -268 -55 cm
.224 -55 .056 -18 -321
Determining the t(s) y(cm) t y v
acceleration of free-fall .000 0
experimentally .056 -9 .056 -9 -161
.112 -22 .056 -13 -232
Now we plot v vs. t on a .168 -37 .056 -15 -268
graph. .224 -55 .056 -18 -321
v

TIME / sec
VELOCITY / cm sec-1

.000 .056 .112 .168 .224

0 t
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Determining the
acceleration of free-fall FYI
experimentally The graph v vs. t is linear. Thus a is
constant.
The y-intercept (the initial velocity of
the apple) is not zero. But this just
means we don’t have all of the images
of the apple.

TIME (sec)
.000 .056 .112 .168 .224
VELOCITY (cm/sec)

0 t/s
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Determining the
acceleration of free- FYI
fall experimentally Finally, the acceleration is the slope
of the v vs. t graph:

a = v = -220 cm/s = -982 cm/s2

t 0.224 s
v

TIME (sec)
.000 .056 .112 .168 .224
VELOCITY (cm/sec)

0 t/s
t = 0.224 s

v = -220 cm/s
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Determining the acceleration of free-fall experimentally
Since this acceleration due to gravity is so important we give it the
name g.
ALL objects accelerate at -g , where
g = 980 cm s-2
in the absence of air resistance.
We can list the values for g in three ways:

g = 980 cm s-2 We usually round magnitude of

the metric value to the freefall
g = 9.80 m s-2
10: acceleration
g = 32 ft s-2 g = 10. m s-2

Hammer and feather drop Apollo 15

Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
General:
s = ut + (1/2)at2, and
v = u + at, and
v2 = u2 + 2as, and
s = (u + v)t / 2;

Freefall: Substitute ‘-g’ for ‘a’ in all of the above equations.

FYI
The kinematic equations will be used throughout the year.
We must master them NOW!
 1
s = ut + 2
at 2

v=u
+ at
2 + 2as
v2 = u
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration

EXAMPLE: How far will Pinky and the Brain go in 30.0 seconds if
their acceleration is 20.0 m s -2?
KNOWN FORMULAS
a = 20 m/s2 Given s = ut + 12at2
t = 30 s Given v = u + at
u = 0 m/s Implicit v2 = u2 + 2as
WANTED s=? SOLUTION
t is known - drop the s = ut + 12at2
timeless eq’n. s = 0(30) + 12 20(30)2
Since v is not wanted,
drop the velocity eq'n: s = 9000 m
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration

EXAMPLE: How fast will Pinky and the Brain be going at this
instant?
KNOWN FORMULAS
a = 20 m/s2 Given s = ut + 12at2
t = 30 s Given v = u + at
u = 0 m/s Implicit v2 = u2 + 2as
WANTED v=? SOLUTION
t is known - drop the v = u + at
timeless eq’n. v = 0 + 20(30)
Since v is wanted, drop
the displacement eq'n: v = 600 m s-1
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration

EXAMPLE: How fast will Pinky and the Brain be going when they
have traveled a total of 18000 m?

KNOWN FORMULAS
a = 20 m/s2 Given s = ut + 12at2
s = 18000 m Given v = u + at
u = 0 m/s Implicit v2 = u2 + 2as
WANTED v=? SOLUTION
Since t is not known - v2 = u2 + 2as
drop the two eq’ns which v2 = 02 + 2(20)(18000)
have time in them.
v = 850 m s-1
Solving problems using equations of motion for
uniform acceleration

EXAMPLE: A ball is dropped off of the Empire

State Building (381 m tall). How fast is it going
when it hits ground?

KNOWN FORMULAS
a = -10 m/s2 Implicit s = ut + 12at2
s = -381 m Given v = u + at
u = 0 m/s Implicit v2 = u2 + 2as
WANTED v=? SOLUTION
Since t is not known v2 = u2 + 2as
drop the two eq’ns v2 = 02+ 2(-10)(-381)
which have time in
them. v = -87 m s -1
Solving problems using equations of motion for
uniform acceleration

EXAMPLE: A ball is dropped off of the Empire

State Building (381 m tall). How long does it take
to reach the ground?
KNOWN FORMULAS
a = -10 m/s2 Implicit s = ut + 12at2
s = -381 m Given v = u + at
u = 0 m/s Implicit v2 = u2 + 2as
WANTED t=? SOLUTION
Since t is desired s = ut + 12at2
and we have s drop -381 = 0t + 12 (-10)t2
the last two eq’ns.
t = 8.7 s
Solving problems using equations of motion for
uniform acceleration

EXAMPLE: A cheerleader is thrown up with an

initial speed of 7 m s-1. How high does she go?

KNOWN FORMULAS
a = -10 m/s2 Implicit s = ut + 12at2
u = 7 m s-1 Given v = u + at
v = 0 m/s Implicit v2 = u2 + 2as
WANTED s=? SOLUTION
Since t is not known v2 = u2 + 2as
drop the two eq’ns which
02 = 72 + 2(-10)s
have time in them.
s = 2.45 m
Solving problems using equations of
motion for uniform acceleration

EXAMPLE: A ball is thrown upward at 50 m s-1 from the top of

the 300-m Millau Viaduct, the highest bridge in the world.
How fast does it hit ground?
KNOWN FORMULAS
a = -10 m/s2 Implicit s = ut + 12at2
u = 50 m s-1 Given v = u + at
s = -300 m Implicit v2 = u2 + 2as
WANTED v=? SOLUTION
Since t is not known - v2 = u2 + 2as
drop the two eq’ns which v2 = 502 + 2(-10)(-300)
have time in them.
v = -90 m s-1
Solving problems using equations of
motion for uniform acceleration

EXAMPLE: A ball is thrown upward at 50 m s-1 from the top of the

300-m Millau Viaduct, the highest bridge in the world. How long is
it in flight?
KNOWN FORMULAS
a = -10 m/s2 Implicit s = ut + 12at2
u = 50 m s-1 Given v = u + at
v = -90 m s-1 Calculated v2 = u2 + 2as
WANTED t=? SOLUTION
Use the simplest t v = u + at
equation. -90 = 50 + (-10)t
t = 14 s
Sketching and interpreting motion graphs

The slope of a displacement-time graph is the velocity.

The slope of the velocity-time graph is the acceleration. We

already did this example with the falling feather/apple
presentation.

You will have ample opportunity to find the slopes of distance-

time, displacement-time and velocity-time graphs in your labs.
Sketching and interpreting motion graphs

EXAMPLE: Suppose Freddie the Fly begins at x = 0 m, and

travels at a constant velocity for 6 seconds as shown. Find two
points, sketch a displacement vs. time graph, and then find and
interpret the slope and the area of your graph.

t = 0, x = 0 x/m t = 6 s, x = 18

SOLUTION:
The two points are (0 s, 0 m) and (6 s, 18 m).
The sketch is on the next slide.
Sketching and interpreting motion graphs

SOLUTION: 27
24
21
18
x/m
15
Rise
12
9 s = 18 - 0
6 t=6-0 s = 18 m
3 Run t = 6 s
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t/s
The slope is rise over run or 18 m / 6 s
Thus the slope is 3 m s-1, which is interpreted as Freddie’s velocity.
Sketching and interpreting motion graphs

The area under a velocity-time graph is the displacement.

The area under an acceleration-time graph is the change in

velocity.

You will have ample opportunity to draw distance-time,

displacement-time and velocity-time graphs in your labs.
Sketching and interpreting motion graphs

EXAMPLE: Calculate and interpret the area under the given v vs. t
graph. Find and interpret the slope.

VELOCITY (ms-1 )
50
SOLUTION: 40
30
20
The area of a 10 triangle is
0 A = (1/2)bh. t
0 5 10 15 20
Thus TIME (sec)

A = (1/2)(20 s)(30 m/s) = 300 m.

This is the displacement of the object in 20 s.
The slope is (30 m/s) / 20 s = 1.5 m s-2.
This is the acceleration of the object.
Qualitatively describing the effect of fluid resistance on falling
objects or projectiles, including reaching terminal speed

Students should know what is meant by terminal speed.

This is when the drag force exactly balances the weight.
Qualitatively describing the effect of fluid y
At first,
resistance on falling objects or projectiles, v=
including reaching terminal speed 0.
W
Suppose a blue whale suddenly materializes
Then, as v
high above the ground. y
increases, so
The drag force D is proportional to the speed does D. D
squared.
Thus, as the whale picks up speed, the drag W
v
force increases.
v reaches a
Once the drag force equals the maximum value,
whale’s weight, the whale will stop D
called terminal y
accelerating. speed.
It has reached terminal speed. D = W.
"A female Blue Whale weighing 190 metric tonnes (418,877lb) W
vterminal
and measuring 27.6m (90ft 5in) in length suddenly
materialized above the Southern Ocean on 20 March 1947." Guinness World Records.
Falkland Islands Philatelic Bureau. 2 March 2002.
Determine relative velocity in one and two dimensions

Suppose you are a passenger in a car on a perfectly level and

straight road, moving at a constant velocity. Your velocity relative
to the pavement might be 60 km/h.

Your velocity relative to the driver of your car is zero. Whereas

your velocity relative to an oncoming car might be 120 km/h.

our velocity can be measured relative to any reference frame.

A
Determine relative velocity in one and two dimensions
Consider two cars, A and B, shown below.

Suppose you are in car A which is moving at vA = +20 m s-1 and

next to you is car B, moving at vB = +40 m s-1.

As far as you are concerned your velocity vAB relative to car B is -

20 m s-1 because you seem to be moving backwards relative to B’s
coordinate system.
We write:
vAB = vA - vB velocity of A relative to B

A
Determine relative velocity in one and two
dimensions

B
The equation works even in two dimensions.
Suppose you are in car A which is moving at vA =
+40 m s-1 and approaching you at right angles is a
car B is moving at vB = -20 m s-1 as shown.
y

Since A and B are moving perpendicular to one

another, use a vector diagram to find vAB. The
solution is on the next slide.

A
Determine relative velocity in one and two dimensions
Draw in the vectors and use vAB = vA - vB.

B
- vB
= vA vB -v
v AB B

vAB2 = vA2 + vB2

vA vAB2 = 402 + 202

vAB = 45 m s-1

A
Projectile motion
A projectile is an object that has been given an initial velocity by
some sort of short-lived force, and then moves through the air
under the influence of gravity.

Baseballs, stones, or bullets are all examples of projectiles

executing projectile motion.

You know that all objects moving through air feel an air resistance
(recall sticking your hand out of the window of a moving car).

FYI
We will ignore air resistance in the discussion that follows…
 Analysing projectile motion

Regardless of the air resistance, the vertical and the horizontal

components of velocity of an object in projectile motion are
independent.
Slowing down in +y dir.

Speeding up in -y dir.
ay = -g
ay = -g

Constant speed in +x dir. ax = 0

Analysing projectile motion

The trajectory of a projectile in the absence of air is parabolic.

Know this!
Analysing projectile motion with fluid resistance

If there is air resistance, it is proportional to the square of the

velocity. Thus, when the ball moves fast its deceleration is greater
than when it moves slow.

SKETCH POINTS
Analysing projectile motion
Recall the kinematic equations:

s = ut + (1/2)at 2 Displacement kinematic

v = u + at Velocity equations 1D
a is constant
Since we worked only in 1D at the time, we didn’t have to
distinguish between x and y in these equations.
Now we appropriately modify the above to meet our new
requirements of simultaneous equations:

∆x = uxt + (1/2)axt 2 kinematic

vx = ux + axt equations 2D
∆y = uyt + (1/2)ayt 2 ax and ay are
vy = uy + ayt constant
Analysing projectile motion
0
∆x = uxt + (1/2)axt 2 kinematic
0
vx = ux + axt equations 2D
∆y = uyt + (1/2)ayt 2 ax and ay are
vy = uy + ayt constant

PRACTICE: Show that the reduced equations for projectile motion

are
∆x = uxt ∆y = uyt - 5t 2 reduced equations of
vx = ux vy = uy - 10t projectile motion

SOLUTION:
ax = 0 in the absence of air resistance.
ay = -10 in the absence of air resistance.
Analysing projectile motion
∆x = uxt ∆y = uyt - 5t 2 reduced equations of
vx = ux vy = uy - 10t projectile motion

EXAMPLE: Use the reduced equations above to prove that

projectile motion is parabolic in nature.

SOLUTION: Just solve for t in the first equation and substitute it

into the second equation.
∆x = uxt becomes t = x / ux so that t 2 = x2 / ux2.
Then since y = uyt - 5t 2, we have
y = (uy / ux)x – (5 / ux2)x2.

FYI
The equation of a parabola is y = Ax + Bx2.
In this case, A = uy / ux and B = -5 / ux2.
Analysing projectile motion
∆x = uxt ∆y = uyt - 5t 2 reduced equations of
vx = ux vy = uy - 10t projectile motion

PRACTICE: A cannon fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity of

56 ms-1 at an angle of inclination of 15º.
(a) What are ux and uy?

SOLUTION: Make a velocity triangle.

-1
6 m s uy = u sin 
u = 5
 = 15º uy = 56 sin 15º
ux = u cos  uy = 15 m s-1.
ux = 56 cos 15º
ux = 54 m s-1
Analysing projectile motion
∆x = uxt ∆y = uyt - 5t 2 reduced equations of
vx = ux vy = uy - 10t projectile motion

PRACTICE: A cannon fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity of

56 ms-1 at an angle of inclination of 15º.
(b) What are the tailored equations of motion?
(c) When will the ball reach its maximum height?

SOLUTION: (b) Just substitute ux = 54 and uy = 15:

∆x = 54t ∆y = 15t - 5t2 tailored equations for
vx = 54 vy = 15 - 10t this particular projectile
(c) At the maximum height, vy = 0. Why? Thus
vy = 15 - 10t becomes 0 = 15 - 10t so that
10t = 15 or t = 1.5 s.
Analysing projectile motion
∆x = 54t ∆y = 15t - 5t 2 tailored equations for
vx = 54 vy = 15 - 10t this particular projectile

PRACTICE: A cannon fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity of

56 ms-1 at an angle of inclination of 15º.
(d) How far from the muzzle will the ball be when it reaches the
height of the muzzle at the end of its trajectory?

SOLUTION:
From symmetry tup = tdown = 1.5 s so t = 3.0 s.
Thus
∆x = 54t
∆x = 54(3.0)
∆x = 160 m.
Analysing projectile motion
∆x = 54t ∆y = 15t - 5t 2 tailored equations for
vx = 54 vy = 15 - 10t this particular projectile

PRACTICE: A cannon fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity of

56 ms-1 at an angle of inclination of 15º.
(e) Sketch the following graphs:
a vs. t, vx vs. t, vy vs. t:

SOLUTION: The only acceleration ay

is g in the –y-direction. -10 t
vx = 54, a constant. Thus it does vx
54
not change over time. t
vy = 15 - 10t Thus it is linear with vy a
negative gradient and it crosses 15
1.5 t
the time axis at 1.5 s.
Analysing projectile motion

The acceleration is ALWAYS g for projectile motion

since it is caused by Earth and its field.
At the maximum height the projectile switches from
upward to downward motion. vy = 0 at switch. D
Analysing projectile motion

The flight time is

limited by the y
motion.
The maximum
height is limited by
the y motion.
A
Analysing projectile motion

ax = 0

ay = -10 ms-2
Analysing projectile motion

∆y = uyt - 5t 2
-33 = 0t - 5t 2
-33 = -5t 2
(33/5) = t 2

Fall time limited by y-equations:

t = 2.6 s.
Analysing projectile motion

∆x = uxt
∆x = 18(2.6)

Use x-equations and t = 2.6 s:

∆x = 47 m.
Analysing projectile motion

18

vy = uy – 10t 26
vx = ux vy = 0 – 10t
vx = 18 vy = –10(2.6) = -26

tan  = 26/18
 = tan-1(26/18) = 55º
Analysing projectile motion

The horizontal component of velocity is vx = ux which is

CONSTANT.
The vertical component of velocity is vy = uy – 10t ,
which is INCREASING (negatively). D
Analysing projectile motion

∆EK + ∆EP = 0
∆EK = -∆EP
∆EK = -mg∆h
EKo = (1/2)mu2

∆EK = -(0.44)(9.8)(-32) = +138 J = EK – EKo

EK = +138 + (1/2)(0.44)(222) = 240 J
Analysing projectile motion

If 34% of the energy is

consumed, 76% remains.
0.76(240) = 180 J
(1/2)(0.44)v2 = 180 J

v = 29 ms-1
Analysing projectile motion

Use ∆EK + ∆EP = 0.

(1/2)mvf2 - (1/2)mv2 = -∆EP

mvf2 = mv2 + -2mg(0-H)
v 2 = v2 + 2gH D
Analysing projectile motion

uy = u sin 
uy = 28 sin 30º
ux = u cos 
ux = 28 cos 30º

ux = 24 m s-1.

uy = 14 m s-1.
Analysing projectile motion

∆x = uxt
16 = 24t
t = 16 / 24 = 0.67
The time to the wall is found from ∆x…

∆y = uyt – 5t 2
∆y = 14t – 5t 2
∆y = 14(0.67) – 5(0.67)2 = 7.1 m.
Analysing projectile motion

0.5s

0.0s
4m

ux = ∆x / ∆t = (4 - 0) / (0.5 - 0.0) = 8 ms-1

Analysing projectile motion

0.5s
11 m
0.0s
4m

uy = ∆y / ∆t = (11 - 0) / (0.5 - 0.0) = 22 ms-1.

Analysing projectile motion

2.0 2.5 3.0

1.5

1.0
30 m

D
0.5s
11 m
0.0s   = tan-1(30/24) = 51º
4m 24 m

D2 = 242 + 302 so that D = 38 m ,@  = 51º.

Analysing projectile motion