Kimverly Hazel I.

Coronel
• The basic structural and functional unit of all living things where
constant exchange of matter within and between the cells is in the
process of living.
• The events occurring in the cell are the basis of growth, reproduction,
heredity and embryology of an organism.
• Organized into tissues, organ, system and organism.

• The smallest unit that can perform all life processes

 Organization of Life
Smallest unit that can
Cell carry out life’s activities

Group of cells working together

Tissue
to perform specific job

Group of tissues working together

Organ
to perform specific job

Organ Group of organs working together

System to perform specific job

Organism*

*Organism can be made of one cell or many organ systems.

 Examples of Cells
Amoeba proteus
Plant Stem

Bacteria Red Blood Cell

Nerve Cell
 Scientists and
the Cell Theory
 Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
Known as the “English Father of
Microscopy”
Robert Hook discovered cells by accident
- He observed pieces of cork from the
bark of a cork tree under the
microscope where he remarked it like a
compartments of a honeycomb.
- His observations led him to coin the
word “cell.” http://www.learner.org/channel/courses/essential/life/s
ession1/closer1.html

- “Cell”- means little rooms in Latin

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Hooke.html
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

• He is known as the “Father of

Microscopy.”
• 1673: He looked at pond scum
under the microscope and
discovered small organisms he
called animalcules or little animals
(Protists)
- 1676: discovered bacteria
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek

• Also saw that blood cells differed

http://www.kent.k12.wa.us/staff/TimLynch/sci_class/c
hap09/lesson_protista/Protista_Lesson.html#Algae

between animals.
 http://www.britannica.com/eb/article- http://www.nndb.com/people/357/000096069/
9066147/Mathias-Jacob-Schleiden

• Matthias Schleiden (1804-1881) • Theodor Schwann (1810-1882)

• German botanist • German zoologist
• Discovered that all plants were made • Concluded that all animals are
of cells made of cells.
• Contributed to the creation of the cell • Contributed to the creation of the
theory cell theory
Rudolph Virchow (1821-1902)

• German pathologist

• He is known as the
“Father of Pathology.”

• Discovered that all living cells come

only from other living cells.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Rudolf_Virchow.jpg
 The Components of Cell Theory

The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory are now complete:

1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. (Schleiden & Schwann,1838-39)
2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things. (Schleiden & Schwann, 1838-39)
3. All cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells. (Virchow, 1858)

Random cell facts

• The average human being is composed of around 100 trillion individual cells
• It would take as many as 50 cell to cover the area of a dot on the letter (i)

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 Modern Cell Theory

Includes 4 statements, on top of the original Cell Theory:

1. The cell contains hereditary information (DNA) passed on from cell to

cell during cell division.
2. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic
activities.
3. All basic chemical & physiological functions are carried out inside the
cells
4. Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular structures within
the cell

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 General Attributes of the Cell
• All cells exhibit basic structural similarities:

1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) - serves as storage for

hereditary information (in nucleus or nucleiods).
2. Cytoplasm – a fluid surrounding their structures.
3. Plasma membrane – controls what goes in or out of
the cell.
4. Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis
 Cells

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Bacteria
Multicellular Unicellular
Organism Organisms

Plant Cells Animal Cells Other Cells Other Cells

• Prokayotic – no nucleus
• Eukaryotes – have nucleus
• Means “before nucleus”
• Simplest organism, and are very small.
• No membrane bound organelles
• One-celled organisms: Bacterial and Archeans
• Means “Eu means TRUE, karyon refers to NUCLEUS”
• Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
• Most living organisms
• Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional
compartments:

1. The nucleus and ribosomes carry out the genetic control of

the cell.
2. Organelles involved in the manufacture, distribution, and
breakdown of molecules
3. Mitochondria in all cells and chloroplasts in plant cells function
in energy processing.
4. Structural support, movement, and communication between
cells
Structures of Eukaryotic
Cells and its Function
The Endomembrane System
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A biosynthetic factory

• Endoplasmic means “within the cytoplasm”

and reticulum means “little net”
• An extensive network of membranous
tubules and sacs that connect the nuclear
envelope to the cell membrane.
• One of the major manufacturing sites in
the cell.
– Smooth ER – lacks ribosomes
– Rough ER – with attached ribosomes at the
outer surface
Smooth ER Function:
involved in transport processes lipids and carbohydrates;
synthesis of steroids in gland cells;
the regulation of calcium levels in muscle cells;
the breakdown of toxic substances by liver cells.

Rough ER function:
connects to the nuclear envelope through which the messenger RNA (mRNA)
travels to the ribosomes.
Make more membranes
 GOLGI APPARATUS
 A stack of 3-20 slightly curved saccules called
cisternae.
 Works closely with the ER, it modifies proteins
for export by the cell.
 functions in the collection, packaging, and
distribution of molecules synthesized at one
location and used at another within the cell or
even outside of it.
 Also the site of producing vesicles called
lysosomes.
Vesicle
 are small, spherically shaped sacs also surrounded by a
single membrane; classified by their contents
 fuses with membrane of Golgi apparatus or moves to
outer face after proteins repackaged, then vesicles move
to different locations in cell;
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VACUOLES
are large membranous sac; single-membrane organelles;
more prominent in plant cells.
Plant vacuoles store water, sugars, salts, pigments and toxic substances to protect
plant from herbivores.
Vacuoles in protozoa include digestive vacuoles and water-regulating contractile
vacuoles.

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PEROXISOMES
•Vesicles that contain specific
enzymes; abundant in liver cells;
neutralizes free radicals (oxygen
ions that can damage cells), and
detoxify alcohol and other drugs.

•Named after hydrogen

peroxide

•Responsible for protecting the

cell from its own production of
toxic peroxide.
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LYSOSOMES
 Large vesicles that bud off from Golgi apparatus and contain digestive
enzymes for intracelluar and extracellular breakdown of materials.
 In the liver, they break down glycogen to release glucose. Some WBC use
lysosomes to break down bacteria
 digest worn-out organelles in a process called autophagy.
 Lysosomes digest dying cells or apoptosis
 The digestion of damaged or extra cells by the enzymes of their own
lysosomes is called autolysis.

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CYTOPLASM
•the jelly-like mixture (cytosol) in which the other organelles are suspended, so cytosol
+ organelles = cytoplasm.

•made up of water, ions salts, organic molecules and many enzymes that catalyze
reactions, and a great proportion of RNA.

•The cytoplasm's watery component is also known as hyaloplasm.

• In general, margin regions of the cell are gel-like, and the cell's interior is liquid.

•Serve as a "molecular soup“; maintains the shape and consistency of the cell.

•Where metabolic activities are occuring

•Thus serving as general storage and working area of the cell.

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 RIBOSOMES
•some are free in the cytoplasm or attached to RER.
•the site of protein synthesis (production or construction) in a
cell.

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 The Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane
• selectively permeable membrane that regulates the passage of
substances in and out of the cell
• Main function: homeostasis
• Specific function:
– It separates the contents of the cell from its outside environment and it regulates
what enters and exits the cell.
– Plasma membrane plays a vital role in protecting the integrity of the interior of the
cell by allowing only selected substances into the cell and keeping other
substances out.
– It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in some organisms and
the cell wall in others. Thus the cell membrane supports the cell and helps in
maintaining the shape of the cell.
– Allows cell to communicate with other cell.
BIOLOGICAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM

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Simple Diffusion
 Facilitated Diffusion

Ion Channels Carrier proteins

• Carrier molecules change shape when solute attaches to them

• Change in carrier protein shape helps move solute across the membrane

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 Active Transport

Sodium-Potassium pump

– Causes a difference in charge inside and outside the cell

– Difference in charge is called membrane potential
• Ion pumps help muscle & nerve cells work
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 Channel proteins
• Channel proteins in membrane form tunnels across the membrane to move materials
• May always be open or have gates that open & close to control the movement of
materials; called Gated Channels

• Gates open & close in response to concentration inside & outside the cell
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O
S
M
O
S
I
S
• Water moves from Low solute concentration to higher solute concentration.
 Water balance between cells and their
surroundings is crucial to organisms
Tonicity
• refers to the ability of a
surrounding solution to cause a
cell to gain or lose water.
• The tonicity of a solution
mainly depends on its
concentration of solutes that
cannot cross the plasma
membrane relative to the
concentration of solutes inside
the cell.

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 Bulk Transport
• Moves large, complex molecules across the cell membrane
• Large molecules, food, or fluid droplets are packaged in membrane-
bound sacs (vesicles)

– Endocytosis moves large particles into a cell

– Exocytosis remove large products from the cell such as wastes,
mucus, & cell products
– Pinocytosis takes fluids into membrane-bound vesicle

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 ENDOCYTOSIS
 PHAGOCYTOSIS also known as "cell eating"

– Membrane pouch encloses the material & pinches off inside the cell making a vesicle
– Vesicle either fuse with lysosomes (digestive organelles) or release their contents in the
cytoplasm
– Used by amoeba to feed & white blood cells to kill bacteria
PINOCYTOSIS also known as "cell drinking“
• Cell membrane surrounds fluid droplets
• Fluids taken into membrane-bound vesicle

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Exocytosis
• Transport vesicles fuse with the cell
membrane and then the proteins are
secreted out of the cell
• Proteins made by ribosomes in a cell are
packaged into transport vesicles by the
Golgi Apparatus

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 Photosynthesis:
CHLOROPLAST
Where Does it Occur?

Thylakoid membrane
 Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and
some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to
produce carbohydrates and oxygen.
• Photosynthesis has 3 stages:
Stage 1: absorption of light energy

Stage 2: conversion of light energy into chemical energy, temporarily

stored in ATP and NADPH

Stage 3: storage of chemical energy in ATP and

NADPH powers the formation of organic molecules
 Photosynthesis:Overview
• Method of converting sun energy into chemical energy usable by cells
• Autotrophs: self feeders, organisms capable of making their own
food
– Photoautotrophs: use sun energy e.g. plants photosynthesis-
makes organic compounds (glucose) from light
– Chemoautotrophs: use chemical energy e.g. bacteria that use
sulfide or methane chemosynthesis-makes organic compounds from
chemical energy contained in sulfide or methane
• takes place in specialized structures inside plant cells called
chloroplasts
– Light absorbing pigment molecules e.g. chlorophyll
44
 Photosynthesis
• Pigments are light-absorbing substances that absorb
only certain wavelengths of light and reflect all others.

• Chlorophyll is the primary pigment involved in

photosynthesis. Chlorophyll absorbs mostly blue and
red light and reflects green and yellow light.

• This reflection of green and yellow light makes many

plants, especially their leaves, look green.
 Overall Reaction:
6CO2 + 12 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2+6H2O

2 Main reactions:
1. Light-dependent Reactions
2. Calvin Cycle (light independent or “dark”) reactions 46
 Energy Shuttling
• ATP: cellular energy-nucleotide based molecule with 3
phosphate groups bonded to it, when removing the third
phosphate group, lots of energy liberated= superb molecule
for shuttling energy around within cells.
• Other energy shuttles-coenzymes (nucleotide based
molecules): move electrons and protons around within the
cell
– Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide NADP+, NADPH; NAD+, NADP
– Flavin adenine dinucleotide FAD, FADH2

47
48
1. Light-dependent Reactions

• light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules- this light energy

excites electrons and boosts them to higher energy levels. They are
trapped by electron acceptor molecules that are poised at the start
of a neighboring transport system.
• Occurs in the thylakoid
• Photosystem I and II: light capturing unit, contains chlorophyll, the
light capturing pigment
• Electron transport system: sequence of electron carrier molecules
that shuttle electrons, energy released to make ATP.

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Light-dependent Reactions

50
2. Calvin Cycle

• ATP and NADPH generated in light reactions used to fuel the

reactions which take CO2 and break it apart, then
reassemble the carbons into glucose.

• Called carbon fixation: taking carbon from an inorganic

molecule (atmospheric CO2) and making an organic
molecule out of it (glucose)

• Simplified version of how carbon and energy enter

the food chain
51
52
 Three Factors That Affect
Photosynthesis
• 1.) amount of light – The rate of photosynthesis increases as light
intensity increases until all the pigments are being used. At this
saturation point, the reactions of the Calvin cycle cannot proceed any
faster.

• 2.) concentration of carbon dioxide – Once a certain concentration of

carbon dioxide is present, photosynthesis cannot proceed any faster.

• 3.) range of temperature – Like all metabolic processes,

photosynthesis involves many enzyme-assisted chemical reactions.
Unfavorable temperatures may inactivate certain enzymes.
• “Power House of the Cell”
– cell's power producers
• Site of cellular respiration
• They convert energy into forms that
are usable by the cell
 Cellular Respiration
• The process by which the chemical energy of "food" molecules is
released and partially captured in the form of ATP.
• Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins can all be used as fuels in cellular
respiration, but glucose is most commonly used as an example to
examine the reactions and pathways involved.

55
 Cellular Respiration: Overview
• The overall equation for cellular respiration is opposite that of photosynthesis:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
• In this reaction, glucose is oxidized and oxygen is reduced to become water.
• The complete oxidation of a mol of glucose releases 686 kcal of energy that is
used to synthesize ATP.

Occurs in three series of reactions: Produces

1. Glycolysis • carbon dioxide
2. Citric acid cycle • water
3. Electron transport chain • ATP (chemical energy)
• heat

Includes
• anaerobic reactions (without O2) - produce little ATP
• aerobic reactions (requires O2) - produce most ATP 57
Cellular Respiration

58
59
• 6C (GLUCOSE)  3C (PYRUVATE)
• occurs in the cytosol.

 Inputs:
 Glucose
 2 NAD+
 2 ATP
 4 ADP + 2 P

 Outputs:
 2 pyruvate
 2 NADH
 2 ADP
 2 ATP (net gain)

•In the absence of oxygen, fermentation

occurs producing LACTIC ACID.
60
• PYRUVATE is transported into the
mitochondria (matrix) and is oxidated and
form acetyl-CoA, a 2C molecule.

 Inputs:
 2 acetyl groups
 6 NAD+
 2 FAD
 2 ADP + 2 P

 Outputs:
 4 CO2
 6 NADH
 2 FADH2
 2 ATP 61
 Oxidative Phosphorylation via ElectronTransport Chain (ETC)
• NADH and FADH2  NAD+ and FAD+
– NADH= 3 ATP
– FADH2 = 2ATP
NADH+ H+ +3 ADP + 3 Pi + 1/2 O2 → NAD+ + H2O + 3 ATP
FADH2 + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + 1/2 O2 → FAD+ + H2O + 2 ATP

• Occurs in the inner mitochondria membrane (cristae).

• ATP synthase catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP

62
Accounting of energy yield per glucose
molecule breakdown

63
 Nucleus
• acts like the brain of the cell
• is a highly specialized organelle
that serves as the information
processing and administrative
center of the cell.
• has two major functions:
– it stores the cell's hereditary material,
or DNA
– it coordinates the cell's activities
 CHROMOSOMES
Chromosome number:
Humans have 46 chromosomes: 22 pairs – Autosomes or somatic cells
1 pair – sex chromosomes (X, Y)
diploid – 2n
haploid – n
Chromosome morphology
 The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

Gene Expression

• A cell’s DNA sequence contains the information it needs to make molecules of life.
• Each gene encodes RNA, and RNA’s interact to assemble proteins.
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DNA Structure
 Differences of DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
• Genetic material • Protein synthesis
• Deoxyribose sugar • Ribose sugar
• A,C,T,G • A, C,U,G
• Single-stranded
• Double-stranded • Linear form
• Helical form • Carries DNA’s protein-building
• Stores hereditary information information; aids in translation

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CHROMOSOMES

EUKARYOTES

PROKARYOTES
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 DNA Replication
• Requirements:  DNA STRANDS
 Leading strand
– DNA template
 Lagging strand
– Free 3’- OH group
• Enzymes
– DNA polymerases (I and III)
– Ligase
– Helicase
– Nuclease
– RNA primer
– SSB protein
72
 M
DNA Replication
(mitosis)

G2 G1
(Gap2) (Gap 1)

• It is part of DNA Synthesis.

• It is the process of duplication of
new DNA molecule with the same
base sequence as the original DNA
molecule.
Cells that
S phase cease
(DNA division
synthesis)

73
 Parental DNA

First-generation
progeny DNA

Second-generation
progeny DNA

74
75
DNA Replication:

76
 3’ 5’ 5’
3’

RNA primer

DNA ligase

DNA 5’ 3’ 5’ 3’
polymerase
TRANSCRIPTION

78
RNA Translation

79
RIBOSOME

80
THE GENETIC CODE

81
RNA Translation

82
 Example of RNA Translation

AUG GCC UUA CGU UAA GUA UAU mRNA

UAC CGG AAU GCA AUU CAU AUG tRNA

Start Arg Asp Ala Stop Protein

83
 Protein Synthesis
• the process by which cells build
proteins.
• Proteins are large organic
compounds made of amino acids
arranged in a linear chain and joined
together by peptide bonds.

84
What could happen when things go wrong?

85
 MUTATION
• A heritable change in the kind, structure, sequence or number of
the component parts of DNA.
– Produce new alleles and new genes.
• Original source of genetic variation that serves as raw material
for evolution.
• Are random
• Effects depends upon on how it changes the structure,
function or behavior of the individual.
– may be beneficial, neutral, or harmful to the individuals that
inherit them.
Chemicals, radiation, copying errors
 TACAAATATCAACTAAGAATC
• QUIZ: ½ cw
• Given the DNA
template: show
transcription and
translation
• Determine the
direction of your
DNA strand and
Label your lagging
and leading
strand.
• Determine the
direction of your
mRNA strand
• What RNA carries
the genetic code:
 TACAAATATCAACTAAGAATC
• 3’- TACAAATATCAACTAAGAATC -5’ (LEADING)
• 5’- ATGTTTATAGTTGATTCTTAG -3’ (LAGGING)

• 5’- AUGUUUAUAGUUGAUUCUUAG -3’ (mRNA)

• 3’- UACAAAUAUCAACUAAGAAUC -5’ (tRNA)
start phe ile val Asp ser stop
Why do cells divide?

• Growth
• Repair
• Reproduction

91
CHROMOSOMES

EUKARYOTES

PROKARYOTES

92
 eye color
eye color
locus
locus

hair color hair color

locus locus

Paternal Maternal

Homologous Chromosomes
(because a homologous pair consists of 4 chromatids it is called a
“Tetrad”)
M
I
T
O
S
I
S 94
 MEIOSIS
• The form of cell division by which gametes (sperm
and egg cells), with half the number of
chromosomes, are produced.
• Sexual reproduction ( recombination of genes)
• Produces 4 daughter cells that are haploid and not
identical to each other.
• 2 phase:
– MEIOSIS 1 (reductional division)
– MEIOSIS II (Equatorial division)
 PROPHASE 1
Homologous
chromosomes in a
tetrad cross over
each other
Pieces of
chromosomes or
genes are exchanged
Produces Genetic
recombination in the
offspring

96
Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
99
100
 Comparison of Divisions
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of 2
1
divisions
Number of
2 4
daughter cells
Genetically
Yes No
identical?
Chromosome # Same as parent Half of parent
Where Somatic cells Germ cells
When Throughout life At sexual maturity
Growth and
Role Sexual reproduction
repair
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