SKELETON – Movement and Locomotion

Skeletal system gives shape to our body, while muscular system helps in movement. A newborn baby has around 300 bones, which
fuse as the baby grows, resulting in 206 bones in an adult.

Functions of Human Skeleton-

1. Support and Shape to all the soft parts of the body and gives it a definite shape.
2. Protection of delicate organs for e.g skull protects brain and ribs heart and lungs. Movement which are brought about by muscles
inserted in one another.
3. Leverage as bisceps muscles move swiftly forming an arc.
4. Formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow in some of the long bones like femur.

Constituents and of Skeleton-

Skeleton consist of -:
1. Bones – The hard framework of the body.
2. Cartilage- Supporting and connective tissues e.g tip of the nose, external ear.
3. Ligaments-Bind bones together.
Classification of bones

Bone tissue is not made of only one type of cells rather it is made of many different types cells such as the Osteocytes The
mineralized matrix of the bone tissue consists of both the organic and inorganic components of the bone minerals made up of
various salts.
Inorganic- Compounds of Calcium and Phosphorous. If a bone is is placed in weak HCL its mineral part gets dissolved this bone is
called decalicified which is soft and can be tied in a knot.
Organic part – Consist of Collagen and non collagen proteins. It a bone is strongly heated its organic matter can be destroyed and
it becomes brittle.

External part of bone is covered by membrane called periosteum with outer fibrous and inner cellular layers richly supplied with
blood vessels.

Bone marrow-
The bone has a hollow cavity in the middle and has two types of marrow-
a. Red Marrow – Present at the end and produces red blood cells.
b. Yellow Marrow- Made of adipose tissue and produces white blood cells.

The skeletal system has two main divisions – the axial and the appendicular skeleton .
Axial Skeleton
The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones, which include the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum.
Skull-
The skull consists of eight cranial bones that form the cranium and fourteen facial bones which form the face. The back the part of
the cranium has a large hole the foramen magnum through which the spinal cord emerges and continues to the backbone.
Vertebral Column- It has 33 individual ring like bones called vertebrae divided into five groups.
The vertebral column consists of seven cervical vertebrae followed by twelve thoracic, five lumbar, five sacrum fused and four
coccyx fused. There are twelve pairs of ribs, where each rib is a flat bone attached dorsally to the thoracic vertebrae.
Sternum- Is a long flat bone lying in the middle of the chest bone.
Ribs- 12 pairs-
First 7 are called true ribs attached to to sternum with the help of hyaline cartilage.
8th,9th and 10th pair are attached to seventh rib.
11th and 12th are not attached to sternum and are therefore called floating ribs.

Appendicular Skeleton - The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the limbs and their supporting girdles.
Limbs-:
Forelimbs
The bones of the hand includes humerus, radius and ulna, eight carpals or wrist bones, five metacarpals or palm bones and
fourteen phalanges.( 2 in thumb and 3 each in fingers)
Hind limbs
The bones of the leg consists of femur or thigh bone, tibia and fibula, seven tarsals or ankle bones, five metatarsals and fourteen
phalanges.Hind limbs have an additional bone in the knee called patella (from a tendon)

Girdles -: There are two girdles shoulder and hip girdle.

Shoulder or Pectoral Girdle- Each half of the pectoral girdle consists of two bones, namely scapula (shoulder blade) and clavicle
(collar bone).
Scapula is a triangular-shaped flat bone present dorsally in the thorax region
Glenoid cavity - It is in the form of depression at the lateral surface of the scapula. The head of the humerus fits at the glenoid
cavity.

Clavicle (Collar bone)-: The main function of the clavicle is that it attaches the upper limb to the sternum.

HIP OR PECTORAL GIRDLE-:

Formed by two hip bones that are joined together by sacrum. Each hip bone is made of three fused bones – Ilium, Ischium and
Pubis
Each side has a cup shaped cavity called acetabulum into which fits the thigh bone.

JOINTS-
The point at which two or more bones meet is called a joint.

1. Immovable Joints No movement is possible between two bones. E.g bones of the cranium.
2. Partially movable bones- Only partial movement occurs e.g joint between ribs and breast bone.
3. Freely Movable joint – Varying degrees of movement is possible between two bones . It is four types-
a. Gliding joint- Between bone of wrist and and also bones of ankles.
b. Pivot joint – One bone is rotated over another e.g skull.
c. Hinge joint- Moves like a hinge e.g elbow joint.
d. Ball and Socket joint – Here one bone is rounded and fits like a cup like cavity in another.e.g shoulder and hip joint.

Synovial Joint-:
1. Freely movable joints are also called synovial joints e.g knee , shoulder joint etc.
2. These joints have two requirements-
a. They should be held firmly in place.
b. They should be well lubricated to remove friction. This lubricating fluid is called synovial fluid.
The synovial fluid is contained in a sac formed of a thin membrane called synovial membrane.

MUSCLES
 Functions-
1. Means of all movements.
2. Cover the skeletal framework
3. Maintain body posture.

Tendons and ligaments-

Tendons connect muscles to bones, enabling movement by transmitting the force of muscle contractions. Ligaments, on the other hand, connect bones
to bones, providing stability to joints.

Antagonsitic Muscles –

Many muscles are arranged in pairs. These muscles contract opposed to each other that is when one of the muscle contract, other muscle relax. Eg:
biceps and triceps are antagonistic,muscle. When biceps contracts, it helps to bend the elbow joint, .the triceps relaxes allowing the movement. When
triceps contracts, it helps to straighten the elbow joint and biceps relaxes.
Kinds of Muscles – There are 650 muscles in our body.

1. Voluntary Muscles – Which are under are control and will .

2. Involuntary Muscles- Not under our control. E.g cardiac muscles
e.g eyelids and diaphragm. Are both involuntary and voluntary

Lever Mechanism of Joints-

 Lever: A bone, acting as a rigid structure that rotates around a pivot.

 Fulcrum: A joint, providing the pivot point for the lever to rotate.
 Effort: The force applied by muscle contraction to move the lever.
 Load: The weight of a body part or an object being moved, or the force required to move it.

Structure of Vertebrae-

1. It is a ring like structure with a solid cylinder centrum.

2. The dorsal side i.e back side has a neural canal formed by joining together neural arches. The spinal cord runs through this neural
arch.
3. Neural spine is a projecting ridge where neural arches meet.
4. The neural arches have articular facets which help in joining two vertebrae together.