Continuous-Time Signals and

Systems
Chapter 2
2.1 Transformations of Continuous-Time Signals
2.2 Signal Characteristics
Continuous-Time Signals and Systems
• Continuous-time Signal: A signal that is defined for all values of
time, i.e. time is a continuous variable - the signal itself need not be
continuous. A continuous-time signal can be a continuous-
amplitude signal for which time- varying amplitude can assume any
value or can be a discrete-amplitude signal which can assume only
a finite set of defined amplitudes.

• Continuous-time System: A system which works only with

continuous-time signals.

2
2.1 Transformations of Continuous-Time Signals
• 2.1.1 Time Reversal
• We reverse a signal 𝑥(𝑡) by flipping it over the vertical-axis to form
a new signal.
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(−𝑡)
x(t) y(t)=x(-t)

A A

t
t2 t1 -t1 -t2

3
Example 1
• Find 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 given
1−𝑡 0<𝑡≤1
𝑥 𝑡 =ቊ
0 otherwise
x(t)
1
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡
1 − (−𝑡) 0 < −𝑡 ≤ 1
t 𝑦 𝑡 =ቊ
0 1 0 otherwise
y(t)=x(-t)
1 + 𝑡 −1 ≤ 𝑡 < 0
𝑦 𝑡 =ቊ
1 0 otherwise

t
-1 0 1 4
Time Reversal - Example

5
2.1.2 Time Scaling
• The signal 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡) is a time-scaled version of 𝑥(𝑡).
• if 𝑎 > 1, we are SPEEDING UP 𝑥(𝑡) by a factor of a.
• if 𝑎 < 1 , we are SLOWING DOWN 𝑥(𝑡) by a factor of a.

• For example, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡), SPEEDS UP or compress 𝑥(𝑡).

6
 Example 2
• Find 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(2𝑡) given 𝑥(𝑡)
1
1−𝑡 0<𝑡<1
1 − |𝑡| 𝑡 ≤1
• 𝑥 𝑡 =ቊ = ቐ1 + 𝑡 −1 ≤ 𝑡 < 0 𝑡
0 otherwise -1 1
0 otherwise
• Solution:
1 − 2𝑡 0 < 2𝑡 < 1
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2𝑡 = ቐ1 + 2𝑡 −1 ≤ 2𝑡 < 0
0 otherwise
𝑥(2𝑡)
1 1
1 − 2𝑡 0<𝑡<
2
𝑡
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2𝑡 = 1 + 2𝑡 −
1
≤𝑡<0 -1/2 1/2
2
0 otherwise
7
Time-scaled
signals
Example 3
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡) (repeated signal). This SPEEDS UP 𝑥(𝑡).

• What happens to the period?

• The signal 𝑦 𝑡 has period 𝑇/𝑎, where T is the period of 𝑥 𝑡 .

9
Example 4
• 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡/2) (repeated signal). This SLOWS DOWN 𝑥(𝑡).

• Try using a table to get the main break points.

10
2.1.3 Time Shifting
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0
• Here, 𝑦(𝑡) is a version of the original signal 𝑥(𝑡) that has been shifted
by an amount of 𝑡0 .

• Rule: set argument 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 0 and move origin of 𝑥(𝑡) to 𝑡0 .

11
Example 5
• Find 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 2) given
1−𝑡 0<𝑡<1
1 − |𝑡| 𝑡 ≤1
•𝑥 𝑡 =ቊ = ቐ1 + 𝑡 −1 ≤ 𝑡 < 0
0 otherwise 𝑥(𝑡)
0 otherwise 1

• Solution: 𝑡
-1 1
• Replace t in 𝑥(𝑡) with 𝑡 − 2
1 − (𝑡 − 2) 0 < (𝑡 − 2) < 1
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 2 = ቐ1 + (𝑡 − 2) −1 ≤ (𝑡 − 2) < 0
0 otherwise 𝑥(𝑡 − 2)
3−𝑡 2<𝑡 <3 1
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 2 = ቐ𝑡 − 1 1 ≤ 𝑡 < 2 𝑡
0 otherwise 1 3

12
 Left or Right shift?
𝑥 𝑡 =𝑡

1
𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 1
=𝑡+1 𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 1
=𝑡−1

𝑡
−1 0 1
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 , 𝑡0 < 0 ⇒ left shift

𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 , 𝑡0 > 0 ⇒ right shift

−1

13
Time-shifted
signals
Example 6
𝑡
• Given 𝑦 𝑡 = 2 𝑢(𝑡) − 2𝑢(𝑡 − 2), find 𝑦(3𝑡) and 𝑦 .
3

15
 Example 7
• Given 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 2 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 , find 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) for 𝑡0 > 0 and 𝑡0 < 0

17
 Example 8
• Determine 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥(2 − 𝑡) where 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 2).
𝑥(𝑡)

𝑡
−1 2

• Method I to find 𝑥(2 − 𝑡): Reverse in time, then delay.

• Let 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(−𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(−𝑡)

𝑡
−2 1
𝑦 𝑡 − 2 = 𝑥(2 − 𝑡)
• Then, 𝑦 𝑡 − 2 = 𝑥 − 𝑡 − 2 = 𝑥(2 − 𝑡)
𝑡
0 3
18
Example 8
• Method II to find 𝑥(2 − 𝑡): Advance, then reverse in time
• 𝑥 2 − 𝑡 = 𝑥(−𝑡 + 2)
• STEP 1: 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 2 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 2)

−3 𝑡
0
• STEP 2: 𝑣 −𝑡 = 𝑥(−𝑡 + 2). 𝑣 −𝑡 = 𝑥(−𝑡 + 2)

𝑡
0 3

• Remember: When time-shifting, move the origin of the function to the

value of 𝑡 such that the argument of the shifted function = 0.
19
Example 8 (contd.)
𝑥(𝑡)
1

𝑡
−1 2
𝑥(2 − 𝑡)
1

𝑡
0 3

𝑥 2 − 𝑡 + 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑡
−1 0 2 3

20
2.1.4 Combinations of Scale and Shift
𝑥(𝑡)
• Find 𝑥 2𝑡 + 1 where 𝑥(𝑡) is:
𝑡 + 1 −1 < 𝑡 ≤ 0 1

•𝑥 𝑡 = 1 0 < 𝑡 ≤ 1
2−𝑡 1<𝑡 ≤2
𝑡
0 otherwise −1 0 1 2

1
2𝑡 + 2 −1 < 𝑡 ≤ −
(2𝑡 + 1) + 1 −1 < 2𝑡 + 1 ≤ 0 2
1
1 0 < 2𝑡 + 1 ≤ 1 = 1 − <𝑡≤0
• 𝑥 2𝑡 + 1 = 2
2 − (2𝑡 + 1) 1 < 2𝑡 + 1 ≤ 2 1
0 otherwise 1 − 2𝑡 0<𝑡≤
2
0 otherwise
21
• Method 1: Shift and then scale 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 : (i) 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑏),
(ii) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏).
• 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 1)
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑣(2𝑡)

22
 𝑏
• Method 2: Scale and then shift 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑎 𝑡 + :
𝑎
𝑏
(i) 𝑤 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡), (ii) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑤 𝑡 + = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏).
𝑎
• 𝑤 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡)
1 1
•𝑦 𝑡 =𝑤 𝑡+ = 𝑥 2(𝑡 + ) = 𝑥(2𝑡 + 1)
2 2

23
2.1.5 Amplitude Operations
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑏

• Example 9: Given 𝑥1 (𝑡) as shown, find −𝑥1 𝑡 , 2𝑥1 𝑡 , and 0.5𝑥1 𝑡 .

x1 (t )
1

-1 0 1 2 t

24
 Example 10
• Given 𝑥2 (𝑡), find 1 − 𝑥2 (𝑡). This is a case of adding two signals.

25
 Example
𝑦 𝑡 =
3𝑥 𝑡 − 1
27
Continuous-Time Signals and
Systems
Chapter 2
2.2 Signal Characteristics
2.3 Common Signals in Engineering
2.2.1 Even and Odd Signals
• Even symmetry
• Even function has symmetry with respect to the vertical axis
• time reversed signal is the same as the original signal
𝑡 𝑡
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 (−𝑡) rect
𝑇
=Π
𝑇
𝑡 1
• E.g. 𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 , rect
𝑇
𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
−
2 2

29
• Odd symmetry
• An odd function has symmetry with respect to the origin
• Odd signals – time reversed and amplitude reversed signal is the same as the
original signal
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = −𝑥𝑜 (−𝑡)
• Example: 𝐴 sin 𝜔0 𝑡

30
2.2.1 Even and Odd Signals
• Any continuous time signal can be expressed as the sum of an even
signal and an odd signal.
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡)
• The even component of a signal
1
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥(−𝑡)
2
• The odd component of a signal
1
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥(−𝑡)
2

31
Example 11
• Given the unit step function (a discontinuous continuous-time signal)
1 𝑡>0
•𝑢 𝑡 =ቐ 0 𝑡<0
undefined 𝑡 = 0
• Find odd and even components

32
Example: Odd
and even
components
of a signal

33
Average value
• Given a signal 𝑥 𝑡 , the average value is defined as
𝑇
1
𝐴𝑥 = lim න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
−𝑇
• The average value of a bounded odd function is zero.
• Hence the average value of a signal is contained its even function.

34
2.2.2 Periodic Signals
• A periodic waveform will satisfy
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇
• The minimum T = fundamental period or period
1
• Fundamental frequency = 𝑓0 = Hz
𝑇
2𝜋
• Fundamental angular frequency = 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 = rad/s
𝑇
• Harmonic frequencies = 𝑛 × 𝑓0
• Second harmonic 2𝑓0
• Third harmonic 3𝑓0
• Etc.
35
Sinusoidal Signals
𝑥1 𝑡 = sin(2𝜋𝑡) 𝑥2 𝑡 = sin(𝑡)
1.5 1.5

1
1

0.5
0.5

0
0

-0.5
-0.5

-1
-1
-1.5
-1.5

Period T=1 Period T=2𝜋

1 1 1
Frequency = 𝑓0 = = 1 Hz Frequency = 𝑓0 = = Hz
𝑇 𝑇 2𝜋
Angular Frequency = 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 = 2𝜋 rad/s Angular Frequency = 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 = 1 rad/s

36
Sinusoidal Signals
𝑥1 𝑡 = sin(2𝜋𝑎𝑡) 𝑥2 𝑡 = sin(𝑎𝑡)
1.5
1.5

1
1

0.5
0.5

0
0

-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1.5

-1.5

2𝜋
Period 𝑇 = 1/𝑎 Period T=
1 𝑎
Frequency = 𝑓0 = = 𝑎 Hz 1 𝑎
𝑇 Frequency = 𝑓0 = = Hz
𝑇 2𝜋
Angular Frequency = 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 = 2𝜋𝑎 rad/s Angular Frequency = 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 = 𝑎 rad/s

37
Sinusoidal Signals
𝑥1 𝑡 = sin(2𝜋𝑎𝑡 + 𝜃1 ) 𝑥2 𝑡 = sin(𝑎𝑡 + 𝜃2 )
1.5
1.5

1
1

0.5
0.5

0
0

-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1.5

-1.5

2𝜋
Period 𝑇 = 1/𝑎 Period T=
1 𝑎
Frequency = 𝑓0 = = 𝑎 Hz 1 𝑎
𝑇 Frequency = 𝑓0 = = Hz
𝑇 2𝜋
Angular Frequency = 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 = 2𝜋𝑎 rad/s Angular Frequency = 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 = 𝑎 rad/s

38
Periodic Signals When Combined
• If 𝑥1 (𝑡) is periodic with period 𝑇1 and 𝑥2 (𝑡) is periodic with period 𝑇2 , then the
sum of the two signals 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 (𝑡) is periodic with period equal to the least
common multiple (LCM) of (T1, T2) if the ratio of the two periods is a rational
number, i.e.:
𝑇1 𝑘2
=
𝑇2 𝑘1
• Let 𝑇 ′ = 𝑘1 𝑇1 = 𝑘2 𝑇2 , and 𝑧 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 (𝑡),

𝑧 𝑡 + 𝑇 ′ = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑘1 𝑇1 + 𝑥2 𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑇2 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑧(𝑡)

• Similarly, ff 𝑥1 (𝑡) is periodic with frequency 𝑓1 Hz (or 𝜔1 rad/s) and 𝑥2 (𝑡) is

periodic with frequency 𝑓2 Hz (or 𝜔2 rad/s), then the sum of the two signals
𝛼𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝛽𝑥2 (𝑡) is periodic with frequency equal to the greatest common divisor
(GCM) of (f1, f2) [or (𝜔1 , 𝜔2 )] if the ratio of the two frequencies is a rational
number (𝛼 and 𝛽 are arbitrary constants).
39
Least Common Multiple (LCM)
• Find the least common multiple of 4, 6
• Multiples of 4: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, …
• Multiples of 6: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, ….
• Common Multiples of 4 and 6: 12, 24, 36, ….
• LCM = 12
• We need LCM to determine the period of when combined signals are
periodic.

40
Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
• Find the greatest of 24 and 28
• Divisors of 24: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12
• Divisors of 28: 1, 2, 4, 7, 14
• Common divisors of 24 and 28: 1, 2, 4
• GCD = 4
• We need the GCD to determine the frequency when combined signals
are periodic.

41
Extension to multiple periodic signals
• Assume that signals with frequencies 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 and 𝑓3 forms a periodic
waveform when combined. To find the frequency of the combined signal,
determine the ratio of 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 and 𝑓3 using the lowest set of integer values.
• If the ratio is found as
𝑓1 : 𝑓2 : 𝑓3 = 𝑛1 : 𝑛2 : 𝑛3
• where n1, n2 and n3 are the lowest set of integer values.
• Then determine 𝑓0 such that
𝑓1 = 𝑛1 𝑓0
𝑓2 = 𝑛2 𝑓0
𝑓3 = 𝑛3 𝑓0
• The value of 𝑓0 that satisfies the above gives the GCD and hence the
fundamental frequency of the combined signal.
42
43
44
45
MATLAB Code for the example
% combined periodic waveforms - graphical illustration using MATLAB
f1=30;
f2=25;
f0=gcd(f1,f2)
T0=1/f0;
t=0:.001:T0*5;
a1=sin(2*pi*f1*t);
a2=sin(2*pi*f2*t);
subplot(311)
plot(t,a1)
title(['f_1=',num2str(f1)])
subplot(312)
plot(t,a2)
title(['f_2=',num2str(f2)])
subplot(313)
plot(t,a1+a2)
title(['f_1+f_2=',num2str(f1),' and ',num2str(f2),' f_0 = ',...
num2str(f0),' Hz and T_0 = ', num2str(T0)])

46
Example 1
• Given 𝑥1 𝑡 = cos 3𝑡 , and 𝑥2 𝑡 = sin(5𝑡), find the period of
𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 or state that it is aperiodic.

• Answer:
𝜔1 3
• 𝜔1 = 3, 𝜔2 = 5 rad/s, and hence = ⇒rational and the combined
𝜔2 5
signal is periodic.
• GCD(𝜔1 , 𝜔2 ) = 1 rad/s
• Frequency of 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 = 1 rad/s

47
Example 2
• Given 𝑥1 𝑡 = cos 6𝑡 , and 𝑥2 𝑡 = sin(8𝑡), find the period of 𝑥1 𝑡 +
𝑥2 𝑡 or state that it is aperiodic.

• Answer:
𝜔1 6 3
• 𝜔1 = 6, 𝜔2 = 8 rad/s, and hence = = ⇒rational and the combined
𝜔2 8 4
signal is periodic.
𝜔1 = 3𝜔0
• ⇒ 𝜔0 = 2 rad/s
𝜔2 = 4𝜔0
• ∴ GCD(𝜔1 , 𝜔2 ) = 2 rad/s
• Frequency of 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 = 2 rad/s

48
Example 3
• Given 𝑥1 𝑡 = cos 𝑡 , and 𝑥2 𝑡 = sin(𝜋𝑡), find the period of
𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 or state that it is aperiodic.

• Answer:
𝜔1 1
• 𝜔1 = 1, 𝜔2 = 𝜋 rad/s, and hence = ⇒ not rational and the
𝜔2 𝜋
combined signal is not periodic.

49
2.3 Common Signals in Engineering
• Review this section on the textbook and also using the companion
website (and Maths for Engineers 1 & 2).
• Items to be reviewed:
• Exponential signals, 𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑡 , for 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 < 0 and complex values, plotting such
signals
• Euler’s formula: 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃
• Complex numbers and signals

50
Exponential Signals

51
Sinusoidal Signals

52
Exponential signals with complex components
• 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑡 ; 𝐶 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜙 ; 𝑎 = 𝜎0 + 𝑗𝜔0
• 𝐶 and 𝑎 are complex
• 𝐴, 𝜙, 𝜎0 and 𝜔0 are real constants
• 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜙 𝑒 𝜎0 +𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎0 𝑡 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔0 𝑡+𝜙
• 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎0 𝑡 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙 + 𝑗𝐴𝑒 𝜎0 𝑡 sin 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙
• 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑗𝑥𝑖 (𝑡)

53
Real part of a complex exponential

54
Continuous-Time Signals and
Systems
Chapter 2
2.4 Singularity Functions
2.5 Mathematical Functions for Signals
Unit Step Function
𝑢 𝑡

1 𝑡>0 1
•𝑢 𝑡 =ቐ 0 𝑡<0
undefined 𝑡 = 0 0
𝑡

• Or simply
1 𝑡>0
•𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
0 𝑡<0

56
Example 15
• Find and plot 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
1 𝑡 − 𝑡0 > 0 𝑢 𝑡
• 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = ቊ
0 𝑡 − 𝑡0 < 0
1
1 𝑡 > 𝑡0
• 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑡0 =ቊ 𝑡
0 𝑡 < 𝑡0 0 𝑡0

57
Example 16
• Express the block or the rectangular function using unit step functions

58
 Unit Impulse Function 1
𝑡
𝑢෤ 𝑡 Δ
• Consider the signal 𝑢෤ 𝑡 as 1
shown
𝑡
0 Δ
• The derivative of 𝑢෤ 𝑡 ሚ
𝛿(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑢෤ 𝑡
𝑑 𝑢෤ 𝑡 𝑑𝑥
ሚ
𝛿(𝑡) = 1
𝑑𝑥 Δ Area = 1
• has a unit area 𝑡
0 Δ

lim 𝑢෤ 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡)
• Also 1
Δ→0

lim 𝑢෤ 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡)
Δ→0
𝑡
0
59
 ሚ
𝛿(𝑡)
∞
• What is lim 𝛿ሚ 𝑡 ? 1
Δ→0 Δ
• Width becomes 0.
• The height approaches ∞
• Area will remain 1. 𝑡
0Δ

• The unit impulse function, 𝛿 𝑡 ,

can be considered as lim 𝛿ሚ 𝑡
Δ→0

60
The unit impulse function
• Definition: The unit impulse function
𝛿(𝑡)
0 𝑡≠0
𝛿 𝑡 =ቊ
undefined 𝑡 = 0
• And ∞ 𝑡
0
න 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
−∞
• Or equivalently,
0 𝑡 ≠ 𝑡0 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 =ቊ
undefined 𝑡 = 𝑡0
∞

න 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 1 𝑡
0 𝑡0
−∞
61
 𝛿(𝑡)

• Note that
𝑡2
1 𝑡1 < 0 < 𝑡2 𝑡
න 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ቊ 𝑡1 𝑡2 0
0 otherwise 𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑡1
• Also, 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
𝑡2
1 𝑡1 < 𝑡0 < 𝑡2
න 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = ቊ
0 otherwise
𝑡1 𝑡
0 𝑡0
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑡1 𝑡2

62
63
2.4.3 Unit Impulse Properties
• 1. Scaling 𝛿(𝑡)
• 𝐾𝛿 𝑡 is an impulse with weight or area K. 𝐾
∞ ∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝐾𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐾 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐾
𝑡
0

• 2. Multiplication
• Multiplication of a function 𝑥(𝑡) (that is continuous at 0) by an impulse 𝛿(𝑡) gives
an impulse with area or weight 𝑥(0).
• 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 = 𝑥(0)𝛿(𝑡)

64
65
Examples

66
Sifting Property

67
Example 19
• What is

68
69
2.5 Mathematical Functions for Signals
• Review this section using the textbook.
• Attempt Tutorial questions on plotting signal waveforms

70
Continuous-Time Signals and
Systems
Chapter 2
2.6 Continuous-Time Systems
2.7 Properties of Continuous-Time Systems

71
System
• A system is a process for which cause-and effect relations exist

• Representation of a general system

72
Examples

• Electric
Heater

• Ideal
Amplifier

73
Notation

𝑥(𝑡) System 𝑦(𝑡)

𝑦 𝑡 =𝑇 𝑥 𝑡

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑆[𝑥 𝑡 ]

𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑦(𝑡)

74
2.7 Properties of Continuous-Time Systems
1. Memory
2. Inverse of a System
3. Causality
4. Stability
5. Time invariance
6. Linearity

75
2.7.1 Systems with memory
• Systems whose output 𝑦(𝑡0 ) depends on values of the input other
than just 𝑥(𝑡0 ) have memory.

• A system has memory if its output at time 𝑡0 , 𝑦 𝑡0 , depends on the

input 𝑥(𝑡) for 𝑡 > 𝑡0 or 𝑡 < 𝑡0 , i.e. it depends on value of the input
other than 𝑥(𝑡0 ).

• Otherwise, the system is MEMORYLESS.

76
System with Memory (Contd.)
• Example of a Memoryless System: Resistor
𝑣 𝑡0 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡0
• the voltage depends on current at time 𝑡0 .

• Example of System with Memory: Capacitor

1 𝑡0
𝑣 𝑡0 = න 𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝐶 −∞
• the voltage depends on past values of the current so a capacitor has
memory.

77
Examples
A. Given 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 5 and 𝑧 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 5), which has memory?

B. Given 𝑦 𝑡 = (𝑡 + 5)𝑥 𝑡 and 𝑧 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 5) 2 , do these have

memory?

78
2.7.2 Inverse of a System
• A system is invertible if you can determine the input uniquely from
the output, i.e. there is a one-to-one relationship between the input
and output.

79
Examples
𝑦 𝑡
• Resistor is invertible, 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑥 𝑡 =
𝑅

• Noninvertible:
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 → zeros out much of the input
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 𝑡 → don't know the sign
• 𝑦 𝑡 = cos 𝑥 𝑡 → add 2𝜋 to 𝑥(𝑡)

80
2.7.3 Causality
• A system is causal if the output at any time 𝑡0 dependent on the input only
for 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡0 .
• i.e. the output 𝑦(𝑡) depends only on past and present inputs and not on
the future
• All physical real-time systems are causal because we can not anticipate the
future.
• Physical systems that are non-causal are not real-time. For example, a
system in which music is recorded and processed later is non-causal but is
not real-time.
• Another example is in Image processing - Non-causal filters like blurring
masks.
• If a system is memoryless, it is also causal. However, being causal does not
necessarily imply that a system is memoryless. In fact, most causal systems
have memory.
81
Causality: Examples
• Both resistor and capacitor are causal
• 𝑣 𝑡0 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡0 → memoryless → Causal

1 𝑡0
• 𝑣 𝑡0 = ‫׬‬−∞
𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 → Causal since only depends on past and
𝐶
present

• FACT: Memoryless → Causal but not vice versa.

82
Causality: Examples
1 𝑡0 +𝑎
• Example: 𝑦 𝑡0 = ‫׬‬−∞
𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝐶
• Is this Causal?

• Example: Time reversal 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(−𝑡)

• Is this Causal? Try letting t be a negative number.

83
 2.7.4 Stability
• We will consider Bounded Input - Bounded
Output (BIBO) Stability.

• We say that a system is BIBO stable, if an

input 𝑥(𝑡) bounded (finite) for all time
produces an output 𝑦(𝑡) that is also bounded
or finite for all time.

• Mathematically, we write if 𝑥 𝑡 ≤ 𝐵1 ⇒
𝑦 𝑡 ≤ 𝐵2 where 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 are finite Examples of bounded functions
constants.
84
Stability: Examples
• Example: A resistor (𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅), is stable because
𝑖 𝑡 ≤ 𝐵1 ⇒ 𝑣 𝑡 ≤ 𝑅𝐵1

𝑑𝑉𝑐 𝑡 1 𝑡
• Example: Capacitor: 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶 or 𝑉𝑐 𝑡 = ‫𝑖 ׬‬ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 −∞
• Is this stable? Let 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐵1 𝑢(𝑡), where 𝐵1 ≠ 0.
𝑖(𝑡) 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) 1
𝐵 𝑡
𝐶 1
𝐵1
Grows with time, as 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑉𝑐 𝑡 → ∞.
𝑡 𝑡
0 0

85
2.7.5 Time Invariance
• A system is time invariant if a time shift in the input results only in
the same time shift in the output signal.
• Alternatively, the system behaves the same each day and does not
change over time.
= 𝑆 𝑥(𝑡)

• If 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑆[𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ], the system is time invariant.

• If 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ≠ 𝑆[𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ], the system is time varying.
86
Test for time invariance

?
𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑆 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) = 𝑦𝑑 (𝑡)
87
Time invariance: Example
• Resistor 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 . Is this time-invariant?

88
Time invariance: Example
1 𝑡
• Is a capacitor time-invariant? 𝑣 𝑡 = න 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝐶 −∞

89
Time invariance: Example
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑥(𝑡) Is this time-invariant?

90
Time invariance: Example
• Time Reversal 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 . Is this time-invariant?
• Show graphically with 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 2) and delay of 1.

91
Test the following
signals for time
invariance

92
2.7.6 Linearity
• For a system to be linear, it must satisfy additivity and homogeneity
(scaling) properties
• Additivity:
• If 𝑥1 𝑡 → 𝑦1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 𝑡 → 𝑦2 (𝑡), then
• 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 → 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 (𝑡)
• Homogeneity or Scaling:
• If 𝑥1 𝑡 → 𝑦1 (𝑡), then
• 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 → 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡
• where a is a constant. The criteria must apply for all
𝑥1 𝑡 , 𝑥2 𝑡 and 𝑎.
• These two criteria combined to form the Superposition Condition.
𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 → 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡)
93
Linearity: Example
• Multiplication by a constant
𝑦 𝑡 =𝑆 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑥 𝑡
• Test the superposition condition
• 𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑆 𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑥1 𝑡
• 𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑆 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑥2 𝑡

• 𝑆 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑐𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑐𝑥2 𝑡

• ∴ 𝑆 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡)
• Therefore, the superposition rule holds and the system is linear

94
Linearity: Example
• Squaring: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)

95
Are the
following
systems linear?

96
Superposition
• We can generalize superposition to more than 2 functions, i.e. given a
set of inputs 𝑥𝑘 (𝑡) with a set of corresponding outputs 𝑦𝑘 (𝑡), we can
take a linear combination of any number of the inputs and get the
same linear combination of corresponding outputs:

𝑥 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑥𝑘 (𝑡)
𝑘
produces output

𝑦 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑦𝑘 (𝑡)
𝑘
• You will find this very useful in doing convolutions.
97