Chapter 2: Structure of Atom (Full
NCERT-style Notes)
This chapter includes: theories, experiments, green notes, formulas,
derivations, solved examples, and rules. All text is encoded with safe
characters to avoid 'boxes'.
1. Historical Development and Subatomic Particles
Dalton's atomic theory explained laws of chemical combination but could not explain
electricity in matter, isotopes, and radioactivity.
Discovery timeline:
- Electron (J. J. Thomson, cathode ray experiment).
- Proton (E. Goldstein, canal rays).
- Electron charge measured by Millikan oil drop: e = 1.602 x 10^-19 C.
- Neutron (J. Chadwick, 1932).
Experiment: Cathode Rays
At low pressure and high voltage, rays travel from cathode to anode and
cause fluorescence. They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields
indicating negative charge.
Properties: straight-line travel, cause mechanical rotation, penetrate thin
metal foils.
2. Early Atomic Models
Thomson's model: a positively charged sphere with embedded electrons (like plum
pudding).
Rutherford's model: small, dense, positively charged nucleus with electrons around; most
of the atom is empty space.
Sketch: Thomson Model
e- e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
Thomson's 'plum pudding' model
Sketch: Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment (paths of alpha particles)
Rutherford gold foil experiment
3. Bohr's Model of Hydrogen Atom
Postulates: electrons revolve in allowed circular orbits; angular momentum is quantized;
radiation is emitted/absorbed during transitions.
Quantization of angular momentum:
m v r = n h / (2 pi); n = 1, 2, 3, ...
Energy change on transition:
Delta E = h nu
Bohr radius (a0): a0 = 0.529 angstrom.
Energy of nth orbit: En = -13.6 eV / n^2.
Sketch: Bohr Orbits
Bohr model (n=1,2,3 shells)
4. Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
Series and regions:
- Lyman (UV), Balmer (visible), Paschen (IR), Brackett (IR), Pfund (IR).
Rydberg relation (n2 > n1): 1/lambda = R * (1/n1^2 - 1/n2^2).
Sketch: Hydrogen emission series (schematic)
Lyman
Balmer
Paschen
longer wavelength ->
Hydrogen emission series (schematic)
5. Electromagnetic Radiation Basics
Wave parameters: wavelength (lambda), frequency (nu), and speed c. Relation: c =
lambda * nu.
Photon energy (Planck): E = h * nu.
Photoelectric effect: electrons are ejected when light of frequency above threshold falls on
metal; supports quantum nature.
Sketch: EM Spectrum (qualitative)
Radio Micro IR Visible UV X-ray Gamma
EM Spectrum (increasing frequency ->)
6. Dual Nature: de Broglie and Uncertainty
Matter waves (de Broglie): lambda = h / (m v).
Heisenberg uncertainty: Delta x * Delta p >= h / (4 pi).
Implication: exact position and momentum cannot be known simultaneously;
Bohr orbits are replaced by probability distributions.
7. Quantum Mechanical Model
Schrodinger wave equation yields wave functions (psi). Physical meaning is in psi^2
(probability density).
Orbitals are regions of high probability; each orbital holds max 2 electrons with opposite
spins.
8. Quantum Numbers and Allowed Values
Principal (n): 1,2,3,... ; size and energy.
Azimuthal (l): 0..(n-1); subshell type (0=s,1=p,2=d,3=f).
Magnetic (m_l): -l..+l; orientation count is (2l+1).
Spin (m_s): +1/2 or -1/2.
9. Shapes of s, p, d Orbitals (sketches)
s p d
10. Rules for Filling of Orbitals
- Aufbau principle: lowest energy first.
- Pauli exclusion: no two electrons with same four quantum numbers.
- Hund's rule: maximum unpaired electrons in degenerate orbitals.
Diagonal (n + l) Rule (schematic):
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 7p
Diagonal (n+l) rule arrows indicate filling order
11. Electronic Configuration Examples
H: 1s1 ; He: 1s2 ; Li: 1s2 2s1 ; Be: 1s2 2s2 ; B: 1s2 2s2 2p1 ; C: 1s2 2s2 2p2 ; N: 1s2 2s2
2p3 ; O: 1s2 2s2 2p4 ; F: 1s2 2s2 2p5 ; Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6.
Na: [Ne] 3s1 ; Mg: [Ne] 3s2 ; Al: [Ne] 3s2 3p1 ; Si: [Ne] 3s2 3p2 ; P: [Ne] 3s2 3p3 ; S: [Ne]
3s2 3p4 ; Cl: [Ne] 3s2 3p5 ; Ar: [Ne] 3s2 3p6.
Note: Cr and Cu show exceptions due to extra stability of half-filled and filled
d-subshells: Cr ~ [Ar] 3d5 4s1 ; Cu ~ [Ar] 3d10 4s1.
12. Solved Examples
Example 1: Calculate wavelength (lambda) of a photon with frequency 6.0 x
10^14 s^-1.
Using c = lambda * nu: lambda = c/nu = 3.0 x 10^8 / 6.0 x 10^14 = 5.0 x
10^-7 m (500 nm).
Example 2: de Broglie wavelength of electron of speed 2.2 x 10^6 m/s.
lambda = h/(m v) = 6.626 x 10^-34 / (9.11 x 10^-31 * 2.2 x 10^6) approx
3.3 x 10^-10 m.
Quick Summary
Key relations: c = lambda * nu ; E = h * nu ; 1/lambda = R(1/n1^2 - 1/n2^2)
; lambda = h/(m v) ; Delta x * Delta p >= h/(4 pi).
Filling order: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s <
4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p.
