Structure of Atom – Class 11 Chemistry (Detailed Notes)
1. Introduction:
- Atom: Smallest particle of matter that retains chemical properties.
- Evolution of atomic models due to experiments and discoveries.
2. Discovery of Subatomic Particles:
a) Electron – Discovered by J.J. Thomson using cathode ray tube.
- Charge: -1.6 x 10^-19 C, Mass: 9.1 x 10^-31 kg.
b) Proton – Discovered by Goldstein through canal rays.
- Charge: +1.6 x 10^-19 C, Mass: 1.67 x 10^-27 kg.
c) Neutron – Discovered by James Chadwick.
- Charge: 0, Mass: ~same as proton.
3. Thomson’s Model of Atom:
- Plum pudding model: Positively charged sphere with embedded electrons.
- Failed to explain the results of Rutherford’s experiment.
4. Rutherford’s Nuclear Model:
- Alpha particle scattering experiment.
Observations:
• Most particles passed through.
• Few deflected, very few bounced back.
Conclusions:
• Atom is mostly empty.
• Nucleus is small, dense, and positive.
Limitations: Could not explain stability and line spectra.
5. Bohr’s Model of Atom:
- Postulates:
• Electrons revolve in discrete orbits (energy levels).
• No radiation when in orbit; emitted/absorbed during transition.
• Angular momentum is quantized: mvr = nh/2pi.
- Formulas:
• Radius (r_n) = 0.529 * n^2 / Z Å
• Velocity (v_n) = 2.18 x 10^6 * Z / n m/s
• Energy (E_n) = -13.6 * Z^2 / n^2 eV
6. Electromagnetic Radiation and Spectrum:
- Properties: Wavelength, frequency, velocity, wave number.
- Relation: c = lambda * v
- Planck’s equation: E = h * v = h * c / lambda
- Hydrogen spectrum lines: Lyman, Balmer, etc.
- Rydberg formula: 1/lambda = R_H * (1/n1^2 - 1/n2^2)
7. Dual Nature of Matter:
- de Broglie Hypothesis: lambda = h / mv
- Verified for electrons.
8. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:
- delta_x * delta_p >= h / 4pi
- Implies impossibility of knowing position and momentum simultaneously.
9. Quantum Mechanical Model:
- Developed by Schrodinger using wave equation.
- Introduced concept of orbitals (regions of probability).
10. Quantum Numbers:
- Principal (n): Size and energy level.
- Azimuthal (l): Subshell, shape of orbital.
- Magnetic (m): Orientation in space.
- Spin (s): +1/2 or -1/2.
11. Shapes of Orbitals:
- s: Spherical; p: Dumbbell; d: Clover-shaped.
12. Rules for Electron Filling:
- Aufbau Principle: Fill from lowest to higher energy.
- Pauli Exclusion: No 2 electrons same quantum numbers.
- Hund’s Rule: Pairing after all orbitals are singly filled.
13. Electronic Configuration:
- Written using orbitals: e.g. 1s² 2s² 2p■...
- Based on energy order: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d...
