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Swept Volume This can be calculated via the formula: (lπd2)/4,
d = cylinder bore and l = stroke. Note that units of bore and
stroke must be consistent. Engine volume is mostly stated in
litres by manufacturers but remember that 1000cc (cubic
centimetres) equals 1 litre. The total engine displacement is
the sum of all cylinders individual displacements.
Compression Ratio The formula used to
calculate the compression ratio (CR) is:
CR = (Vs + Vc)/Vc
Where CR = compression ratio
Vs = swept volume
Vc = clearance volume
Note correct order of preference when
carrying out this calculation (brackets
first – BODMAS).
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Torque Two common terms used when
expressing engine performance characteristics
are ‘torque’ and ‘power’. Torque is an expression
Torque and power
relating to work and is a measure of the turning
force provided by the engine. Torque output can
vary independent of engine speed and is a
measure of the load on the engine. The units of
torque are Newton metres (Nm) for SI units
and Pounds/foot (lbs/ft) in Imperial units.
Power is a derived unit and relates to the rate
of work done, or the work done per unit of time.
For an engine, the power is a product or torque
and speed. Power output is given in Kilowatts
(KW) or Horsepower (HP). Engine power is
normally stated as measured at the flywheel, via
a dynamometer or brake, hence the term ‘brake
horse power’.
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Engine Performance Curves
Engine manufacturers often
publish performance data in a
graphical form showing torque
and power curves against
speed. Two examples are
shown here. Note that a
petrol engine generally
produces more power, at
higher speed. A diesel engine
produces more torque at lower
speeds.
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Optimum Cylinder Capacity The optimum size
of an individual engine cylinder is a compromise
of a number of technical factors. The optimum
displacement for a cylinder is generally found
to be between 250 cm³ and 600 cm³ for road Displacement
vehicle applications. In this range, the
combustion chamber size, surface area and
individual components size (pistons, valves etc.)
produce an engine with optimum efficiency with
respect to fuel consumption and emissions.
Typically, engines with total displacements in
the range of 1 to 2.5 litres have 4-cylinders.
Note though that the number of cylinders also
has an effect on the manufacturing costs of an
engine
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Power Strokes per Engine Revolution The
number of power strokes per revolution can be
found by dividing the number of engine
cylinders by two (for a 4-stroke engine). The
greater the number of cylinders, the smoother
the torque delivery due to reduced peak torque
firing pulses from each cylinder and the
increased number of firing strokes per
revolution. Over 2 litres, six cylinder engines
give smooth power delivery with optimum
cylinder displacement sizes. An in-line six
cylinder has a relatively long crankshaft that
can be difficult to accommodate in a
transverse engine installation layout, therefore
by using two banks of three cylinders in a ‘vee’
configuration, total length is reduced and
torsional rigidity of the crankshaft is
improved.
The engines flywheel acts as an energy buffer
due to its inertia. Energy stored in the
flywheel maintains rotation between firing
pulses and acts as a damper to smooth torque
peaks as each cylinder fires.
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Cylinder layouts and power strokes
Component Technology This section explores
various different engine designs and
configurations found on modern road vehicles.
Engine designs
The most common is discussed first. This is the vary
four cylinder, four stroke, transverse
installation layout incorporating and overhead
camshaft (OHC) petrol engine. This engine
design and layout allows for a comprehensive
repair program, including a complete overhaul.
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Four-Cylinder, Four-Stroke Diesel Engine The
next engine design to be considered is the four
cylinder, four stroke, Overhead valve (OHV)
Diesel engine
indirect injection diesel engine. This engine is of
traditional design and construction and
facilitates straight forward repairs and
overhaul. Diesel engines are generally more
strongly constructed due to the higher cylinder
pressures and forces.
Special Oils Diesel engine emissions produce acidic elements
that can react with certain engine components. Diesel specific
engine oils are designed to neutralise this acidity via additives
and should always be used. Corrosion and pitting of internal
engine components can occur due to lack of regular oil changes.
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V-6 4-Stroke 24-Valve Dual-Overhead
Camshaft The third engine type to be
considered is the vee-six cylinder, four
stroke, twenty-four valve, double overhead
camshaft (DOHC) design. This is a modern DOHC
generation engine produced with close
tolerance components manufactured with
special tooling. This is necessary to achieve
the required performance with respect to
emissions and power. Therefore, it is not
possible to repair or recondition this engine
via traditional techniques (re-bore and
pistons). Pistons and bores are matched with
fine tolerances and therefore, major engine
repairs are effected via replacement of the
engine with a reconditioned ‘short’ motor.
Also, all repair and adjustments must be
carried out exactly in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.
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Cylinder Arrangement
There are numerous engine
configurations with
respect to the
arrangement of the engine
cylinders, the number of
cylinders, position and
firing order. In addition,
combustion chamber
designs and valve train
layout all dictate the basic
properties of an engine.
Engine installation and
orientation is another
important factor to be
considered in a road
vehicle. There are also
two-stroke and rotary
engine designs with their
own particular
characteristics, all of
which are explained in this
section
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Technical Details of 4-Cylinder 4-Stroke OHC Petrol
Engine
This diagram shows the components of this engine
type. Examine the names and detail of these components
before moving on to the next screens where they are shown
individually with further information on their basic function
and constructional detail.
Cylinder Block and Crankcase The engine
cylinders, when cast in a single housing, are
known as the engine block. Generally, the engine
block is manufactured from cast iron or Engine block
aluminium alloy. In the latter case, cast iron or
steel liners to form the cylinder bore. The
engine block forms the major component of a
‘short’ motor.
Cylinder Bores
The cylinder bores are formed via a
machining process with a boring tool to give the correct form
to the cylinder within closely specified tolerances. Cast iron is
a mixture of iron with a small amount of carbon (2.5% - 4.5%
of the total).
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Cast Iron The carbon added to the iron gives a
crystalline structure that is very strong in
compression. In addition, it is slightly porous
and this helps to retain a film of lubricating oil Cast iron block
working surfaces. This property makes cast iron
particularly suitable for cylinder bores that can
be machined directly into the casting.
Crankcase The crankcase is integrated into the
cylinder block and is machined in-line to form
the crankshaft main bearings. This process is
Main bearing bolts
known as line boring. The main bearings are split
in two halves, one half locates in the block, the
other in the bearing cap. The bearing caps are
secured before the machining process and thus
each cap is matched in position with its opposite
half. It is important to note this when
disassembling and reassembling the bearings.
The caps are located via dowels and fastened
via high-tensile steel bolts. It is important to
follow manufacturer guidance if the bolts are
removed and refitted, replacement of the bolts
and tightening procedures must be followed if
specified.
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Water Jacket Between
the cylinder walls and
the outside surface of
the cylinder block, voids
and channels are formed
during the casting
process, this is known as
the water jacket and is
used for engine cooling
purposes. A sand former
creates this space during
casting and when the
cast block has cooled,
the sand is evacuated via
holes in the side of the
block. These holes are
then sealed using core
plugs.
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Oilways In order to supply pressurised
oil to the engine moving surfaces, an oil
gallery is formed along the length of the
cylinder block. This has drillings to supply
oil directly to the bearings in the block,
crankshaft and cylinder head. Additional
drillings connect the oil pump and
pressure control valve to complete the oil
supply system. The block is prepared,
drilled and threaded in order to attach
additional components like the oil sump
pan and oil pump assembly.
Pistons Pistons are generally
manufactured from an aluminium
alloy which reduces weight and
increases heat dissipation. There are
numerous designs to accommodate
thermal expansion according to
engine type and application.
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Thermal Expansion Aluminium has
greater thermal expansion than cast
iron used for the block and cylinder
liners. This means that the piston
expands more than the block as the
engine temperature increases. When
the engine is cold, the working
tolerances are greater to allow for
expansion. The piston has design
features to allow for expansion and
correct tolerances at running
temperatures, for example, a cold
piston is slightly oval and tapered
inwards towards the crown.
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Piston Pin The piston or gudgeon pin
has an offset by a small amount
toward the thrust face of the
cylinder bore which allows the
thrust forces at the piston crown to
maintain the piston against the
cylinder wall. This has an effect
when the engine is cold by reducing
piston movement due to excessive
clearance which creates a noise
known as ‘piston slap’. Note that
pistons are marked so that they can
be installed correctly and this
should be carefully observed.
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Piston and Piston Rings Around the
upper portion of the piston, grooves
are cut to accommodate sealing
rings, known as piston rings.
Generally, there are three or four
grooves and rings, the lowest is
known as the oil control ring and this
is used to control the amount of
lubricant remaining on the cylinder
bore surface to lubricate the piston.
The upper rings are known as
compression rings and these provide
the gas tight seal, maintaining the
cylinder pressures that create force
to move the piston.
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