SECTION 1: Introduction to Science, Technology and Society

Science comes from the Latin word Scientia, meaning knowledge. It refers to a systematical and
methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge about the universe behaves through organizing, knowledge
about how the universe behaves through observation and experimentation, or both. According to the famous
American science historian, John Heilbor (2003, p. 211), ‘Modern science is a discovery as well as an invention,
‘Heilbor considered science as a discovery of regularity in nature, enough for natural phenomena to be described by
principles and laws. He also explained that science required invention to devise techniques, abstractions, to describe
these natural regularities and their law-like descriptions.

Technology is the application of scientific knowledge, laws, and principles to produce services, materials,
tools and machines aimed at solving real-world problems. It comes from Greek root word techne meaning art, skill or
cunning of hand. Mark Zuckerberg CEO of Facebook defines a technological tool-something that makes a human’s
sense or ability and arguments it and makes it more powerful. Example, He wear contact lenses or glasses; that is a
technology that enhances the human ability of vision and makes it better.

Society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction. A large social group sharing the
same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural
expectations.

One of the Key interests of STS as an academic field is the history of science and technology. The history
of science and technology focuses on how science and technology have changed across time. It explores the impacts
of scientific and technological innovations on the prevailing social, cultural, political and economies context
throughout history. It pays attention to the condition that shaped science and technology. Interest lie in historical
antecedents of scientific and technological innovations.

Section II: Historical Antecedents of Science and Technology

An antecedent is a precursor to the unfolding or existence of something. Historical antecedents in science
and technology are factors that paved the way for the presence of advanced and sophisticated scientific and
technological innovations today.

1. Ancient age:
Early civilizations contributed to the development of science and technology. As humans sought different
ways to survive, they came up with scientific innovations and discoveries that are considered the early models of
present valuable technologies. The earliest civilizations of the world were born along rivers because people needed
fresh water to survive. The rivers provided water to irrigate crops and regular river floods made for fertile soil.

Mesopotamia:
The first recorded civilization of the world existed in the region of Mesopotamia around 3300-750 BC. The
region now corresponds to most parts of present-day Iraq, Syria, Kuwait, and Turkey. Mesopotamia from the Greek
means “between two rivers” which signifies its location within the Tigris Euphrates river system. Among the
civilizations that flourished in Mesopotamia were Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian.
 1. Sumerian Civilizations:
Sumerians are known for inventing the cuneiform one of the earliest systems of writing at around 3000
BC. It is wedge -shaped scripts pressed into clay tablets. The Sumerians developed their own number system used
the main base 60 and the auxiliary base 10. They built sailboats that allowed them to travel by sein a to trade goods
it was made of planks of woods and sails made of cloth. The wheel first used by Sumerians for pottery in 3500 BC
and later for transportation chariots in 3200 BC. They developed agricultural processes such as irrigation. The
construction of high levees or flood banks to collect flood waters coming from Tigris- Euphrates is a proof of their
ingenuity. They were the first to use plow for digging and breaking hard soil to make planting easy. Sumerians were
first astronomers they observed the phases of the moon, the movements of the planets and stars and develop the
lunar calendar that became the basis for having 12 lunar months in a year.

2. Babylonian Civilization
The ancient city of Babylon served as the center of Mesopotamian civilization for two millennia Babylon
derived from bav-il or bav-ilim meaning gates of the Gods. Its ruins lie in modern-day Iraq. The many biblical
references to Babylon reveal much about it from the time of Hammurabi in 2000 BC to its downfall around 500
BC. Genesis 11 tells the story of Tower of Babel. The Hanging Garden of Babylon believed that king Nebuchadnezzar
II gift to his homesick wife, Amytis, The Babylonians invented sundials and water clocks to determine time.

3. Ancient Egypt:
The ancient Egyptian civilization born along the Nile River provided rich soil for agriculture. The Nile River
flows from the heart of Africa to the Mediterranean Sea. The land of Egypt was known as Kemet meaning “Black
Land” because of the rich dark soil along the river. Rain seldom fell in Egypt but the flooding from the Nile helped in
cultivating crops, such as wheat and flax, one of the first scientific innovations of this civilization was the construction
of canal for irrigation and other agricultural needs.
Egyptians developed the shadoof, an irrigation tool composed of a pole and a bucket used to lift water.
Egyptians are also known for inventing breath mints from the frankincense, Myrrh, cinnamon made into pellets, and
discovering honey. The old kingdom of Ancient Egypt (C 2613-2181 BC) was rich in architectural feats. It was
characterized by such monument as the pyramid and the great Sphinx of Giza, a 20-meter-high statue made of
white limestone depicting a reclining sphinx with a lion’s body and a human head.
Djoser Pharaoh of the third dynasty of the old kingdom, built the first step pyramid in Saqqara designed by
Imhotep his architect and physician. The great pyramids of Khufu, Khufu and Menkaure were also constructed
during the reign of Djoser. Pyramids served as tomb for the kings and queens of Egypt. Egyptians believed that after
death, the soul lives on as an immortal entity. For Egyptians death was not the end but a transition from one state to
another. This was the reason why they practiced mummification to preserve the body to be recognized by the soul.
Papyrus, a material made from the pith of the papyrus plant that is similar to paper, was used by the Egyptians
as a writing surface used also to make mats, baskets, rafts, ropes and more. Ancient Egypt was also responsible for
cosmetics invention including wigs seen in their pictograms and hieroglyphics their system of writing

4. Indus Valley Civilization:

The Indus Valley was an ancient civilization located in present day Pakistan and Northwest India, a
bronze age
civilization and the largest of the four-urban civilization of Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia and China. In the 1920’s
archeologists unearthed the ruins of Indus Valley civilization. The 4600 years old city of Mohenjo Daro. It introduced
new techniques of metallurgy (bronze, tin, copper and lead) and handicraft, seal carving and carnelian products. The
cities are well known for having brick houses and clusters of large non-residential buildings, a complex drainage
system and water storage system, It has advanced agricultural practices.
 5. Ancient China
Ancient China are the oldest and longest lasting civilizations of the world. “China “from Sanskrit cina from
the name of the Qin Dynasty pronounced “Chin”. The Greeks and the romans called “China Seus” meaning “the land
where the silk comes from ancient china has a very long and rich history of science and technology. First to record
astronomical phenomena such as solar eclipse and counting device called abacus sometime between 1000 BC and
500 BC. It developed acupuncture the practice of relieving pain, healing illnesses and improving the general well-
being of a person by inserting several metal needles at practice points into the skin and tissue. The invention of
paper and movable printing press. The production of printed works flourished around the world. China has porcelain,
silk and the creation of silk road, gun powder used for fireworks.

6. Ancient Greece
The century in South Eastern Europe known as Hellas or Ellada which is “Greece” in Greek. Characterized
by the expansion of villages and the development of market places and meeting places. People relied in trade.
Commercial sea trading was the primary source of income. Its democratized education thus nurturing great
philosophers and scientist. Greek philosophy is the most renowned contribution of the Greeks to western civilization
such as Plato, Aristotle and Socrates who questioned human existence and how the world came to be.

The other Philosophers

1. Pythagoras – known for the Pythagorean theorem-used to measure distance and space
 2. Thales of Miletus- known for his precise prediction of the solar eclipse on May 28, 585 BC
3. Hippocrates- the father of Western medicine

In engineering and mechanics Greece, watermills used to grind grain, Perachora wheel contributed to
the
creation of water mills, aqueduct were constructed ctesibius developed the water clock or clepsydra.
Archimedes of Syracuse during the Punic War invented odometer to measure distance covered by a
vehicle.
7. Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was originally a small town near the Tiber when Augustus Caesar became its first
Emperor. Rome borrowed and enriched the culture of Greece and became a powerful empire encompassing most of
continental Europe, Britain, Western Asia, The Mediterranean, and Northern Africa. The physician Galen was the first
to describe and diagnose symptoms of different diseases. Surgical instruments such as the rectal speculum, bone
levers and cupping vessels were used by Roman physicians in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Much of
Ancient Rome’s innovations may be attributed to their uses of concrete.
Appius Claudius Caecus built the first Roman aqueduct called Aqua Appian in 312 BC. It transported
water to Rome from different bodies of water and was the precursor of Rome’s developed sewerage system,
sanitation management, and public baths.
The Romans also constructed great agricultural feats one is the colosseum. The largest amphitheater ever
built. Pantheon – a former Roman temple. The ancient Rome was famous for its powerful military characterized by
formidable leadership and advanced machinery.

8. Meso America
 The earliest known Meso American civilization is the Olmec civilization that was established in the North
Eastern
part of Mexico 1200 BC. The Meso American civilizations, the Mayas, Aztec, Inca -900-1500 A.D. and thrived until the
arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in Mexico.

Maya Civilization:
The Maya people most scientifically advanced people in Meso America. They had system of writing
called Maya hieroglyphics WITH 1000 characters. Writing tools crafted from animal hair and feathers. Maya texts
written on tree bark are called codices. They have pictorial scripts (glyphs) inscribed on stone monument. The Maya
people enabled them to have 365 days solar year and 360 days sacred year annual cycles. The long count calendar
that measured days by cycles or sets.

Aztec and Inca Civilizations: The Aztecs thrived in the capital city of Tenochtitlan now is
Mexico City. The notable artifacts of Aztec civilization are the “Sunstone” with the image of the Aztec sun god at
the center. They used pictographs as their system of writing and their language was called the “Nahuatl”. Aztecs
have massive stone temples.

Inca Civilization
The Empire known as great and innovative engineers. They built bridges over bodies of water and canals for
irrigation. The Inca performed cranial surgeries and amputation for injured warriors. They have produced clothing
and had musical instruments such as flutes, drums, panpipes and horns. Their official language is called “Quechua”.
Their Quipa a set of strings is used for recording information such as tax records census and calendar information.