DIET & NUTRITION

DIET
The quantity and quality of food eaten by an animal is called its diet. A
balanced diet is a diet which has the quality and proportions of nutrients
needed to maintain good health.

This includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, water and

roughage.
 FOOD GROUPS
All the foods available to humans can be grouped
into 6 categories.

● Staple foods – Rice, cornmeal, wheat flour,

oats, starchy fruits, tubers.
● Legumes – Nuts, peas, red beans, pigeon
peas, black eyed peas, broad beans.
● Vegetables – Cabbage, lettuce, spinach,
pumpkin, carrots.
● Animal Products – Fish, poultry, meat, milk,
eggs, cheese.
● Fruits – Citrus fruits, bananas, apples, grapes.
● Fats and oils – Coconut oil, butter,
margarine, and foods with a high proportion
of fat.
 MACRONUTRIENTS
Macronutrients, such as carbohydrates, proteins,
and lipids, are organic compounds that are
required in relatively large amounts in a
balanced diet.
 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature,
consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are divided
into three main groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides.
 MONOSACCHARIDES
Monosaccharides are simple sugars, consisting of a single sugar unit.

Monosaccharides are reducing sugars and are the monomers (building

blocks) for longer, complex carbohydrate polymers. These sugars:

❏ Easily dissolve in water

❏ Typically sweet-tasting
❏ Function as an intermediate energy source for cells.
 CONDENSATION AND HYDROLYSIS REACTIONS

In condensation reactions,
water is lost and a bond is
formed.

In hydrolysis reactions, water is

chemically added to break the
bond.
 DISACCHARIDES
❏ Disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose) are formed when two
monosaccharides are covalently joined together.
❏ Disaccharides are soluble in water, generally sweet-tasting and they
commonly function as a transport molecule for carbohydrates in living
organisms.
 POLYSACCHARIDES
❏ Polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose) are carbohydrate
polymers comprised of many monosaccharides.
❏ Polysaccharides are not sweet-tasting, and they may be used for
energy storage, and cell structure.
 STARCH
❏ Starch is primary storage polysaccharide in plants and it is made up of
glucose.
❏ Starch can build up into large starch grains, which are commonly
found in chloroplasts and in storage organs, such as tubers and seeds.

❏ The many branches of

starch allow it to be
hydrolyzed rapidly.
 GLYCOGEN
❏ Glycogen is the storage polysaccharide
in bacteria, fungi, and animals,
consisting of glucose.
❏ Glycogen is a highly branched molecule.
❏ The liver and muscle cells store
glycogen granules, which can be rapidly
hydrolyzed due to its many branches.
 CELLULOSE
❏ Cellulose has a structural role in plant cell
walls.
❏ Cellulose is composed of unbranched chains
of glucose.
❏ It is rigid with a high tensile strength.
 FIBER
❏ Cellulose can be broken down by a specific
cellulase enzyme, which is only found in
bacteria.
❏ Cows, sheep, rabbits, and termites have these
microorganisms living mutualistically in their
digestive tracts which enables them to digest
cellulose.
❏ Humans lack these bacteria, so cellulose is indigestible by humans
and contributes to fibre. Roughage adds bulk to the food, which
stimulates peristalsis. This reduces constipation, inflammation of the
colon and the risk of colorectal (bowel) cancer.
 PROTEINS
Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules with many
functions:
❏ Enzymes (amylase, pepsin)
❏ Hormones (Insulin, Glucagon)
❏ Pumps in membrane (Na+/K+ pumps)
❏ Transport (Haemoglobin, Myoglobin)
❏ Antibodies (immunoglobulins)
❏ Structural (Collagen in bone, keratin in hair)
❏ Storage (casein in milk, albumins in eggs)
❏ Blood clotting (thrombin, fibrin)
 AMINO ACIDS
All proteins are made from the same 20 amino acid monomers. Amino
acids are made from a central carbon atom that is attached to:

❏ A hydrogen atom
❏ An amino group (–NH2)
❏ A carboxylic group (–COOH)
❏ A variable R group

The diversity of the amino acid

content and sequence is the
source of diversity in proteins.
 PEPTIDE BONDS
❏ Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds in a condensation
reaction.
❏ Polypeptides are many amino acids long.
 LIPIDS
❏ Lipids are organic substances that are insoluble in water due to
having many non-polar covalent bonds.
❏ Triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids, and steroids are different
types of lipids.
 TRIGLYCERIDES
Triglycerides (triacylglycerols) are long-term energy storage molecules,
consisting of 3 fatty acids ester bonded to one glycerol. Triglycerides are
synthesized and stored in adipose tissues under the skin and around
organs.
 TRIGLYCERIDE FUNCTIONS
Adipose tissues help the body to reduce heat loss, and it also absorbs physical
damage and protects organs. In marine mammals, such as whales and seals,
this layer of fat is called blubber which helps the animal to be buoyant.

For camels and desert rats, lipids are an important metabolic source of water as
they produce CO2 and H2O when oxidised in respiration.
FOOD TESTS
 QUALITATIVE BENEDICT’S TEST
❏ Benedict’s test indicates the presence of a reducing sugar. All
monosaccharides and some disaccharides (maltose) are reducing sugars
because they have a free reducing end.
❏ Reducing sugars are oxidised by Benedict’s reagent, which is copper (II)
sulphate (CuSO4) in an alkaline solution and has a blue colour.
❏ Reducing sugars reduce soluble copper (II) sulphate, containing Cu2+ ions,
to insoluble copper (I) oxide (Cu2O), containing Cu+ ions.
❏ The copper (I) oxide is seen as a brick-red precipitate.
 BENEDICT’S TEST
❏ First, 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution is added to 2cm3 of the solution to be
tested. A few drops of Benedict’s solution can be added directly into a
small slice of a solid sample to be tested.
❏ The solution is gently mixed and warmed over a Bunsen Burner.
❏ If a reducing sugar is present, the solution will change from blue to
green to yellow and finally a reddish-brown precipitate will form.
 QUANTITATIVE BENEDICT’S TEST
❏ Benedict’s test can be used to semi-quantitatively determine the
concentration of reducing sugar in a solution.
❏ Excess Benedict’s reagent is added to different solutions and the
intensity of the red colour produced is related to the concentration of
the reducing sugar.

Excess reagent is added to ensure all the sugar present is oxidised.

 QUANTITATIVE BENEDICT’S TEST
❏ Then concentration of reducing sugar can then compared to test
results from glucose solutions of known concentration.
❏ A control sample containing water as the test solution should be
included.
❏ The time taken for the colour to change can also be used to determine
the reducing sugar concentration.
❏ Alternatively, you can use a colorimeter to measure subtle differences
in colour precisely.
 FEHLING’S TEST
Fehling’s test is also used to detect monosaccharides.

❏ First, 1cm3 of Fehling’s A (a blue

solution) is added to 2cm3 of the
solution to be tested.
❏ Then, 1cm3 of Fehling’s B (a clear
solution) is added.
❏ The mixture is shaken and gently
boiled.
❏ The formation of a brick-red
precipitate indicates a positive test.

Fehling’s test can also be used to distinguish sugars with different

functional groups.
 TEST FOR NON-REDUCING SUGARS
Non-reducing sugars, such as sucrose and trehalose, do not have a free
reducing end and produce a negative result when Benedict’s solution is
directly added to it.

To test for a non-reducing sugar,

the disaccharide must first be
converted to its two
monosaccharide constituents so
that it can be detected by
Benedict’s test.
 HYDROLYSIS OF SUCROSE
❏ First 1cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) is
first added to 1cm3 of the sucrose solution.
❏ The mixture is then shaken and gently
boiled. Sucrose is hydrolysed into glucose
and fructose.
❏ Benedict’s reagent needs alkaline conditions
to work, so 1cm3 of aqueous sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) is used to neutralize the
solution. The pH of the solution can be
checked to ensure it is at 7 or above.
❏ Then, 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution is added,
mixed and warmed.
❏ A brick-red precipitate will form, indicating a
positive result.
 IODINE TEST
When iodine solution, a solution containing iodine (I2) and potassium
iodide (KI), is added to starch, a blue-black precipitate is formed.

❏ First, a few drops of iodine solution, which is initially orange-brown, is

added to 2cm3 of 1% starch solution.
❏ Then solution is then mixed thoroughly.
❏ If starch is present, a blue–black colour indicates a positive result.
 BIURET TEST
The biuret test indicates the presence of peptide bonds.

❏ First, 2cm3 of 5% potassium hydroxide (KOH) is added to 2cm3 of

the solution to be tested.
❏ The solution is then mixed gently.
❏ Next, 2 drops of 1% copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4) are added.
❏ If protein is present, a purple or violet colouration gradually
develops.
 EMULSION & GREASE SPOT TEST
The emulsion test is used to test for lipids. First, 2cm3 of
absolute ethanol is added to 2cm3 of the lipid solution.
The mixture is then shaken vigorously and 2cm3 of
water is added. A cloudy white suspension indicated a
positive test for lipids.

The grease spot test is also

used to test for lipids. A drop of
the sample is first dropped
onto a piece of paper.

A permanent translucent spot

on the paper indicates a
positive test.
FOOD TEST
 VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic, micronutrients that are
required in small amounts for healthy growth and
development.

❏ Vitamins A, D, E and K, which are fat soluble.

❏ Group B vitamins and vitamin C, which are
water soluble
SOURCES OF VITAMINS
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS
VITAMIN DEFICIENCY
VITAMIN DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS
 VITAMIN EXCESS
An excess of vitamin D causes: An excess of vitamin A causes:

❏ High levels of calcium in the blood ❏ Jaundice

❏ Kidney stones ❏ Liver damage
❏ Excessive urination ❏ Nausea
❏ Nausea ❏ Fatigue
❏ Loss of appetite ❏ Itchy skin
❏ Cracked fingernails
 MINERALS
Minerals are inorganic,
micronutrients that are required in
small amounts for healthy growth
and development.

❏ Minerals required include

calcium, iron, phosphorus,
iodine, sodium, potassium and
fluorine.
FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS
MINERAL DEFICIENCY
 EXCESS MINERALS
❏ A surplus of sodium can raise blood pressure resulting in hypertension,
cause the body to retain fluid and cause kidney damage.
❏ An excess of iron can lead to liver damage (hemochromatosis)
 WATER
Water is an inorganic compound that is essential in a balanced diet. Blood
plasma, lymph, tissue fluid and cytoplasm all contain water.

❏ Chemicals dissolve in water, making them reactive.

❏ Substances transported around the body are dissolved in water.

❏ Waste substances is dissolved in water,

allowing them to be excreted.
❏ Water is used in hydrolysis reactions.
❏ When water is evaporated, it removes heat
from the body.
 ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
The amount of energy required daily from the diet depends on a
person’s age, occupation and sex. In general, daily energy requirements:

❏ Increase as age increases up to adulthood. They then remain

constant up to old age when less energy is required daily.
❏ Increase as activity increases, e.g. a manual labourer requires more
energy than a person working in an office.
❏ Are higher in males than in females of the same age and
occupation.
❏ Increase in a female when she is pregnant or breastfeeding.
 FOOD SPOILAGE
❏ Bacteria and fungi can feed on organic material and breakdown its
nutrients in a process called decomposition.
❏ Decay in food can make it unpleasant to eat. As these microbes feed
on food, they can release toxins which can make humans ill.
 CONDITIONS FOR FOOD SPOILAGE
Different microorganisms require different conditions of temperature,
moisture, oxygen and acidity to grow well.

❏ Moisture – Water is required for chemical reactions to occur.

❏ Temperature – Microorganisms grow best at warm temperatures
(26-38ºC). High temperatures denature their enzymes, and freezing
temperatures inactivate them.
❏ Oxygen – Microorganisms that cause food to decay require oxygen, as
they respire aerobically to produce energy for growth.
 FOOD PRESERVATION
Food preservation techniques prevent the growth and development of
microorganisms.

❏ Heating – Cooking, boiling, roasting and pasteurising can kill many

microorganisms that grow on food, but it does not destroy their toxins.
❏ Refrigeration – The temperature inside a refrigerator is low enough to
slow the growth of microorganisms but not to stop it. Freezing foods stop
the growth of most microorganisms and the decay they cause.
❏ Irradiation – Exposing food to gamma rays kills microorganisms and can
be stored without refrigeration.
 FOOD PRESERVATION
❏ Drying – The removal of moisture from foods, such as fruits, vegetables,
and meats, reduces microbial growth as it stops chemical processes from
occurring.
❏ Salting – Placing a large amount of salt on food, mainly meats and fish,
removes water from it by osmosis and prevents microbial growth.
❏ Adding sugar – The addition of a high concentration of sugar on foods,
such as fruit, removes water from it and preserves the food.
 FOOD PRESERVATION
❏ Pickling – Storing food in an acidic solution, such as vinegar, reduces
spoilage as many microorganisms cannot grow in acidic conditions.
❏ Sulphur dioxide – SO2 is an antimicrobial chemical that preserves
food by preventing the growth of microbes. It also deactivates
enzymes that cause the ripening and darkening of fruits and
vegetables.
 FOOD ADDITIVES
Food additives are substances and techniques which can improve the shelf life,
or the colour and flavour of foods. Food additives usually have no nutritional
value. The shelf life is the period which foods retain an acceptable quality.

Food additives can destroy

nutrients in food. Sulphur
dioxide is used as a
preservative, but it can destroy
vitamin B1.

Artificial colours and flavouring

can have some bad effects and
allergies on some people.
FOOD ADDITIVES
FOOD ADDITIVES
FOOD ADDITIVES
 MALNUTRITION
Malnutrition is a condition caused by eating a diet in which certain
nutrients are either lacking or in the wrong proportions.

Malnutrition is the cause of many diseases like deficiency diseases, obesity,

heart diseases and anorexia.

Education on balanced diet and good health is very important in

preventing the occurrence of many diseases.
 NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY
Malnutrition includes the consumption of too little (or too much) of
certain vitamins and minerals.

Deficiency diseases such as rickets, scurvy, and anaemia are treated by:

❏ Consuming more foods that are high in the missing nutrient

❏ Taking supplements containing the missing nutrient.
 PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PED)
Kwashiorkor and marasmus are deficiency diseases caused by an inadequate
protein or energy intake, that mainly affects young children in developing
countries.

❏ Kwashiorkor is caused by a severe shortage of protein in the diet.

Symptoms include, the loss of muscle mass, oedema (swelling) of the
abdomen and legs, and changes in skin and hair pigmentation.

❏ Marasmus is caused by a severe shortage

of protein and energy rich foods
(carbohydrates) in the diet. Symptoms
include, low body weight and muscle
mass, thin face with sunken eyes, ribs
visible through the skin, dry skin and
brittle hair.
 UNDER-EATING
If too little food is eaten to meet the body’s daily energy requirements,
stored glycogen and fat are used in respiration resulting in weight loss
and insufficient energy for daily activities.

❏ Anorexia is a mental health condition where a person keeps their

body weight as low as possible by eating very little, vomiting, using
laxatives and exercising excessively.
❏ Bulimia is an eating disorder and mental health condition where a
person tries to control their weight by repeating a cycle of binge
eating followed by purging. They large quantities of food very quickly
and then induces vomiting or takes laxatives to get rid of the food.
 OVER-EATING
If too much food is eaten, the excess is converted to fat and stored in fat
deposits under the skin and around organs.

Obesity is characterised by an excessive accumulation and storage of fat in

the body. It generally results from the excessive consumption of foods high
in sugar and fat, and a lack of physical activity.

Obesity increases the risk of

hypertension, heart disease, stroke,
diabetes, osteoarthritis and some
cancers

Over-eating can be prevented by

eating sensibly and engaging in
regular aerobic exercise.
 BMI
❏ Body mass index can be used as an indicator of body fat.
❏ It compares the mass of a person to their height.
❏ The BMI of a person is calculated at kg per m2.
DIFFERENT EATING HABITS
❏ Vegetarianism is the practice of not eating the
flesh of any animal, e.g. meat, fish, poultry.
❏ Veganism is the practice of not consume any
foods of animal origin (milk, eggs, cheese).
❏ Vegans and vegetarians carefully plan their diet
to ensure that it is balanced.
 HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
Mammals, including humans, exhibit a type of heterotrophic nutrition called
holozoic nutrition. This includes:

❏ Ingestion – Food is taken into the body via the mouth.

❏ Digestion – The physical and chemical breakdown of large food
molecules into smaller, soluble molecules.
❏ Absorption – The movement of soluble food molecules (glucose, amino
acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins, minerals, and water) into the blood
and lymph.
❏ Assimilation – Soluble food molecules are used by the body cells for
respiration, growth, and development.

❏ Egestion (defaecation) - The removal of undigested food from the body.

The alimentary canal is a
long tube (8 - 9m)
connecting the mouth to the
anus.

Different regions of the canal

are adapted to perform
different functions.

The alimentary canal and its

associated organs make up
the digestive system
 DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
Chemical digestion involves
enzymes.

There are three categories of

digestive enzymes and several
different enzymes may belong to
each category.

❏ Carbohydrases - Polysaccharides
and disaccharides
❏ Proteases - Proteins
❏ Lipases - Lipids
 DIGESTION BEGINS IN THE MOUTH
Food enters the body through the mouth, where it is physically and chemically
digested. Mechanical digestion involves breaking up large pieces of food into
smaller pieces. This is important as:
❏ The pieces of food have a larger
surface area for enzymes to work
on more efficiently.
❏ The food easier to swallow.
 MASTICATION
Food is chewed with teeth and mixed with the tongue. Incisors, canines,
premolars and molars are 4 types of human teeth.

Infants have 20 milk teeth with begin to fall out at 6 years.

❏ 8 incisors
❏ 4 canines
❏ 8 molars
Adults have 32 permanent teeth as
they replace 20 milk teeth and develop
an additional 12.

❏ 8 incisors
❏ 4 canines
❏ 8 premolars
❏ 12 molars
 TYPES OF TEETH
A tooth is divided into two parts:

❏ The crown, the part above the jaw

❏ The root, the part embedded in the jawbone.

The internal structure of all teeth is similar.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH
 TOOTH DECAY
Eating food with high sugar, starch or acid content can result in tooth decay.
Bacteria in our mouth turn the sugar into acids which break down the enamel
of our teeth. As acid accumulates, the pH of teeth decreases.

Tooth decay may also be a result from poor oral hygiene, a lack of fluoride,
grinding teeth and smoking.
 TOOTH DECAY
❏ When bacteria, saliva and food is mixed in the surface of teeth and gums, it
forms plaque. Bacteria in plaque produces acids and toxins which dissolves
the enamel and dentine, forming a cavity in the tooth.
❏ Tooth decay (dental caries), if left untreated, can spread through the pulp
and the root. This causes inflammation or swelling of the gum, which
causes extreme pain.
TOOTH CARE
TOOTH CARE
 THE MOUTH
❏ Carbohydrates are first broken down in the mouth.
❏ Salivary glands secrete saliva which moistens the food and makes it easier
to swallow. Saliva also contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which breaks
down starch into maltose.
❏ The optimum pH of salivary amylase is 7, the optimum temperature is
between 32 - 37°C.
❏ The tongue rolls the food into a bolus, which is then swallowed.
 THE OESOPHAGUS
❏ The food enters the oesophagus which is a muscular tube that leads
to the stomach.
❏ Digestion of starch by salivary amylase continues in the oesophagus.
❏ Food is moved through the oesophagus and the rest of the
alimentary canal by a process known as peristalsis.
 THE STOMACH
In the stomach, gastric glands secrete gastric juice, which consists of
mucus, hydrochloric acid (HCl) and pepsin.

When food is mixed with gastric juice, it is called chyme.

Mechanical digestion occurs in the

stomach in the process of churning,
where the stomach lining contracts and
mixes the food with gastric juice.

Hydrochloric acid in the stomach is also

called gastric acid.
 THE STOMACH
Gastric acid has a pH of 2. Salivary amylase and proteins in food are denatured,
while bacteria and germs killed.

Pepsin is a protease, activated in acidic conditions, that breaks down proteins

into shorter polypeptides. Mucus protects the stomach walls from HCl.

The stomachs of young mammals

produce the enzyme rennin, which
curdles milk.
THE STOMACH
Food is digested within the stomach
for 3 - 4 hours, and leaves in small
quantities at regular intervals.

This ensures that the food can be

completely digested by the enzymes
in the intestines.

The acidic chyme then enters the first

part of the small intestine, called the
duodenum.
 THE DUODENUM
❏ Bile, which is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, is
passed into the duodenum.
Bile emulsifies lipids, increasing
its surface area for lipases to
work on.
 THE DUODENUM
Pancreatic juice is secreted from the pancreas and contains many enzymes.

❏ Pancreatic amylase digests starch into maltose .

❏ Lipase digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
❏ Trypsin is a protease, breaking down polypeptides into short peptides.

Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) neutralises the hydrochloric acid. This

increases to pH 7–8, which is optimum for pancreatic enzymes.
 THE DUODENUM
❏ The intestines secrete intestinal juice, containing maltase, peptidase,
lipase, sucrase and several other enzymes.
❏ Intestinal enzymes have a slightly alkaline optimal pH.
❏ Food is completely digested in the duodenum.
FOOD DIGESTION
 THE JEJUNUM AND ILEUM
The absorption of water and nutrient occur in the jejunum and ileum.

The small intestine is folded with finger-like projections called villi, which
increases the surface area for adsorption.
 VILLI
❏ The epithelium of each villus is one cell thick

❏ Each villus has tiny projections called microvilli.

❏ Close association with capillaries allows for water-soluble substances
(monosaccharides, amino acids, minerals, vitamins B and C, and some
water) to be absorbed into the blood.
❏ Villi are also in close contact with lacteals, allowing the absorption of
lipid-soluble substances (fatty acids, glycerol, and vitamins A and D)
into the lymph.

❏ Villi epithelium contains carrier proteins, which facilitate the transport

of digested materials.

❏ Villi epithelium may also contain embedded enzymes, as well as

glands that secrete mucus and digestive enzymes.
 ABSORPTION
❏ Mineral salts, glucose, and amino acids are actively transported into
the blood.
❏ Fatty acids and glycerol diffuse into lacteals.
❏ Water is absorbed into the bloodstream by osmosis.
❏ The remaining food then enters the large intestine.
 ASSIMILATION
Assimilation is the process of
incorporating and making use of
the digested food into the body.

Many digested foods are first

carried to the liver by the hepatic
portal vein.
ASSIMILATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES
Monosaccharides are taken to the liver, where any non-glucose
monosaccharides (fructose, galactose) are converted to glucose.
Glucose then enters the general circulation where:

● It is used in respiration.
● Excess amounts are converted into glycogen and stored in the
liver and muscle cells.
● Excess amounts are converted to fat and stored under the skin
or around organs. Fat is stored in adipose tissue.
 ASSIMILATION OF AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids are taken to the liver and then to the rest of the body
where:

● They are used by the body cells to make proteins for growth and
repair.
● They are used to make antibodies, enzymes, and hormones.
● Excess amounts are deaminated (NH2 removed) in the liver and
converted to urea (CO(NH2)2). The urea enters the blood and is
excreted by the kidneys.
● Amino acids can also be converted to glucose which is used in
respiration, or converted to glycogen or fat and stored.
 ASSIMILATION OF FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acids are carried by the lymph to the blood.

● Excess is converted to fat and stored in adipose tissue under the

skin and around organs.
● They are used to form new membranes (phospholipids) in cells
and organelles.
● They are used for respiration in some circumstances.
 THE LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine (colon) reabsorbs water (and mineral salts) from the
undigested food, minimizing the body’s water loss. Undigested material moves
along the colon by peristalsis.
Waste is stored in the rectum before it is
eliminated from the body through the anus.
The elimination of undigested material is
called egestion.
 CONSTIPATION AND DIARRHOEA
❏ Constipation is a condition of the bowels in which the faeces are dry
and hard, difficult to pass, and passed infrequently.
❏ Diarrhoea is a condition in which faeces are passed frequently and in a
liquid form. It is usually a symptom of gastroenteritis.
CONSTIPATION VS DIARRHOEA
THE END : )