System Development Life

Cycle
UNIT 5 SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
LIFE CYCLE
Objectives
After going 'through this unit, you should be able to :
• a understand the mechanism involved in the system development life, cycle,
• differentiate between various stages of system analysis and, design,
• appreciate the efforts involved in and criticality of each stage,
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Models of Information Systems
5.3 System Development Life Cycle
5.4 Problem Definition
5.5 Feasibility Study
5.6 System Analysis
5.7 System Design
5.8 System Development
5.9 System Implementation
5.10 Post-Implementation Maintenance & Review
5.11 Project Team Constitution
5.12 Effort Distribution in System Development Life Cycle
5.13 Summary
5.14 Self-assessment Exercises
5.15 Further Readings

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Regardl6cs of where the data or information processing system has been
implemented, what functional area it addresses, what level of management it caters to
irhd who has designed, developed and implemented it, the growth of an information
system passes through various identifiable stages and all these stages, put together are
referred to as the System Development, Life Cycle,
The system size, complexity and coverage do not affect these stages. Any system
designed for processing of information revolves around a life cycle that begins with
the recognition of the problem and ends up with development and implementation of
the system.
To appreciate the stages involved in design and development of an information
system and the efforts required to build up these systems, it is a must that managers
should be familiar with the distinct stages of this cycle, The present study unit
discusses these steps and related issues.

5.2 MODELS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

The information systems are considered to be evolved through three different levels
of systems. These are

a) Conceptual System : Every information processing system is evolved by

way of a concept when somebody imagines that the organisation should have
such and such a system to accomplish such and such an objective. A system
so conceived mayor may not be attained in reality. A conceptual model is no
more than an idea.

b) Logical System : When the conceived system model is further worked out to
design new ways to accomplish the objective set out in the conceptual 15
system, it becomes the logical system design. A logical system design
necessarily includes understanding of the flow of information, logic Of
System Development processing and input-output relationships. The D a t a Flow Diagrams, Flow
Charts etc. are the basic components of the logical models.

c) Pbysleal Systems : When the logical models are developed to actually deliver
the desired results, it is referred to as a physical system model. The physical
system -model can be tested and implemented. It consists of the programs, data
files and documentation.

5.3 SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

System development is an iterative process and it consists of the following identifiable
stages :

a) Problem Definition

b) Feasibility Study

c) System Analysis

d) System Design -

e) System Development

f) Implementation

g) Post-implementation Maintenance & Review

In practice, these steps may or may not be clearly defined in a given system, and there is
a possibility of an overlap of these stages. It is quite likely that while the system analyst is
working on a particular stage,, he is also considering possible solutions related to the next
phase. There is always a possibility of coming back from an advanced stage' to revise or
review the decisions taken in the earlier phases.

Errors are costly in system analysis and design. But these become more and more
costly as you keep going from an earlier stage ;to an advanced stage. It could be seen
from Figure 5.1. The cost of fixing an error detected in the earlier stages is lesser as
compared to the same detected at a later date. The simple reason for this is that an early
detection of error will necessitate revision of fewer decisions whereas a late detection
of an error will require revision of all the steps taken so far. So utmost care is necessary
on part of the system designers, while going through various stages.

16
 System Development Life
Every stage of the system development life cycle is marked by an identifiable end- Cycle
result as well as sub.activities..These stages and the various 'activitie s involved ' are
given in Table 1.

5.4 PROBLEM DEFINITION

Organisations face problems during their operations and come across opportunities
which could be converted into profitable solutions. Whenever there is an opportunity
and/or problem iii the existing system or when a system is being developed for the
first time? the organisation considers designing a new system for information
processing.
The organisation may face a problem or get an opportunity due to :
--- a new product/plant/branch/market/process
--- a failure of. an existing system
--- Inefficiency of an existing system
--- programming errors in the existing system
and therefore, a thorough analysis of the situation is required.
For identifying problems and/or opportunities, we scan: the performance of the
system
--- the information being supplied and, its form ,
--- the economy of processing
--- the control on the information processing
--- the efficiency of the existing system
--- the security of the data, software, equipment, personnel etc.
After identifying the problem, it is defined and a general direction for solving this
problem is also determined. The project boundaries are also defined, The
management also establishes the terms of reference as well as the resources to be
provided for the project.

Final output of this stage is Terms of Reference.

5.5 FEASIBILITY STUDY

After the user has identified the need for a new system, his requirements are 17
determined and the terms of reference are established. The proposed system has to
be viewed from the practical utility and acceptability dimension. A few questions
System Development which are usually asked during this stage are:
a) is the proposed system worth developing?
b) Will the proposd system contribute by way of improved efficiency,
productivity or organisational effcetiveness?
c) Will the system' improve information availability and be cost-effective?
d) What will be the system development costs and will these be justifiable?
e) How will the user departments take this system and what will be the overall
impact of this system on the organisation?
The key considerations involved in the feasibility analysis are :
--- Economic
--- Technical
--- Behavioural
The economic feasibility will only consider the cost/benefit analysis of the proposed
project. The benefits are always expected to be overweighing the costs.
The technical feasibility always focuses on the existing computer hardware and
software. This also includes the need for more hardware or software and the
possibility of procuring/installing such facility.
The behavioural feasibility includes a study of the organisational behaviour. An
estimate of how strong the user reaction will be to the new system, will have to be
made at this stage.
The final output of this step is a Feasibility Report having discussions on Financial
Feasibility, Economic Viability, Technical Feasibility and Social Acceptability of the
proposed system.

5.6 SYSTEM ANALYSIS

The system analysis includes review of the existing procedures and information flow.
Decision making and individual information needs at various levels in different
functional areas are also reviewed. The system analysis phase primarily focuses on
isolation of deficiencies from the existing system:

The fundamental activities involved in the system analysis are :

--- definition of the overall system
--- separation of the system into smaller and manageable parts
--- understanding the nature, function and interrelationships of various
subsystems.
The analysis of the information systems could be done with the help of various tools
of system analysis. Some of the tools which are available with the system analysts-are :

Review of Documentation : Documentation on the existing system could be' reviewed

and analysed to study the objectives, reports, procedures being followed and
equipment being used. The only limitation with this technique is that the
documentation on any existing system is never complete and up-to-date,

Observation of the Situation : The system under study can always be observed by
getting involved in the system. The system analyst can work in the system or can be a
mere observer. The exercise is time consuming and costly. Also it has an inherent
limitation of the fact that the analyst may never be able to observe the intricacies of
the system.

Conducting Interviews The system analyst can conduct interviews with the user
managers and ask questions related to their job responsibilities. The interviews could
be formal or informal ones and may span over a period of time. The limitation of this
tool is that the user manager may not be able to explain the problem in detail.
Questionnaire Administration: A printed structured or unstructured questionnaire
18 may be administered to find out the_, information needs of individual managers. The
 System Development Life
questionnaire survey does help In,sttving time os compared to interviews as well as Cycle
gets more committed data, but It is impossible to Osign an exhaustive questionnaire to
cover varfuus aspects of the system under study.
The analysts use a'combination of all these tools to analyse an existing system. The
analysis phase is a time consuming phase and yet a very crucial phase. The final
output of this phase i s ' a functional specification report of the existing system.

5.7 SYSTEM DESIGN

If the system analysts phase defines the way things are, the system development phase
defines the way things should be for the same problem:
The system development phase includes mapping of the business requirements of the
managers on to the proposed system. The conceptual design of the model which has
been developed in the problem definition stage is enlarged to understand the actual
flow of data and the logical model is developed. The logical model is worked out to
finally develop and test the physical system, in the system development phase,
The system design should be as hardware and software environment independent as
possible. The system development team should always keep in mind the , cost-
effectiveness. This phase includes development of the following :
• O u t p u t Definitions
• Input Definitions
• Data Element Dictionary a Programme Specifications
• Systertt Specifications
During the s y s t e m development, the analysts also undertake the codifircation
and compression of the data to:
− use lesser magnetic storage space
− commit lesser mistakes while entering data
− maintain uniformity of data
− locos lesser cost in entering, updating, processing and storage of data.
Output Definitions : Are there detailed reports, screen and file layouts which w i l l be
outputted.by the programs throughout the system? The system analyst is required to
consult tits user in finalising the system outputs.
Input Definitions : The data coming into the system has to come through some input
formats and these formats are defined by the design of input documents.
Data Element Dictionary : A. document which contains bonafide details of each and
every data item used in the system is called a data dictionary. The data dictionary
contains the following details regarding the data items
Name
Description Source
Usage
Maintenance Storage
Organisation

Programme Specifications : The actual logic built up for individual programmes is

defined in the Programme specifications by way of decision tables, decision trees and
program flow charts. The program flow chants could be drawn for individual
programmes or parts of the programmes. These tools are necessarily used for storing
the logic of processing in individual programmes for future reference. The logic could
also he stored by using English language which is also referred to as pseudo code.

System Specifications : The-system specifictations include description of the

relationships of various modules of the system among each other and relationships 19
between different programmes within a subsystem Though the system specifications
System Development do not give the details of logic being followed, it gives the flow of processing among
the programmes. files and reports, Apart from using descriptive English, the system
developers also use System Flow Gharts for depicting system specifications. The end
result of this phase is a design. specification report which includes the existing system.
the proposed system, system flow charts, modular design of the system, print layout
charts, data file designs etc.
5.8 SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
Following the modular design of the proposed system, the system analysts assign
specific responsibilities to the programmers who develop and test the programmes.
The development and testing of the systems take place in a phased manner :
• Development and testing of the individual programmes
• Development and testing of the individual programmes as a part of the
system modules
• Development and testing of the system modules as a part of the major
subsystems
• Development and}testing of the major subsystems as a part of the' proposed
system
The development of the system includes writing of the actual programmes to handle
data. Excellent programming skills and experience are required for this phase of the
system development life cycle. The basic activities involved in this phase are :
− Checking of the programme specifications received from the system
development stage and expanding these specifications
− Breaking the system modules into smaller programmes and allocating these
programmes to the members of the system development team
-- Producing the programme code in the chosen computer programming
language
-- Defining the interfaces. between various programmes and designing tests for
checking their interfaces
-- Ensuring the data availability for individual and integrated testing
-- Checking the quality of the code and its adherence to the established
standards
− Prepare the documentation for each one of the programmes
-- Receiving the user data for a,pceptance testing
-- Getting the user sign-off after the acceptance testing
For development of the proposed system, it is important that all possible support
should be provided to the development team. This support includes availability of :\
• Office Space,
• Relevant Data
• Secretarial Assistance
• Access to key functionaries throughout the system development effort.
The final output of this phase is a fully developed and tested software system along
with complete documentation and testing results.

5.9 SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION

Once the system has been declared fully developed and tested by the development
team, it is ready for implementation with the user department. The involvement of the
user is necessary throughout the project duration, but the user involvement is critical
during this phase.
The implementation includes the following activities :
• Planning for implementation
• Preparing the schedule for implementation
• Procurement of hardware
20 • Installation of software
 System Development Life
• Operation and testing of software on hardware Cycle

• Recruitment of operating personnel

• Motivation and training of the selected personnel and users

• Conversion of data files from old system

• Final changeover

• Operation and production

Once the system has been implemented, the systems group provides outside support to the
user group and trains the user group to handle production and operations of the system.

5.10 POST-IMPLEMENTATION MAINTENANCE &

REVIEW
Though the system is thoroughly tested before the implementation, yet the system is,
never foolproof and errors always continue to exist. Therefore, there is a need to
have a systems person to look after the system and maintain it even during the
operation and production. The system maintenance could be because of any of the
following reasons :
--- Minor changes in the processing logic
--- Errors detected during the .processing
--- Revision of the formats of the reports
--- Revision of the formats for data inputs
Also the management is keen to know the quality of the 'system developed and the
standards which have been followed, There is usually a review team which evaluates
the implemented systems and suggests changes, if required. It also leads to integrated
and standardised system development, .

5.11 PF.JECT TEAM CONSTITUTION

For undertaking a study and design of a commercial information processing system,
a project team is constituted. The members of this team are drawn from various
functional,areas and professional backgrounds. This team is usually of 7-11
member size. Each member is assigned specific responsibilities with scheduled
deadlines for each job. The involvement and representation of the user departments
and affected parties is ensured while constituting such project teams. Normally
organisations face a dilemma about choosing a project leader. The choice is
between the user group or the systems group. Depending upon the availability,
experience and type of project, the leader is chosen. It is in the interest of the
proposed system that all the members of the project team should have sufficient time
at their disposal and take keen interest in the progress of the project.

5.12 EFFORT DISTRIBUTION IN SYSTEM

DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
The distribution of the organisational efforts over various phases of the system
development life cycle can be seen from Figure 5.2. It can be seen that over the life
cycle, almost half the efforts are devoted to maintenance after implementation and
half the efforts in the system. development itself are devoted to, the testing and
debugging activities. This once again underlines the need for a thorough testing and
debugging of the information system before it is implemented. 21
System Development

5.13 SUMMARY
Every system either developed as an improvement over the existing system or
developed for the first time has to undergo various identifiable stages. The unit has
discussed these stages as problem definition, feasibility study, system analysis.
system design, system development, implementation and maintenance. The birth era
system takes place when the conceptual model is developed by way of expressing a
need. This need is converted into a logic for fulfilling of this need, It ultimately gets
converted into data files, programmes and documentation at the stage of physical
model. The total development cycle needs more than one full-time individual.
Generally a project team consists qf members from user group as well as systems
group.

5.14 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

1) What are the various outputs of each stage of the system development life
cycle?
2) "Analysis is the what of the system, whereas design is the how of the
system." Comment.
3) What are the various stages of a system development life cycle and how are
the efforts distributed over these phases?
4) What are the various system analysis tools and why do we need more than
one tool at a time?
5) What do you understand by conceptual, logical and physical models of a
system?
6) Discuss the various steps involved in programming.

5.15 FURTHER I ADINGS

Awad, Elias M.. 1990. Systems Analysis and Design, (2nd Edition), Richard (I)
Irwin Inc.
Daniels, Alan and Don Yeates, 1986. Basic Systems Analysis (2nd Edition), Pitman
Publishing Limited; London:
Gane, Chris and Trish Sarson, 1979. Structured System Analysis: Tools and
Techniques, Improved System Technologies Inc.
22 Gore, Marvin R. and John Stubbe, 1979. Computers and Data Processing, McGraw
Hill Inc.: New York.