1.

Crystal Structure

• Metals are mostly crystalline solids → atoms are arranged in repeating

patterns (unit cells).
• Common metallic crystal structures:
1. Body-Centered Cubic (BCC): Fe (α), Cr, Mo, W
▪ Coordination number = 8, packing efficiency = 68%
▪ Properties: Strong, less ductile, higher DBTT.
2. Face-Centered Cubic (FCC): Al, Cu, Ni, Fe (γ)
▪ Coordination number = 12, packing efficiency = 74%
▪ Properties: Ductile, good formability, no DBTT.
3. Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP): Mg, Zn, Ti, Co
▪ Coordination number = 12, packing efficiency = 74%
▪ Properties: Strong but limited slip → less ductile than FCC.

2. Miller Indices

• A system to represent crystallographic planes and directions.

• Steps to find Miller indices for planes (hkl):
1. Determine intercepts of the plane with crystallographic axes.
2. Take reciprocals of intercepts.
3. Clear fractions → integers.
4. Represent as (hkl).

Examples:

• In cubic crystals:
o (100) → plane cuts x-axis at a, parallel to y & z.
o (111) → cuts x, y, z axes equally.
• In HCP crystals:
o Four-index system (h k i l) is used due to hexagonal symmetry.
o Relation: i=−(h+k)i = -(h+k)i=−(h+k).

3. Crystal Imperfections and Their Effects

1. Point Defects
o Vacancies, interstitials, substitutional atoms.
o Effect: Influence diffusion, electrical conductivity, and strength.
2. Line Defects (Dislocations)
o Edge dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms).
o Screw dislocation (shearing of planes).
o Effect: Dislocations enable plastic deformation; more dislocations →
easier deformation.
3. Surface Defects
o Grain boundaries, twin boundaries, stacking faults.
o Effect: Grain boundaries hinder dislocation motion → fine grains
increase strength (Hall-Petch relation).
 4. Volume Defects
o Pores, cracks, inclusions.
o Effect: Reduce strength, toughness.

4. Plastic Deformation

(a) In Single Crystals

• Deformation occurs by slip along slip systems (combination of slip plane +

slip direction).
• Slip plane: Densest atomic plane.
• Slip direction: Closest-packed direction.
• Examples:
o FCC: 12 slip systems (very ductile).
o BCC: Many slip systems but not closely packed → needs higher stress.
o HCP: Few slip systems (limited ductility).

(b) In Polycrystalline Materials

• Each grain deforms by slip, but orientation differs.

• Grain boundaries block dislocation movement → strengthening.
• Result:
o Polycrystals are usually stronger than single crystals.
o Fine-grained polycrystals are stronger (Hall-Petch effect).

Materials

1. Plain Carbon Steels

• Composition: Mainly iron and carbon (up to 2%). Small amounts of Mn, Si, S,
P.
• Classification (based on carbon content):
o Low carbon steel (up to 0.3% C): Ductile, tough, easily weldable. →
Used in sheets, pipes, automobile bodies.
o Medium carbon steel (0.3–0.6% C): Stronger but less ductile. → Used in
rails, axles, gears, shafts.
o High carbon steel (0.6–1.5% C): Hard and brittle, high wear resistance.
→ Used in springs, cutting tools, blades.
• Properties: Strength and hardness increase with carbon %, while ductility and
weldability decrease.
• Uses: Structural purposes, machinery parts, tools, rails, wires.
2. Effect of Alloying Elements in Steel

• Mn (Manganese) → Increases toughness, wear resistance, hardenability.

• Cr (Chromium) → Improves hardness, wear and corrosion resistance.
• Ni (Nickel) → Increases toughness, impact strength, corrosion resistance.
• Mo (Molybdenum) → Improves creep resistance, toughness, and high-
temperature strength.
• V (Vanadium) → Refines grain size, increases hardness and fatigue resistance.
• W (Tungsten) → High hardness and hot strength (important for tool steels).
• Si (Silicon) → Improves strength and magnetic properties.

3. Tool Steels

• Definition: Special steels used to make cutting, forming, and shaping tools.
• Composition: High C (0.5–1.5%) + alloying elements (W, Mo, Cr, V).
• Properties: High hardness, wear resistance, ability to retain cutting edge at
high temperatures (red hardness).
• Uses: Cutting tools, dies, drills, milling cutters, knives.

4. Stainless Steels

• Composition: Fe–C alloy with ≥ 10.5% Cr, sometimes Ni, Mo, etc.
• Types:
o Martensitic → Hard, wear resistant (cutlery, surgical instruments).
o Ferritic → Magnetic, corrosion resistant (automobile parts,
kitchenware).
o Austenitic → Non-magnetic, excellent corrosion resistance (food
industry, chemical plants).
• Properties: High corrosion resistance, strength, ductility, toughness.
• Uses: Kitchen utensils, medical instruments, chemical equipment, construction.

5. Wear Resisting Steels

• Composition: High carbon + alloying elements (Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo).

• Properties: High hardness, abrasion resistance, long service life.
• Examples:
o Hadfield Steel (Mn ~12%) → Excellent toughness and wear resistance.
o High-chromium steels → Used for mining and crushing equipment.
• Uses: Railway tracks, earth-moving machinery, rock crushers.

Non-Ferrous Alloys

1. Aluminum Alloys

• Composition: Al with Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn.

• Properties: Lightweight, corrosion resistant, good thermal/electrical
conductivity, easily formable.
 • Uses: Aircraft, automobile parts, kitchen utensils, packaging foils.

2. Copper Alloys

• Brass (Cu + Zn) → Corrosion resistant, ductile, good strength. Used in pipes,
fittings, musical instruments.
• Bronze (Cu + Sn) → High strength, corrosion resistant. Used in bearings,
gears, statues.
• Properties: High electrical and thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance.
• Uses: Electrical wires, heat exchangers, plumbing.

3. Zinc Alloys

• Composition: Zn with Al, Cu, Mg.

• Properties: Low melting point, corrosion resistant, good castability.
• Uses: Die-casting, galvanizing steel, automobile carburetors, toys.

Corrosion

1. Types of Corrosion

• Uniform corrosion → Even attack over the surface.

• Galvanic corrosion → Between two dissimilar metals in contact in an
electrolyte.
• Pitting corrosion → Localized small holes or pits.
• Stress corrosion cracking → Due to tensile stress + corrosive medium.
• Intergranular corrosion → Along grain boundaries.

2. Galvanic Cell & Rusting of Iron

• Galvanic cell principle: When two dissimilar metals are in contact in an

electrolyte, the more active one (anode) corrodes, while the noble one
(cathode) is protected.
• Rusting of iron:
o Fe → Fe²⁺ (at anodic spots).
o O₂ + H₂O → OH⁻ ions (at cathodic spots).
o Fe²⁺ + OH⁻ → Fe(OH)₂ → Fe₂O₃·xH₂O (hydrated ferric oxide = rust).

3. Methods of Protection from Corrosion

• Barrier protection: Painting, coating with oil/grease, plastic, enameling.

• Galvanization: Coating iron/steel with Zn.
• Cathodic protection: Making iron act as cathode by attaching sacrificial anode
(Zn, Mg).
• Alloying: Using stainless steel, non-ferrous alloys.
• Electroplating/Anodizing: Depositing protective layers.
• Corrosion inhibitors: Chemicals added to slow down reaction.
Solidification

1. Phases in Metal System

• Phase: A region with uniform physical and chemical properties (e.g., solid,
liquid, gas, or solid phases like ferrite, austenite).
• Metals and alloys can exist in different phases depending on temperature and
composition.
• Single-phase system: Only one solid solution (e.g., pure Cu).
• Multi-phase system: Mixture of phases (e.g., ferrite + cementite in steel).

2. Lever Rule

• A graphical tool used in phase diagrams to find the fraction of phases present.
• Formula (binary system):
o Fraction of phase α = Cβ−C0Cβ−Cα\frac{C_β - C_0}{C_β - C_α}Cβ
−CαCβ−C0
o Fraction of phase β = C0−CαCβ−Cα\frac{C_0 - C_α}{C_β - C_α}Cβ
−CαC0−Cα
Where:
o C0C_0C0 = overall composition
o Cα,CβC_α, C_βCα,Cβ = phase boundary compositions

3. Solidification of Metals and Alloys

• Pure Metal: Solidifies at a fixed temperature → forms crystals (dendritic

growth is common).
• Alloys: Solidify over a range of temperatures.
o Nucleation: Small solid particles form.
o Growth: Solid phase expands, forming dendrites.
o Segregation: Variation in composition between dendrite core and outer
regions.

4. Solid Solutions

• Substitutional solid solution: Solute atoms replace solvent atoms (e.g., Cu-
Ni).
• Interstitial solid solution: Small atoms occupy interstitial sites (e.g., C in Fe).
• Strengthens materials by hindering dislocation motion.

5. Eutectic Reaction

• Reaction:
L→α+βL \rightarrow \alpha + \betaL→α+β
o Liquid transforms into two solid phases at eutectic temperature.
o Example: Pb-Sn solder (183°C).
6. Eutectoid Reaction

• Reaction:
γ→α+β\gamma \rightarrow \alpha + \betaγ→α+β
o One solid phase transforms into two others.
o Example: Austenite → Ferrite + Cementite (pearlite) at 727°C in Fe-C
system.

7. Intermetallic Compounds

• Compounds with fixed stoichiometry and ordered crystal structures.

• Strong, hard, but brittle (e.g., Fe₃C, Ni₃Al).

Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

• Key Phases:
o Ferrite (α): Soft, ductile (BCC).
o Austenite (γ): Non-magnetic, ductile (FCC).
o Cementite (Fe₃C): Hard, brittle.
o Pearlite: Alternating ferrite + cementite (lamellar).
• Critical Points:
o Eutectoid point: 0.8% C, 727°C → Pearlite formation.
o Hypoeutectoid steel (<0.8% C): Ferrite + Pearlite.
o Hypereutectoid steel (>0.8% C): Pearlite + Cementite.

TTT (Time-Temperature-Transformation) Diagram

• Shows isothermal transformation of austenite.

• Curves: C-shaped → nose region = fastest transformation.
• Microstructures:
o Bainite: Fine, needle-like, strong.
o Martensite: Supersaturated solid solution (very hard, brittle).
o Pearlite: Lamellar, moderate strength and ductility.

Heat Treatment

Ferrous Materials (Steels)

• Annealing: Softening, improves ductility.

• Normalizing: Refines grains, improves toughness.
• Hardening: Austenitize + rapid quench → martensite.
• Tempering: Reduces brittleness of martensite.
Non-Ferrous Materials

• Solution Treatment: Dissolve alloying elements at high T.

• Age Hardening (Precipitation Hardening): Fine precipitates strengthen alloy
(Al-Cu, Mg alloys).

Case Hardening (Surface Hardening)

• Carburizing: Adding C to surface.

• Nitriding: Adding N.
• Induction/Flame Hardening: Local heating + quenching.

Strengthening Mechanisms

1. Grain Refinement (Hall-Petch): Small grains → stronger.

2. Solid Solution Strengthening: Solute atoms hinder dislocations.
3. Work Hardening (Strain Hardening): Cold working increases dislocation
density.
4. Precipitation Hardening: Fine precipitates block dislocations.
5. Dispersion Strengthening: Hard particles dispersed in matrix.
6. Transformation Hardening: Martensitic transformation.

Fracture of Metals and Alloys

1. Types of Fracture

• Ductile Fracture
o Occurs after significant plastic deformation.
o Characterized by necking and cup-and-cone fracture surface.
o Energy-absorbing (tough).
o Common in mild steel, aluminum.
• Brittle Fracture
o Occurs suddenly with little or no plastic deformation.
o Fracture surface is flat and shiny, often with cleavage facets.
o Propagates rapidly → catastrophic.
o Common in cast iron, ceramics, high-strength steels at low temperature.
• Fatigue Fracture
o Due to repeated cyclic stresses below ultimate tensile strength (UTS).
o Fracture progresses in three stages:
1. Crack initiation.
2. Crack propagation.
3. Sudden failure.
o Characterized by beach marks / striations on fracture surface.
o Example: failure of aircraft wings, shafts, turbine blades.
• Creep Fracture
o Occurs under prolonged stress at high temperature.
o Material deforms slowly → finally ruptures.
2. Effect of Alloying Elements on Fracture

• Nickel (Ni): Improves toughness and ductility.

• Chromium (Cr): Increases hardness and strength, may promote brittleness if
excessive.
• Molybdenum (Mo): Improves creep and fatigue resistance.
• Carbon (C): Increases strength but decreases toughness (more brittle).
• Vanadium (V), Titanium (Ti): Refine grains, improving fracture resistance.

3. Design Considerations Against Fracture

• Avoid sharp corners → reduce stress concentration.

• Use fillets and smooth surface finish.
• Choose material with sufficient fracture toughness (K_IC).
• Provide safety factor against fatigue (design for endurance limit).
• Consider operating temperature (ductile-to-brittle transition in BCC metals).

Creep

1. Definition

• Creep = Slow, time-dependent plastic deformation under constant stress,

usually at high temperature (≥ 0.4 Tm, where Tm is melting point in K).
• Important in turbines, boilers, jet engines, nuclear reactors.

2. Creep Curve

Creep strain vs. time curve has three stages:

1. Primary Creep (Transient): Decreasing creep rate due to strain hardening.

2. Secondary Creep (Steady-State): Constant creep rate → design is based on
this stage.
3. Tertiary Creep: Accelerated creep → leads to rupture.

3. Effect of Material Variables on Creep

• Temperature: Higher T → faster creep.

• Stress: Higher stress → higher creep rate.
• Grain size: Large grains resist creep (grain boundary sliding reduced).
• Alloying: Elements like Mo, W, V improve creep strength (high-temp
stability).
• Heat treatment: Precipitation hardening and dispersion strengthening improve
creep resistance.
4. Material Selection for High and Low Temperature

• High-Temperature Service (Creep Resistance):

o Use materials with high melting point and stable microstructure.
o Examples: Ni-based superalloys, stainless steels, Mo and W alloys.
• Low-Temperature Service (Avoid Brittle Failure):
o Materials should have low ductile-to-brittle transition temperature
(DBTT).
o FCC metals (Al, Cu, Ni) are preferred since they remain ductile at low
T.
o Avoid BCC metals (like ferritic steels) which become brittle at low T.

5. Brittle Failure at Low Temperature

• Many BCC metals and alloys (e.g., carbon steels) undergo ductile-to-brittle
transition.
• At low temperature:
o Impact energy decreases.
o Fracture mode shifts from ductile (shear) to brittle (cleavage).
• Avoided by using FCC metals or adding alloying elements (Ni improves
toughness at low T).

Composite Materials

Definition

• Composite = A material made by combining two or more distinct materials

(matrix + reinforcement) to obtain superior properties that are not possible with
individual components.
• Matrix phase → binds, protects reinforcement, transfers load.
• Reinforcement phase → provides strength, stiffness, and other functional
properties

Classification of Composites (Based on Reinforcement Form)

1. Particle-Reinforced Composites
o Reinforcement: small particles (dispersed or large).
o Examples: Concrete (cement + sand + gravel), Sintered carbides (WC-
Co).
o Characteristics:
▪ Improved hardness, wear resistance.
▪ Isotropic properties.
o Applications: Cutting tools, wear-resistant surfaces, building materials.
 2. Fiber-Reinforced Composites (FRCs)
o Reinforcement: fibers (continuous or short).
o Continuous fibers: high strength & stiffness (e.g., carbon fiber
composites).
o Short/Discontinuous fibers: moderate strength, easier to process.
o Characteristics:
▪ High strength-to-weight ratio.
▪ Tailorable mechanical properties (anisotropic).
o Applications: Aerospace structures, sporting goods, automobile bodies,
wind turbine blades.
3. Structural Composites
o Combination of composites arranged in layers or cores.
o Types:
▪ Laminar composites → layered sheets (plywood, laminated
plastics).
▪ Sandwich panels → strong face sheets + lightweight core (e.g.,
honeycomb core).
o Characteristics:
▪ High stiffness and strength with low weight.
▪ Good thermal and acoustic insulation.
o Applications: Aircraft panels, ship hulls, building materials.

Characteristics of Composite Materials

• High strength-to-weight ratio (lightweight but strong).

• Corrosion resistance (especially polymer matrix composites).
• Tailored properties by adjusting reinforcement type and orientation.
• Fatigue and creep resistance (in advanced composites).
• Anisotropy (properties differ with direction, especially in fiber composites).

Applications of Composites in Industry

• Aerospace: Aircraft wings, fuselage, rocket casings.

• Automobile: Body panels, drive shafts, bumpers.
• Construction: Reinforced concrete, bridges, roofing materials.
• Marine: Boat hulls, submarine structures.
• Sports & Leisure: Tennis rackets, golf clubs, bicycles.
• Electrical/Electronics: Circuit boards, insulation panels.
• Medical: Prosthetics, dental fillings, bone plates.

Powder Metallurgy (P/M)

Principle

Powder Metallurgy is a manufacturing process in which metal powders are produced,

compacted into desired shapes, and then sintered (heated below melting point) to
form a solid part.
Techniques / Steps of Powder Metallurgy

1. Powder Production
o Methods: Atomization, Electrolytic deposition, Mechanical crushing,
Chemical reduction.
o Powder characteristics (size, shape, distribution) affect final properties.
2. Blending & Mixing
o Powders mixed with lubricants/binders to ensure uniformity.
3. Compaction
o Powders pressed into dies (uniaxial pressing, isostatic pressing, injection
molding).
o Produces a "green compact."
4. Sintering
o Heating compact at 0.7–0.9 Tm (melting temp) in controlled
atmosphere.
o Particles bond → strength and density improve.
5. Secondary Operations (if needed)
o Sizing, repressing, infiltration, impregnation, heat treatment, machining.

Applications of Powder Metallurgy

• Automotive: Gears, bearings, piston rings, brake pads.

• Electrical/Electronics: Tungsten filaments, magnetic cores, electrical contacts.
• Aerospace & Defense: Rocket nozzles, turbine blades, refractory parts.
• Medical: Implants, surgical tools.
• Other: Cutting tools (WC-Co carbides), self-lubricating bearings, filters.

Advantages of Powder Metallurgy

• Near-net shape production (minimal machining).

• High material utilization (low wastage).
• Can produce complex shapes with precision.
• Uniform composition and properties.
• Ability to process high-melting-point metals (W, Mo, Ta).
• Self-lubricating and porous parts possible.

Limitations:

• High tooling/die cost (uneconomical for small batch).

• Size limitation (large parts difficult).
• Lower ductility compared to wrought products.
Surface Treatment

Purpose

To improve corrosion resistance, hardness, wear resistance, fatigue life, and

appearance of metals.

Common Surface Treatment Methods

1. Mechanical Treatments
o Shot peening, polishing, burnishing.
o Improve surface finish and fatigue strength.
2. Chemical Treatments
o Anodizing (Al): Forms oxide layer → corrosion resistance.
o Chromating/Phosphating: Improves paint adhesion and corrosion
resistance.
o Passivation (Stainless steel): Enhances corrosion resistance.
3. Electrochemical Treatments
o Electroplating: Depositing a thin metallic layer (Zn, Cr, Ni).
o Electroless plating: Autocatalytic chemical deposition.
4. Diffusion Treatments (Case Hardening)
o Carburizing, Nitriding, Carbonitriding: Hard surface + tough core.
5. Thermal Spray Coatings
o Spraying molten particles (ceramics, metals) on surface.
6. Physical & Chemical Vapor Deposition (PVD, CVD)
o Thin hard coatings (TiN, Al₂O₃) on cutting tools, dies.