History of logic

The history of logic is the product of the convergence of four lines of thought that appear in
different historical moments:1Aristotelian logic, followed by the contributions of the Megarians and the Stoics.
Centuries later, Ramon Llull and Leibniz studied the possibility of a unique, complete, and exact language for
to reason. At the beginning of the 19th century, research into the foundations of algebra and geometry,
followed by the development of the first complete calculus by Frege. Already in the 20th century, Bertrand
Russell and Whitehead completed the process of creating mathematical logic. From this moment on, no
new developments will cease to occur and schools and trends will stop emerging. Another interesting perspective
about how to approach the study of logical history offered by Alberto Moretti2and that is synthesized by Diego
last.3

ANCIENT AGE
Logic, as an explicit analysis of reasoning methods, originally developed in three
civilizations of theancient history: China, IndiayGreece, between the 5th century and the 1st century B.C.

Mesopotamia
In Mesopotamia, the medical diagnostic manual of Esagil-kin-apli, written in the11th century BC, was based on
a logical set ofaxiomsand assumptions, including the modern view that, through the
examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the problem of it,
onetiologyand its future development, and the possibilities of recovery.4
During the 7th and 8th centuries, theBabylonian astronomersthey started to use ainternal logicin their
planetary prediction systems that were an important contribution to logic and thephilosophy of science.5
Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on thought of theAncient Greece.6
Ancient Greece

Aristotlehe has been considered as the father of theformal logic.

In theAncient Greecetwo opposing logical traditions emerged. Logicstoicwas rooted

Ancient India
Two of the six Indian schools of thought are related to logic:JusticeyVaisheshika.
TheNyaya SutrasofAksapada Gautamathey constitute the core of texts of the Nyaya school, one of the six
orthodox schools of philosophyHinduThis schoolrealistworked with a rigid inference scheme of
five members that include an initial premise, a reason, an example, an application, and a conclusion.
TheBuddhist philosophyidealistbecame the main opponent of the Naiyayikas.Nāgārjuna, the founder of
intermediate pathMiddle Waydeveloped an analysis known as "catuskoti" ortetralemmaThis
argumentation of four aspects examined and systematically rejected the assertion of a proposition, its
denial, the joint affirmation and denial, and finally, the rejection of his affirmation and denial. But it was
withDignāgaand his successorDharmakirtiwith whom Buddhist logic reached its greatest height. Its analysis,
centered on the definition of necessary logical implication, 'vyapti', also known as
concomitance or invariable penetration. To this end, a doctrine known as 'apoha' was developed or
differentiation. It includes what could be called the inclusion and exclusion of defining properties. The
difficulties concerning this company partly stimulated the neo-scholastic school of Navya-
Justice, which introduced a formal analysis of inference in the16th century.

Ancient China
In China, a contemporary ofConfucius, Mozi, "Maestro Mo", is considered the founder of the
Mohist schoolMohism), whose principles are related to topics such as valid inference and the
conditions for correct conclusions. In particular, one of the schools that followed Mohism,
thelogicalis considered by several experts as the first to investigate theformal logic.
Unfortunately, due to therigid legal regulation during theQin dynasty, that line of research
disappeared from China until the introduction of Indian philosophy by theBuddhismThe translation and the
school research in logic was suppressed by theQin dynasty, in accordance with the philosophylegistaDesamIn India, the
logic lasted much longer: it developed (for example with thejusticeuntil the Islamic world appeared the
Asharite school, which suppressed part of the original work in logic. Despite the above, there was
Indian scholastic innovations until the beginning of the 19th century, but did not survive much within India.
colonial. The sophisticated and formal treatment of modern logic apparently comes from tradition.
Greek.
Middle Ages

Averroesone of the main Arab thinkers in rescuing Aristotelian logic and reintroducing it into the Western world.

In theEarly Middle Ages, logic maintains the condition of sciencepropedeuticsunder the name ofdialectics.
It continues to be studied as one of theliberal artsbut without significant contributions.
In its evolution towards theLate Middle Agesthe Arab contributions are importantThe-
Farabi, AvicennayAverroes, for it was the Arabs who reintroduced the writings of Aristotle in
Europe. In the Late Middle Ages, its study was a requirement to enter any university. Since the middle
From the 13th century, three separate bodies of text are included in logic. In the old logic novaes.
traditional logical writings, especially theOrganonfrom Aristotle and the comments ofBoethiusyPorfirio.
Laparva logicaliase can be considered representative of medieval logic.

Islamic world
For a while after the death ofMuhammad, theIslamic lawconsidered it important to establish standards for
the arguments, which led to a new approach to logic inPen, but this approach was
later displaced by ideas taken from thefilosofía griega yHellenisticwith the rise of the philosophers of the
schoolMu'tazili, who extraordinarily valued theOrganonby Aristotle. The works of the philosophers
Islamic figures with Hellenistic influences were crucial for the reception of Aristotelian logic in Europe.
medieval, along with the comments on the Organon developed byAverroesThe works ofthe
Farabi, Avicenna, Al-Ghazaliand other Muslim logicians who at times criticized and corrected logic
Aristotelian and introduced their own forms of logic, also played a central role in the
subsequent development of medieval European logic.

Medieval Europe
The term 'medieval logic' (also known as 'scholastic logic') commonly refers to the way of
theAristotelian logicdeveloped in theMedieval Europein the period of c 1200–1600. This task began
after the translations into Latin of the 12th century, when Arabic texts on Aristotelian logic and the logic of Avicenna
they were translated into the language of Rome. Although Avicenna's logic had an influence on the early logicians
European medieval such asAlberto the Great,21the Aristotelian tradition became dominant due to
to the important influence of theAverroism.
The application of theAristotelian logic22I proceeded to have the student memorize a long set of
syllogisms. Memorization consisted of diagrams, or learning a key sentence, with the first letter of
each word reminding the student of the names of thesyllogisms. Each syllogism had a name, for
exampleModus PonensIt had the form of 'If A is true, then B is true. A is true, therefore
so B is true." Most university logic students memorized the 19 syllogisms.
of Aristotle of two subjects, allowing them to correctly connect a subject and an object. A few geniuses
they developed systems with three subjects, or described a way to formulate rules of three subjects.
Modern Age

Gottfried Leibniz(1646-1716).

In the 17th century, logic acquires a new approach in the rationalist interpretations ofPort
Royal(Antoine Arnauld, Peter Nicole) but they did not imply a radical change in the concept of the
logic likescience.
The philosophersrationalistsby placing the origin of philosophical reflection in consciousness, they contributed, through the
development ofanalysishowscientific methodof theto think,23the topics that will shape the development of the
formal logic. The idea of is of special importanceDescartesof oneUniversal Mathematics24y
ofLeibnizthat, with itsUniversal characteristicsit assumes the possibility of a universal language
specified with mathematical precision based on the fact that thesyntaxof thewordsshould be
incorrespondencewith theentitiesdesignated asindividualsthe elementsmetaphysicalwhat I would do
possible acalculationo computationby means ofalgorithmin the discovery of truth.2526They appear the
first attempts and achievements of calculating machinesPascaland Leibniz) and although its development was not
effective, however the idea of a Universal Mathesis or universal characteristics is the antecedent
immediate to the development of symbolic logic from the 20th century. Leibniz and Descartes were still very much involved.
search for the schoolJesuit,
especially toFrancisco Suárezwho in turn used Mexican Logic,
ofBrother Antonio de RubioMexican philosopherNew Hispanic).27In addition, it is considered that the logics
modernizers never achieved the precision of these studies. Sander Pierce, Gottlob Frege, Saussure and
Wittgenstein followed neo-scholastic criteria to formulate his more thorough logical theories.

Contemporary Age
Historically,Descarteshe may have been the first philosopher to have the idea of using thealgebra,
especially their techniques for solving unknown quantities in equations, as a vehicle for
scientific exploration. The idea of a reasoning calculation was also cultivated byGottfried Wilhelm
LeibnizLeibniz was the first to formulate the notion of a system of mathematical logic applicable in a
generalized. However, the relevant documents regarding this were not published until 1901 and
many of them are still unpublished, and the current understanding of the power of the discoveries of
Leibniz did not begin to develop until the 1980s.
Gottlob Fregein itsConcept Script(1879) extended formal logic beyond propositional logic to
include constructors like 'all' and 'some'. It showed how to introduce variables and quantifiers to reveal
the logical structure of sentences, which could be hidden behind their grammatical structure. For example,
All human beings are mortal
then x is mortal." Frege's peculiar double dimensional notation caused his work to be neglected.
for many years.

19th century
From the second half of the 19th century, logic would be profoundly revolutionized. In 1847,George
Booleanhe published a brief treatise titled The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, and in 1854 another more important one
titled The Laws of Thought. Boole's idea was to construct logic as acalculationin which
thetruth valuesthey are represented by 0 (falsehood) and 1 (truth), and to those who are
they applymathematical operationslike thesumand themultiplication.

At the same time,Augustus De Morganpublished in 1847 his work Formal Logic, where he introduces thelaws of
De Morganand tries to generalize the notion of syllogism. Another important English contributor wasJohn Venn,
who published his book Symbolic Logic in 1881, where he introduced the famousVenn diagrams.
20th century
The 20th century would be one of enormous developments in logic. From the 20th century onwards, logic began to be studied by
its intrinsic interest, and not just for its virtues as a propedeutic, for which he studied at much higher levels
abstract
In 1910,Bertrand RussellyAlfred North WhiteheadpublicanMathematical Principlesa monumental work
in which they achieve a large part of mathematics from logic, avoiding falling into the paradoxes in which
Frege fell. The authors acknowledge Frege's merit in the preface. In contrast to the work of
Frege, Principia Mathematica was a resounding success, and came to be considered one of the works of non-fiction.
most important and influential of the entire 20th century. Principia Mathematica uses a notation inspired by the
ofGiuseppe Peano, part of which is still very widely used today