Computer Hardware & Network theory Vidyavahini First Grade College

VIDYAVAHINI FIRST GRADE COLLEGE

Computer Hardware &Networking

1st Semester BCA

Vidyavahini First Grade College

Near Puttanjaneya Temple, Kuvempunagar, Tumkur – 572103.
E-Mail:[email protected]
Website:www.vidyavahini.org/bca
Contact No: 0816 – 2261130

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Computer Hardware & Network theory Vidyavahini First Grade College

Chapter 1
Introduction to Computer
Introduction:
The term computer is derived from the word “compute”. Generally computer gives a impression that
it is calculating machine but computer will do several jobs other than computation.

The computer is a group of pieces both hardware and software put together to get a job done faster.
The principle behind the computer is Input-process-output.

Definition: computer is an electronic device that they take data as input process the data and
produces the information as output.

HISTORY/EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS:

• Chinese invented calculating device called ABACUS. Abacus was the first computing
device which emerged 5000 years ago. It was invented in china. It is a rectangular wooden
frame with beads on parallel wires. Calculation like addition and subtraction are performed
by moving the beads of the frame.

• In 1617 John Napier invented a technology that allows multiplication to be performed via
addition. Napier also invented an alternative to tables where the logarithmic values were also
calculated on ivory sticks which are now called Napier sticks.

• In 1642 Blasie Pascal invented the first mechanical adding machine called “Pascaline”
which is limited for addition.

• In 1694 the German mathematician called Leibnitz improved Pascaline by creating a

machine “four function calculator”. Leibnitz was the first scientist introduced binary no
system.
• In 1801 the French man Joseph Marie Jacquard invented punched wooden cards.

• In 1822 a professor of mathematics Charles Babbage invented the differential engine. It was
use to calculate various Mathematical functions and to perform differential equations.

• After working of 10 years Charles Babbage developed the analytical engine. It consists of
5 functional units such as Input unit, memory unit, control unit, arithmetic unit, output unit.
The modern computer looks like Analytical Engine hence Charles Babbage is known as
Father of Computer.

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• In 1944an American mathematician Harvard Aiken built the first Electromechanical

computer Called MARK-I. This was the first programmable digital computer made in US.

Block Diagram of Computer

It is capable of performing Arithmetic Operations.

• ENIAC[Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator] It is purely Electronic Computer

developed by Eckert and John Mauchly. It is used 18000 vaccum tubes, 7000 resistors,10000
capacitors and 60000 switches. It occupies 5000 Sqft of space. It can perform 300
multiplication per second.

• EDVAC[ Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer]

It is a first electronic stored program. Electronic computers developed in 1949.EDVAC

different from ENIAC. The internal storage of instructions was in digital form.
• UNIVAC[Universal Automatic Computer]

It was the First Commercial computer used for both scientific and Commercial
Applications. It is used First for business in 1954.

Computers are built from many components. The above block diagram illustrates different and main
components of the computer. They are

• Input unit
• CPU

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• Control unit

Input unit:

A device that accepts the information from the user is called input unit. Its main function is accepts
data and information provided by the user and passes this information to the CPU. The input unit
basically links external world to the computer. A system may consists of one or more i/p devices
such as keyboard, mouse, OMR, OCR, light pen, joystick etc.
Computer Fundamentals VVFGC, Tumkur

CPU [Central Processing Unit]:

It is the main part of the computer it is also called as brain/ heart of the computer. The function of
the CPU is interpret the instruction in the program and execute them one by one. It consists of 3
sub units. They are storage unit, control unit, ALU unit.

1. Control unit: it controls and directs the transverse of program instructions and data b/w
various units. The main activity of the CU is to maintain order and directs the operations of
the system. The overall activity of computer is controlled by CU.

2. ALU: it is the place where the actual execution of instructions takes place during the
processing operation. Arithmetic operation like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division are done here. Logical operation like AND, OR, NOT are done in this unit.

3. Storage unit: it is called memory unit. It provides space to store data. There are two classes
of memory devices called primary memory and secondary memory. The storage capacity
is measured in terms of bytes.

Generation of Computers:
There are two types

1. Non Electronic Generations: these are also called Zero generation computers. They are
made up of wooden or mechanical computers. Ex: Abacus, Napier Device etc.

2. Electronic Generations: computer developed after First Electronic computer ENIAC are
classified into 5 Generations.

First Generation:-[1940-1956]


The first generation computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory. 


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
They came into existence in 1940. 



They were very huge, very expensive to operate. 



It consumed a lot of electricity, generate a lot of heat. 



They used punched cards and magnetic tapes to I/P and O/P operations. 



They are non portable and very slow equipments. 



Ex: UNIVAC,ENIAC,EDVAC 

Second Generation:-[1956-1963] 

Transistors were used in second generation computers. 



These computer provides high reliability 



Higher level programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN were used in these
machines 



Magnetic disks became principle technology for secondary memory 



This helped the computers to become smaller, faster and cheaper. 



They had better portability and generates less heat. 


 
Ex: IBM 7030 

Third Generation:-[1964-1971]


Integrated circuits were used in third generation computers. 



Production cost was very cheap. 



They have high reliability and small in size, because IC and Silicon chips called
semiconductors were used. 

They were used in weather forecasting , airline reservation etc 


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
OS [operating System ] got introduced. 



Some of the developments are UNIX, IBM 3060…. 

Fourth Generation:-[1971-PRESENT]


The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers. 



Power consumption was very less. 



Computers are portable and very cheaper. 



Thousands of integrated circuits were built to form a single chip. so the computer become
more efficient and more reliable. Very large scale IC are used. 

Networks became common place and whole world was connected by internet. 



Developments are c++, Intel 4004, Ms-word, Ms-windows O.S 


Fifth Generation:-[PRESENT AND BEYOND]


The development of super computers was the key motivation of 5th generation computers. 



Fifth generation computers are based on artificial intelligence. 



They are still in development. 



The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence
a reality. 

Computers develop with super large scale integration(SLSI) 


COMPARISION IN GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

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PERIOD 1940-1956
1956-1963 1964-1971 1971-PRESENT TODAY -
FUTURE

INTEGRATE ARTIFICIAL
CIRCUITRY VACUUME TRANSISTOR D CIRCUITS MICROPROCESSOR(V INTELLIGN

TUBE LSI)
(IC) CE

PROCESSING
300IPS 300IPS 1MIPS FASTER THEN 3RD
SPEED
GENERATIO
N
-

PROGRAMMI
NG ASSEMBLY HIGH LEVEL
LANGAUGAE(FORT C, C++ C , C++ , JAVA
RAN , ALGOL) -
LANGAUAGE LANGUAGE
S

MEMORY SEMICONDUCTOR

CAPACITY 20 KB 128KB 1MB TYPE & VERY HIGH

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POWER HIGH LESS COMPARE TO LESS LESS -

CONSUMED 1ST GEN.

SMALL &
LESS SPACE
ST CAN BE SMALL & USED IN -
COMPARE TO 1
SIZE VERY LARGE USED IN HOMES
GENERATION
HOMES

IBM
IBM 1401,IBM 360 PENTIUM SERIES ,
EXAMPLES 7094,CDC3600,D MULTIMEDIA,
UNIVAC,EDV SERIES,1900

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
There are of 3 types

• Based on purpose
Based on
technology
• Based on speed and
size
 
BASED ON PURPOSE: divided into 2 types
1. General purpose: computers are designed to perform all the task. The computers that we seen in
college homes are general purpose computers.

2. Specific purpose: these computers are designed to handle a specific problem . these computers
are used for railway reservation, satellite tracking etc

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 
 BASED ON TECHNOLOGY: divided into 3 types
1. Analog: they operate by measuring physical units such as voltage, pressure, temp
etc….analog computers are used in scientific and engineering purpose. The output in the
form of graph.

2. Digital: computer that operates with numerical or non-numerical information represented

in a digital form. These computers operate on bits ie 0 and 1.

3. Hybrid: hybrid computers are the combination of both analog and digital data for
processing. The robot is the best example.

 
 BASED ON SPEED and SIZE: divided into 4 types
1. MICROCOMPUTERS.
2. MINICOMPUTERS.
3. MAINFRAMECOMPUTERS.
4. SUPERCOMPUTERS.

1. MICRO COMPUTERS: these are also called as pc‟s [personal computers]. One person
uses them at a time. Modern computers have a large input and output capabilities. It has
huge memory and processing speed. Microcomputers are classified in to2 type‟s desktops
and portables. The pc is called home computers or desktop computers.

Portables are small in size and they can be carried anywhere. They are divided in to laptops,
notebooks, palmtops, and wearable computers.

2. MINI COMPUTER: these are slightly bigger in size, memory and speed compare to
microcomputers. Minicomputers are multiuser system ie more than user can use the
computer system at a time. the cpu speed is 10 to 30 MIPS(million instructions per second).
The word length of this computer is 16 to 32 bits. In short these are called Minis

3. MAINFRAME COMPUTERS: these computers are larger than micros and minis and
occupy a room. These computers are connected with several micros and minis. The cpu
speed is more than MIPS. The word length is 32 to 64 bits .in short it is called as midis.

SUPERCOMPUTERS: these computers are designed for ultra-high performance task such as
weather forecasting, space research…..these computers are very expensive and stores 64 to96
bits.

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Characteristic of Computers:

Computer solves the human problems very quickly as well as accurately. The important
characteristics of computer as follows:

a) Speed: The computer can process data very fast, computer can perform millions of
billions of operations on the data in one second. The computer generates signals during the
operation process therefore the speed of computer is usually measure in mega hertz(MHz)
or Giga hertz(GHz).

For example: calculation and generation of salary slips of thousands of employees of an

organization. Weather forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of data related to
temperature etc.

b) Accuracy: Computer gives accurate output result provided that the correct input data and
set of instruction are given to the computer.
For example: The computer can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up
to 10 decimal places.
c) Diligence: A computer can continually work for hours without creating any error. It can
perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy from the start
till the end.
d) Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer
and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily,
in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and compact disk can
store a large amount of data permanently.
e) Versatility (Flexible): Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of
tasks with the same ease. At one moment we can use the computer to prepare a letter
document and in next moment we can play music or print a document.
f) Reliability: The electronic components in modern computer have very low failure rate.
The modern computer can perform very complicated calculations without creating any
problem and produces consistent (reliable) results.
g) Retrieving data and programs: The data and programs stored on the storage media can
be retrieved very quickly for further processing.
h) Automation: A computer can automatically operations without interfering the user during
the operations. It also controls automatically different devices attached with the computer.
i) Communications: Computer can used to exchange messages or data through computer
networks over the world
j) Consistency: Computer can repeat actions consistency (again and again) without losing its
concentration:
 To run a spell checker for checking spellings in a document.
 To play multimedia animations for training purpose.
 To deliver a lecture through computer in a class room. Etc

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Applications of Computer:

There are so many applications of computers.

a) Education: Computers are used, as a tool and as an aid in education.
i) Educators use computers to prepare notes and presentations of their lectures.
ii) Computer are used to develop computer-based training packages, to provide
distance education using the e-learning software, and to conduct online
examinations. iii) Researchers use computers to get easy access to conferences
and journal details and to get global access to the research material

b) Entertainment: The user can download and view movies, play games, chat , book ticket
for movies, use multimedia for making movies, incorporate visual and sound effects using
computers. Etc. The users can also listen to music, download and share music, create
music using computers, etc.
c) Sports: A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game,
play games and create games. They also used to purposes of training players.
d) Advertising: Computer is a powerful advertising media. Advertisement can be displayed
on different websites, electronic-mails can be sent and reviews of a product by different
customers can be posted.
i) Computers are also used to create an advertisement using the visual and sound
effects.
ii) Advertisement can be displayed on different websites, electronic-mails can be sent
and reviews of a product by different customers can be posted.
e) Medicine:
i) Medical researchers and practitioners use computers to access information about
the advances in medical research or take opinion of doctors globally.

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ii) The medical history of patient is stored in the computers. iii) Computers are
also internal part of various kinds of equipment. Ex: ultrasound machine, CAT
scan machine, MRI scan machine.
iv) Computers also provide assistance to the medical surgeons during critical surgery
operations.
f) Science and Engineering:
i) Scientists and Engineers use computers for performing complex calculations for
making designing and making drawings(CAD/CAM applications) and also testing the
designs. ii) Computers are used for storing the complex data, Performing complex
calculation and visualizing 3D objects.
iii) Complex Scientific applications like the launch of rockets, satellite use computers. g)
Government :
i) Computers are used for the filling of income tax return, paying taxes , online
submission of water and electricity bills, for the access of land record details.
ii) Police department uses computers to search for criminals using fingerprint matching
etc.
h) Home: Computer has now become an internal part of home equipment.
i) At home, People use computer to play games, to maintain the home accounts, for
paying Bill, For communicating with friends and relatives via Internet, For education
and learning.
ii) Microprocessors embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, Home
theaters, Security devices etc.

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Computer also use into area like banks, investments, stock trading, accounting, ticket
reservations, military operations, social networking, business organizations, book
publishing , web newspapers.

Human Computer Interface:

Types of Software:

The software may be broadly classified into two major categories:

a) System Software
b) Application Software

a) System Software :
System software provides the instruction that the computer need to run. It contains the
direction to need to start up the computer(Known as boot process), checks to ensure that
everything is in good working order, and enables to interface with the computer and its
peripheral devices so that user can use them.
These are complex programs are developed and supplied by computer vendors. System
software consist mainly two types of programs:
i) Operating System ii)
Utility Programs
Other types are also available like. Language Translators (Compilers, Interpreters,
Assemblers), Linkers and Loaders, Editor programs etc.

i) Operating System :
The software that manages the resources of a computer system and schedule its
operations is called the operating systems. The operating system act as an interface
between the hardware and the user programs and control over execution of programs.

The principal function of operating system includes:

 To monitor the use of machine‟s resources.
 To control and coordinate peripheral devices.
 To manage disk files where data and programs are stored.
 To help the application programs executes its instruction.

Ex: Window Operating System, Mac OS(Apple‟s Macintosh computer), Linux

ii) Utility Programs:

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There are many tasks common to a variety of applications. Example of such task are

a) Copying a program from one place to another.

b) Merging of two program
c) Sorting a list in desired sequences.
d) Report writing.

b) Application Software:
Application programs are specially prepared to do certain specific tasks. Application programs
are developed by programmers making use of system software to facilitate users. Most
commonly used application software is:
i) Industrial Automation
ii) Business Software iv)
Video games
v) Medical software vi)
Educational Software

Number system

• Number a quantity or value expressed by a word or a symbol is called Number

• Number system a set of symbols & rules for representation of numbers is called Number
System

They are classified into two types they are

a. Positional number system
b. Non positional number system

a. Positional number system

• It is use certain well defined symbol is called „digit”

• The value of the digit depends on the position in which they appear in the number

• The value of the number depends on 3 factors they are

o The digits
o The position of digit in the number o The base
of the number

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• Eg: decimal,binary,octal & hexa decimal number system

• Eg : 256 is a number

2 5 6 are digits
H T O

The 2 carries the most weight of the 3 number and referred as “most significant
digit (MSD)”

The 6 carries the least weight of three number & is called “least significant digit (

LSD)”

b. Non Positional Number System

In this type each symbol represents a definite value irrespective of the position in which
they appear

Ex: Roman number system.

Base or radix

The total number of different digits or symbols available in the number system is called
“base or radix”
Positional Number System

The positional number system are classified into four types they are

1. Decimal number system

2. Binary number system
3. Octal number system
4. Hexa decimal number system

Decimal number system

• It is also called as Hindu Arabic numerals

• The symbols used in this system are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
The radix or base of this number system is 10

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• Weight structure of this number system is …..104 103 102 101 100

. 10-1 10-2 10-3……

Ex: Consider the number 829

3rd 2nd 1st Position

2 1 0 Positional Value
10 10 10
8 2 9 Digit Values

Binary number system

• The symbols used in this system are 0,1 0 & 1 are called “bits”
• Bit is an abbreviation for a binary digit
• The radix or base of this number system is 2
• Weight structure of this number system is

4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
…..2 2 2 2 2 . 2 2 2 ……….

• The weights increases from right to left by a power of two for each bit
• The left most bit is the MSB & right most bit is the LSB

1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 MSB
LSB

Ex: Consider the number 101

1st Position
3r
d 2nd
22 21 20 Positional Value
1 0 1 Digit Values
Octal number system

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• The symbols used in this system are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

The radix or base of this number system is
8
• Weight structure of this number system is

3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
……..8 8 8 8 . 8 8 8 …………

Ex: Consider the number 627

3rd 2nd 1st Position

82 81 80 Positional Value
6 2 7 Digit Values

Hexa decimal number system

• The symbols used in this system are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F

The radix or base of this number system is 16
• Weight structure of this number system is

32 1 0 -1 -2 -3
…..16 16 16 16 . 16 16 16 ……..

Ex: Consider the number 1AF

3rd 2nd 1st Position

2 1 0 Positional Value
16 16 16
1 A F Digit Values

Conversions

1. Binary number system

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• Decimal to binary conversion

• Binary to decimal conversion

2. Octal number system

• Decimal to octal conversion

• Octal to decimal conversion
• Octal to binary conversion
• Binary to octal conversion

3. Hexa decimal number system

• Decimal to Hexa decimal conversion

• Hexa decimal to decimal conversion
• Hexa decimal to binary conversion
• Binary to Hexa decimal conversion

1. Binary Number System

Decimal to binary conversion

In this conversion the given decimal number is repeatedly divide by 2 for integer part
until the quotient is 0 and for fraction successively multiplying by 2


Eg: Convert 28.3125(10)---- (?)2

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28.3125(10)= 1100.0101(2)

Binary to decimal conversion

1. Determine the positional value of each digit

2. Multiply the obtained value by the digit in the corresponding position
3. Sum the products calculate in the previous step to get the decimal number

6 25 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4
64 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.125 0.0625
0.25

Eg:1110.011(2)-- (?)10
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
=1x2 +1x2 +1x2 +1x2 +0x2 +1x2 +1x2
=1x8+1x4+1x2+0x1+0x0.5+1x0.25+1x0.125
=8+4+2+0+0+0.25+0.125
1110.011(2)=14.375(10)

2. Octal number system Decimal to octal conversion

In this conversion the given decimal number is repeatedly divide by 8 for integer part
until the quotient is 0 and for fraction successively multiplying by 8

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
Eg: Convert 549.1325(10) ----- (?)(8)


Octal to decimal conversion

1. Determine the positional value of each digit

2. Multiply the obtained value by the digit in the corresponding position
3. Sum the products calculate in the previous step to get the decimal number

4 3 2 1 0 8-1
8 8 8 8 8 8-2 8-3
4096 512 64 8 1 0.125 0.0156 0.00195

Eg: Convert 763.375(8) ---------- (?)(10)
2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
7x8 +6x8 +3x8 +3x8 +7x8 +5x8

7x64+6x8+3x1+3x0125+7x0.0156+5x0.00195

448+48+3+0.375+0.1092+0.00975

763.375(8) = 499.49395(10)

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Octal to binary conversion

1. Convert each digit of the octal number to a 3 digit binary number

2. Combine all the resulting binary groups into a single binary number

Octal Binary
0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

Eg: 4632.51(8) -------- (?)2
4 6 3 2 5 1
100 110 011 010 101 001
4632.51(8) =100110011010101001(2)

Binary to octal conversion

1. The bits of the binary numbers are grouped into groups of 3 bits starting from
LSB for integer and from MSB for fraction
2. If the last group contains less than 3 bits then place 0 for those place

3. Convert each group into a octal equivalent digit Eg:

01111.1101011(2)->(?)8

1.

=>4.17.654(8)

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3. Hexa decimal number system

Decimal to Hexa decimal conversion

In this conversion the given decimal number is repeatedly divide by 16 for integer part
until the quotient is 0 and for fraction successively multiplying by 16


Eg:Convert 512.625(16)----- (?)10

Hexa decimal to decimal conversion

1. Determine the positional value of each digit

2. Multiply the obtained value by the digit in the corresponding position
3. Sum the products calculate in the previous step to get the decimal number

164 163 162 161 160 16-1 16-2 16-3

65536 4096 256 16 1 0.0625 0.0039 0.00024

Eg: 36F.ABC2 1 (16)------0 (?)-101 -2 -3
3x16 +6x16 +Fx16 +Ax16 +Bx16 +Cx16
3x256+6x16+15x1+10x0.0625+11x0.0039+12x0.00024 879.67078(10)
36F.ABC(16)= 879.67078(10)

Hexa decimal to binary conversion

1. convert each digit of the Hexa decimal number to a 4 digit binary number
2. combine all the resulting binary groups into a single binary number


Eg: 10A4.FACE (16) ------ (?)2
1 0 A 4 . F A C E

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0001 0000 1010 0100 1111 1010 1100 1110

0001000010100100.1111101011001110(2)
10A4.FACE (16) = 0001000010100100.1111101011001110(2)

Binary to Hexa decimal conversion

1. The bits of the binary numbers are grouped into groups of 4bits starting from
LSB for integer and from MSB for fraction

2. If the last group contains less than 4 bits then place 0 for those place

3. Convert each group into a Hexa decimal equivalent digit Eg: 11100.01(2)=(?)16

1 C . 4
11100.01(2) = 1 C .4(16)

Binary arithmetic

Binary arithmetic consists of the operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division

Binary addition

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The rules of binary addition are

0+0=0

0+1=1

1+0=1

1+1=0 with a carry 1 1+1+1 with a carry 1

1. Convert decimal to binary

2. Then add according to the rules

Eg: 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
64 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

Binary subtraction

The rules of binary subtraction are

0-0=0

0-1=1 with borrow 1

1-0=1

1-1=0

This is the simple method of subtraction of bits according to the rules of binary subtraction

:1 0 0 1
-0 1 0 1
01 0 0

11 0 . 1 0 1 1 1 0
-0 1 0 . 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 . 1 0 1 0 0 1

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10 1 1 . 0 0 1
-0 1 1 1 . 1 0 1

00 1 1 . 1 0 0

Binary multiplication

In most computers multiplication is achieved using addition

In this method the multiplicand is multiplied by each multiplier digit beginning with
the least significant digit. The result of the multiplication of the multiplicand by a
multiplier digit is called a “partial product”

Eg: Multiply the signed numbers 01010011(multiplicand) & 10111011(multiplier)

1. Sign bit of multiplicand is 0 & sign bit of multiplier is 1.so the sign bit of product will be 1

2. Take 2‟s complement for multiplier

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5. Sign of the product is 1.magnitued of product is 1011001011111. So the final result is 1

1011001011111

Binary division

1. The sign of the quotient is determined depending on whether the signs of the
dividend and divisor are the same or different, the quotient is initialized to zero

2. The divisor is subtracted from the dividend using 2‟s complement addition so
as to get the first partial remainder. A 1 is added to the quotient is incremented by 1.if
this partial remainder is positive, we move on to the next step. If this partial remainder
is zero or negative, the division is complete

3. Subtract the divisor from the partial remainder and add 1 to the quotient. If the
result is positive, repeat for the next partial remainder. If the result is zero or negative,
the division is complete

Example: Divide 00101010 by 1100

Solution: 110)00101010(000111

000
101
000
1010

110
110
110

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Chapter 2 : INPUT & OUTPUT DEVICES

Component of computer system
1. Input Unit

2. CPU(central processing unit)

a) ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

b) Memory Unit or storage Unit
c) Control Unit
3. Output Unit
Hardware components are often categorized as being input, output, storage or processing
components. Devices which are not an integral part of the CPU are referred to as being peripherals.
Peripherals are usually used for input, storage or output (such as a hard disk, keyboard or printer).
A device does not necessarily have to be outside the same physical box as the CPU. The best
example of this is the hard disk, which is a peripheral even though it is not usually housed within
the main case.

Input devices : are hardware devices which take information from the user of the computer system,
convert it into electrical signals and transmit it to the processor. The primary function of input
devices is to allow humans to interact with the computer system. For instance a mouse allows the
user to control the movement of the pointer (a common element in user interface design).
Following are some of the important Input Devices---
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Scanner
 Digitizer
 Light Pen
 Touch Screen
 Barcode Scanner
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)

KEYBOARD : A computer keyboard is an input device that allows a person to

enter letters, numbers, and other symbols (these are called characters) into a computer. It is one
of the most used input devices for computers. Using a keyboard to enter lots of data is
called typing.

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Keyboard is an input device used to enter character and functions into a computer system by
pressing keys. It is the primary input device used to enter text. A keyboard typically contains
key for individual letter, numbers and special character. Computer keyboard has different
categories of keys as mentioned below.

Keys :

Functional keys :-
12 functional keys F0-F12 arranged at the top of the keyboard. Functions assigned to these keys
differ from one software package to another package.

Special keys :-
The key board also contains special purpose operational keys like print screen(ptrscr),Pause break,
page up, Page down, insert, home.

Lock keys:- Lock keys are present on the top left corner of the keypad .
Ex: caps lock, numlock , Scroll lock.

Numeric keypad:- These keys are range from 0-9.

Direction Keys:- It helps to control the cursor movement on the screen it includes 4 arrows.

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Numeric keypad :- The part of computer present at the right part of the main key board with
numbers.
Advantages.
 It is the most primary input device used to enter text and also it allows the user to interact
with the system.
 Entering the data and instruction with a keyboard is faster than pointing devices.
 All computers are supplied with a keyboard.
Disadvantages
 It is easy to make mistake when typing the data.
 It takes time to practice to type quickly and accurately.
 They are not suitable to create the diagrams.
 Disabled people find difficult to create the diagrams.
 Excessive use can lead to health problem.

Pointing devices
“A device with which you can control the movement of pointer to select item on the screen is known
as pointing device.”
A pointer is just a small symbol. It usually appears on the screen in a Graphical User Interface
(GUI) environment.
Important pointing devices are
 Mouse
 Track ball
 Joystick
 Touch screen
 Touch pad
 Light pen

Mouse (Manually operated user serial engine)

 A mouse is most commonly used pointing input device. It is used to input the instructions or
data by sending the signal to the computer.
Two types of mouse are wired and wireless.
Major functions of mouse are
Pointing:-Placing pointer on the word or an object on the screen by moving the mouse on the
object.
Drag: - Dragging means pointing to the desired location while pressing the left button to drag
the object across the screen.
Click: - pressing either left or right button of the mouse.
Scroll: - scroll which is placed between left and right button used to move vertically throughout
the document.

Types of mouse
There are three types of mouse

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 Mechanical mouse
 Opto-mechanical mouse
 Optical mouse
Mechanical mouse
Mechanical mouse is a computer mouse it contains metal or a rubber ball.
 When the ball is used in any direction then sensor inside the mouse detect the movement and
move the cursor on the screen.
Opto-Mechanical mouse
 It contains the ball that rolls one of the wheels inside the mouse
 Each wheel contains the circle of holes it allows the LED light to pass through it and the light is
detected by the sensor attached to it.
 This mouse is more accurate than a mechanical mouse.
Optical Mouse
 An optical mouse uses LED. optical sensor, DSP.
 It has a camera it takes microscopic snaps .the movement is detected by the sensing in the
reflected light.

Advantages:
 A mouse is user- friendly for computer beginner.
 A mouse is easy and convenient to use with a Graphical User Interface.
 Using Mouse one can select items or move to a position on the screen, is faster than using
keyboard.

Disadvantages:
 It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse.
 A mouse is not accurate enough for drawing that requires high precision.
 A mouse usually requires a flat surface to operate.

Track ball
 It is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket.
 Socket contains the sensors to detect the rotation of ball about two axes.
 User can move a pointer using the finger ,It trolls the ball to direct the cursor
 It does not require a smooth surface as a mouse.
 It contains two buttons like a mouse

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Joy stick
 Joy stick is a cursor controlled handheld device.
 It is having vertical rod mounted on the base with one or two buttons.
 In mouse, cursor stops moving if mouse stop moving but in joystick it continues in the
direction to which it is pointing to.
 The joystick used aircraft, military fast jets and video games.

Touch screen
 It is a display device it can identify the occurrence and position of touch in the display
region.
 It also uses the stylus, it is a pen shaped instrument used with graphics to touch the
screen.
 The user can also interact with a finger or stylus it is so small so that it can fit into the
device.
 The touch screen display are available on computer, laptops, PDA and mobile phone.
 The touch screen monitors are an easy way of entering information into the computer.
Touch pad
 Touch pad is small flat rectangular device with a sensitive pad.
 It also contains the buttons around it.
 When we move on the surface it just translates motion and the position of the finger
and plots it on the screen.
 It is widely used in laptop with a built in keypad.

Light Pen
 Light pen is pointing handheld device shaped like a pen is connected to a computer.
 The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive elements which, when placed against the
screen, detects the light from the screen.
 Light pen have the advantage to interact directly with the screen.

Optical devices
 The device which uses a source of input to for recognizing the characters, marks ,codes
and images are called as optical device.
 These devices convert these objects into digital data and send the computer for further
processing.
 Using these devices manual entry of data is eliminated and it increases accuracy.

Some of the optical devices are

 Barcode reader
 Scanner

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 Optical character recognizer(OCR)

 Optical Mark reader
 Magnetic ink character recognizer(MICR)

Barcode Reader
 It is a electronic device used for reading bar code data is in the thin and dark lines.
 It is generally used in labeling the goods, numbering the books.
 Barcode reader scans the a barcode image converts it into alpha numeric values and it
is fed to the computer
 It is made up of light source, photodiode and simple decoder.

Scanner
 It is input device which work more like a photocopy machine.
 It is used when some information is available on a paper and transformed to hard copy.
 The scanner is used to input graphics information into the computer.
 The scanner sweeps its sensors along the picture. As an image is built up a series of
pixels. Each pixel represents a tiny part of image.
Advantage:
 Scanners can Convert photo graphs and flat document into electronic images.
 Both color and black & white images can be created.
 Extremely high resolution if required.
 Relatively inexpensive compared to the digital camera.

Disadvantages:
 Can not take 3D images.
 Document has to fit on the glass.
 Relatively slow compared to tasking a digital photograph.
Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
 It is a special type of scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil
 It is used to select one out of the multiple data.
 It is specifically used to check the answer sheet of examination.
 When a beam of light is passed through the paper mark is identified by the amount of
light passed through the blank area and marked area.

Advantages:
 A Fast method of inputting large data. Upto 10000 forms can read per hour depending
on the machine.
 Only one computer needed to collect and process the data.

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 OMR is much more accurate than data being keyed in by a person.

Disadvantage
 If the marks don’t fill the space completely, or aren’t in a dark enough pencil, they
may be not read correctly.
 Only suitable for recording one out of selection of answers, not suitable for text input.
Magnetic Ink Character Reader(MICR)
 The bank check numbers and check leaf is made up of the special type of a ink made
up of the magnetic materials
 When the text is passed through the MICR. It read head ink which becomes
magnetized and each and every character emits unique wave form.
 It can work very fast and this technology is also used in the debit card and credit card.
 At the bottom of each cheque are a series of numbers which record:
1. The Cheque number .
2. The bank or building society sort code.
3. The customer’s account number
Advantage:
 Very reliable, low errors.
 High Speed.
 Not so sensitive to grubby paper.
Disadvantage: The ink technology is relatively expensive.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

 OCR device will mechanically or electrically convert the image of handwritten or printed
text into machine encoded text.
 Widely used as a form of data entry from printed paper data records, passport documents,
invoice, bank statements, business cards, mail, printouts of static data.
 In OCR processing the scanned in image or bitmap is analyzed for light and dark area in
order to identify each alphabetic letter or numeric digit.
Advantage
 Cheaper than paying someone to manually enter large amount of Text.
 Much faster than someone manually entering amount of text.
 The latest software can creates tables and the original output.
Disadvantage:
 Not 100% accurate, There are likely to be some mistake made during the process.
 If the original document have poor quality , more mistake will occur.
 Not worth for small amount of text and can be slow also.

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AUDIO INPUT DEVICE

Micro phone
Audio devices are used to capture or record the sound.
Audio input is given to computer and it converts it to digital data and stores it in the computer.

VISUAL INPUT DEVICE

 It is used to capture video from the outside world into computer.
 Here it converts analog video signals to a digital data and store in a computer.
 Example Digital camera or webcam era.

Digital camera
 It is a handheld device or an easily portable device used to capture image or videos.
 It will convert the captured images to the (0 and 1) and store it in the memory card.
 It can be saved to the computer by connecting it to the cable. And it can be edited,
printed or transmitted.

Web camera
 This device is used to monitor the event remotely.
 It is used to capture video that can be transferred via internet in real time.
 These are also used as an in built camera in laptops and it has a USB port to connect
it to computer.
 It is very cheap because it is widely used in all areas with security.

OUTPUT DEVICES
 Output is a process of translating the data in machine unreadable form to human readable
form.
 Output device is a hardware device which used display the result of data processed.
 Based on the type of output devices are divided into
 Softcopy hardware device
 Hardcopy hardware device.
Softcopy
 It is stored in memory and it can be read by displaying it on the screen it is not touchable.
 The device used to so view the softcopy is called as softcopy hardware device.
 Ex: Monitor, Projector
Hardcopy
 Output is generated by printing the document on the paper or any other surface
 It is a physical entity any one can view it whenever they want.
 Ex: Printer, Plotter.

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MONITORS

 The monitor is the piece of computer hardware that displays the video and graphics
information generated by the computer through the video card.
 Monitors are very similar to televisions but usually display information at a much higher
resolution. Also unlike televisions, monitors are not usually mounted on a wall but instead
sit atop a desk.
 A monitor is sometimes referred to as a screen, display, video display, video display
terminal, video display unit, or video screen.
 A monitor is sometimes incorrectly referred to as the computer, as in the hardware within
the computer case, like the hard drive, video card

Monitors come in two major types –

 Cathode Ray Tube

 Flat panel Display

CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT):

 A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are produced when
an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface.
 Most desktop computer displays make use of CRTs. The CRT in a computer display is
similar to the "picture tube" in a television receiver.
 The CRT monitors is made up of small picture elements called pixe
 The smaller the pixel, better the image clarity or resolution.
 Screen are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
 Disadvantage of CRT monitors: large in size and high power consumption.

FLAT PANEL MONITOR

FPD, a flat-panel display is a thin screen display found on all portable computers and is the new
standard for desktop computers. Unlike (CRT) monitors, flat-panel displays use liquid-crystal
display (LCD) or light-emitting diode (LED) technology to make them much lighter and thinner
compared to a traditional monitor.
Flat-panel displays are thin and lightweight and provide better linearity and they are capable of
higher resolution than typical consumer-grade TVs from earlier eras.
Flat-panel display is divided into two categories,
1. Emissive monitors.
2. Non –Emissive Monitors

Emissive monitors: Emissive monitors are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
Example plasma panel and LED(Light emitting Diode) which uses an array of light emitting diode
as pixel in a video display.

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Non-Emissive monitors: Non Emissive monitors uses optical effects to convert sunlight or light
from some other source into graphic patter.
Example is LCD. Primary use of LCD technology was in laptops. It has low power consumption,
light weight and smaller physical size of LCD.
PROJECTOR
 Projector is a device that uses light and lens to take an image and project a magnified
image onto a larger screen or wall.
 Projectors can magnify still or moving images depending on how they are built. The image
must be shone through a sealed tube or frame when passing through the lenses to maintain
focus.
 The projector sends the lighted image through at least two lenses - one concave and one
convex - to focus the image and then magnify it out to the screen. Because it is several
lenses fused into one.
 Projectors are mainly used in classrooms for education , in corporate boardrooms,
companies, home theatre setups to watch movie, in bars, clubs, pubs for entertainment.

PRINTER
 It is an output device that takes the computer device and generates a hard copy of the
data.
 Printers are classified into
a) Impact printers
b) Non Impact printers.
IMPACT PRINTERS
The printers which operates by striking print head on the ink ribbon and it resembles the type
writer. When ink ribbon is strike on paper it generates the character.
Impact Printer are: i) Daisy wheel printer
ii) Dot Matrix Printer
iii) Line Printer
Daisy wheel printer
 Daisy wheel is a disk made up of metal on which the character stands out on the outer
edge.
 Wheel is rotated and a character is facing towards the paper.
 Hammer strikes on the ink ribbon which leaves the impression of character on paper.
 It is a wheel in serial printer.
 They are noisy and slow.
 It can prints 10-75 characters per second.
Dot matrix printers
 Dot matrix printer was first introduced in 1980’s
 It contains the print head made up of 9 to 24 pins.

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 The pins strike the ribbon as a print mechanism and moves across the entire print lines in
both right and left direction.
 24 pins printer has better quality compared to 9 pin printer.
 It can print 100-600 characters per second.
 It can also produce color prints.
Line printer
 The printers which is used to print a single line at a time.
 These printers can print 1000 to 6000 line per minute.
 They are less costly and less harmful to environment and they are durable.
 Drum, chain and band printer are called line at a time printer.
 Advantage of line printer are physically more durable than laser printer and their
consumables are both less costly and less harmful to the environment.

NON IMPACT PRINTERS

These printers do not use a striking mechanism to print characters
These printers print a complete page at a time hence also called page printers,
They produce less noise and faster because it can print a single page at a time.
a) Laser printer
b) Inkjet printer
c) Thermal printer

Laser printer
 It use the non impact photocopier ,when the document is sent to printer laser beam
draws the images on the selenium coated drum using electrical charges.
 IBM introduced first Laser printer in the year 1975 to use with its mainframe
computer.
 Laser printer do not use ink, they have less image smearing problems than inkjet
printer and able to print pages faster.
 When drum is rolled on the tonner it is attracted by a charged image on the drum
 The tonner is transferred to the paper it is fused on the paper. then excess charge and
tonner is removed.
 It can print 600 dpi (dot per inches).
Inkjet printers
 It is a type of printer that creates the images by propelling the ink on the paper.
 Print head contains the nozzles or jets and it forms a character or image
 If it is a black and white print it contains only black color.
 This printer is mainly used to produce the color print by using basic color cyan, magenta,
and yellow.
 It can print 300 dpi -600dpi (Dots per inch)

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 Inkjet printer is ideal for printing on rough, uneven and various other surface materials.
Thermal printers
 Thermal printers use the heated pins to burn images on to heat sensitive paper.
 These are mainly used as a fax machines.
 It can print faster.
 It can produce the low resolution prints.
 These are very expensive
Bar code printers
 This is a peripheral device which produces barcode labels.
 This can uses either thermal or ink printers to print the barcode.

Plotter
 It is a computer printer used to print the vector graphics.
 This is used in computer aided design and the pen to plot the images.
 A plotter gives a hardcopy of the output.
 They are used to print the design of a ship, machines and plan for buildings.
Speaker
 It receives the audio input from the computer and process the audio output in the form of
sound waves.
 Analog speakers can amplify analog waves into sound waves.
 Digital speaker can converts digital signal into analog signal and produces sound waves.

Dual character devices (acts both as a input and output device)

The device which can be used both as input and output device is known as dual character device.
(i)Modem
(ii)Head set with microphone
(iii) Bluetooth
(iv) Dongle

MODEM
 Modem means modulator and demodulator.
 Modem is initially used to connect phone line which allows us to send data or receive
data.
 Modulator part of modem converts digital signal to analog signal.
 Demodulator part of modem converts the analog signals to digital signals.
HEADSET
 Headset with microphone.
 It is a device that connects to a computer.
 It is made up of head set with a single or double ear piece.
 It allows the users to talk and listen.

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 It is used mostly in technical support and customer care service center.

 It is used as output device when we are talking and it is acts as an input device when
we are listening.

BLUETOOTH
 It is a set of protocols used to connect devices without a wire that exchange the
information.
 It uses radio waves for secured connection.
 It is used to connect smaller distance devices
 The devices which can be connected to system via

Bluetooth are
a) Wireless headset.
b) Wireless keyboard.
c) Wireless mouse
d) Wireless headphone.
e) Media remotes.
f) Mobile phone.
DONGLE
 It is a small handheld device which allows connecting a device to a broad band internet.
 It can connect to a computer using the USB drive.
 This acts as an alternative for NIC (network interface cards) for computer.
 It is less expensive, more portable compared to bulkier dongles.

Impact Printers Non Impact Printer

1. It uses striking mechanism to print. 1. It uses non-striking mechanism

2. It uses pins hammers or wheel to strike 2. It uses laser, spray or heated pins to print on paper.
Print head.

3. It is very noisy because they strike print head. 3. It don’t make any noise.

4. These printers are slow. 4. These printers are fast.

5. It uses ink ribbon to print to print the character. 4. It uses tonner or cartridge to print character.

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6. These are less expensive. 6.These are very expensive.

7. Print quality is lower. 7. Print quality is higher.

Chapter 3: Memory Managements Techniques

1. Introduction to Computer Memory

2. Memory Measurements Units in Computer

3. Classification of Memory

4. Cache memory

5. Primary Memory

 ROM (Read Only Memory)

* PROM
* EPROM
* EEPROM
 RAM (Read Access Memory)
* SDRAM
* EDORAM
* DDR Series (DDR1, DDR2 ,DDR3)
6. Secondary Memory
 Serial Access Memory (SAM)
 Direct Access Memory (DAM)
* Magnetic Disk
* Floppy Disk
* Hard Disk
* Optical Disk
*CD-ROM
* Flash Memory
* Smart Card
*ZIP Drive
*DVD-ROM

7. Other Secondary Storage Devices

*Pen Drive

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8. System Utility Tools

* Antivirus Software
* Disk Tools
* Backup Software
9. Device Drivers
10. Difference between the Primary Memory and Secondary Memory.
11. Difference between ROM and RAM
12. Difference between Magnetic Disk and Optical Disk
13. Difference between Hard Disk and Floppy Disk

Introduction of Computer Memory:

 A memory is just like a human brain.

 It is used to store data and instructions.

 Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be

processed and instructions required for processing are stored.

 The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells.

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 Each location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory
size minus one.

Memory Measurements Units in Computer:

 Computer has its memory and this should be measured by using some
measurements units.
 Computer understand only binary image so information is stored in the form
of bits and bytes.
 A bit(smallest unit of data ) is single data that can take a value either o and 1.
 A group of 8 bits make 1 byte. A byte is known as the smallest unit of memory
because to store any information in the memory, minimum of 8 bits is required.
 Each byte in memory has unique address and known as a memory cell or block.

8 Bits = 1 Byte

16 Bits = 1 word

1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Bytes(KB)

1024 Kilo Bytes(KB) = 1 Mega Byte(1MB)

1024 Mega Byte(MB) =1 Giga Byte(1GB)

1024 Giga Bytes(GB) = 1 Tera Bytes(TB)

1024 TeraBytes = 1 PetaBytes(PB)

1024 PetaBytes(PB)=1ExaBytes(EB)

Classification of Memory:

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Memory

Cache Primary Seconda

Memory Memory ry

ROM RAM Serial Direct

Access Access
Magneti Magneti Optica
PROM SD-RAM
c Tapes c Disk l Disk
EPROM EDO Floppy CD ROM
RAM Disk
EEPROM DDR Hard DVD
Series Disk ROM

Cache memory:
 The cache memory increases the operating speed of a system. But it is must
costlier than main memory. The cache memory is placed in between CPU and main
memory. It is a very high semi conductor memory which can speed up CPU.

 Cache memory acts a buffer between CPU and main memory and it is faster and
access time is much less compared to main memory.

 The cache memory is an intermediate memory and not accessible by the user. It
holds those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPUs. It
store instruction and data which are to be immediate executed.

Advantage:

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1. Cache memory is faster than main memory.

2. It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

3. It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

4. It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantage:
1. Cache memory has limited capacity.

2. It is very expensive.

Types/Levels of Cache Memory:

 A computer can have several different levels of cache memory. The level
numbers refers to distance from CPU where Level 1 is the closest. All levels
of cache memory are faster than RAM. The cache closest to CPU is always
faster but generally costs more and stores less data then other level of cache.

Level 1 (L1) Cache

 It is also called primary or internal cache. It is built directly into the processor
chip. It has small capacity from 8 Km to 128 Kb.

Level 2 (L2) Cache

 It is slower than L1 cache. Its storage capacity is more, i-e. From 64 Kb to 16
MB. The current processors contain advanced transfer cache on processor
chip that is a type of L2 cache. The common size of this cache is from 512 kb
to 8 Mb.

Level 3 (L3) Cache

 This cache is separate from processor chip on the motherboard. It exists on
the computer that uses L2 advanced transfer cache. It is slower than L1 and
L2 cache. The personal computer often has up to 8 MB of L3 cache.

Primary Memory (Main Memory):

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 Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is
currently working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is
switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories
are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed
reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories
 It is known as main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Semiconductor:
 A semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or
compound, that can conduct electricity under some conditions.

 It is a good medium for the control of electrical current.

 Its conductance varies depending on the current or voltage applied to a

control electrode, or on the intensity of irradiation by infrared (IR), visible
light, ultraviolet (UV), or X rays.

ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY):

 ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
 It is a type of internal memory, also known as firmware, is an integrated
circuit programmed with specific data at the time of manufacturing. These
data and programs cannot be changed or deleted afterwards.

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 The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
 This type of memory is non-volatile.
 ROM is used instruction and data to control the basic input and output
operation of a computer.
 The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
operation is referred to as bootstrap.
 ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic
items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Following are the various types of ROM:

1) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
2) EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
3) EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

1. PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

 PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user.

 The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
program, it remains there forever. If there is any error writing instruction and
data in PROM, the error can’t be erased.

 Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

 Difference between a PROM and ROM is that a PROM is manufactured as

blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacture
process.

 To write data onto a PROM chip, we need special device called a PROM
programmer or PROM burner.

 The process of programming a PROM is also known as burning the PROM.

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2. EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

 EPROM is initially blank. The user or manufacture can write programs or data
on it.

 EPROM data or instruction can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light

for duration up to 40 minutes. EPROM eraser use to achieves this function.

 To expose it, we have to remove EPROM chip from its environment. Erasing
and rewriting will eventually render the chip useless. We can’t erase the
selected portion of data in it.

3. EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

 EEPROM is a special type of ROM, which can programmed and erased with
the help of electrical signal.
 It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and
programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second).
 In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed.
EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip.
Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.
 It is also written as E2PROM and pronounce as “Double-EPROM ” or simple
“C-Squared”.

Advantages of ROM:
 Non-volatile in nature

 These cannot be accidentally changed

 Cheaper than RAMs

 Easy to test

 More reliable than RAMs

 These are static and do not require refreshing

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 Its contents are always known and can be verified

RAM (Random Access Memory) / Main Memory):

• RAM is a primary memory of computers that can be accessed randomly, i.e
any byte of memory can be accessed randomly without disturbing any other
bytes.

• RAM is made of small memory chips that form a memory module known as
main memory.

• These module also known as physical memory, installed in the RAM slots of
the motherboard in computer. Main memory is available in every computer so,
it is also known as primary storage of a computer.

• RAM is called volatile memory.

• Every time when open a program, its gets loaded from the hard drive into the
RAM.

• RAM takes a certain amount of time to read/write data, once the request has
been made by CPU, the time is called Access time and which should be
expressed in nanosecond.

• Any new data written to a location in the RAM overwrites the previous data.

• The access time is same for each memory location. RAM is divided into Static
RAM and Dynamic RAM.

Depending on the electronic component used and data transfer rate, RAM may be
classified into 3 types:

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1. SDRAM
2. EDORAM
3. DDR Series

1. SD-RAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory ):

 SD-RAM have single data rate. It can accept one command and transfer one
word of data per clock cycle.
 SD-RAM have synchronous interface therefore they depend on the computer
clock signals to perform operations.
 Speed of SD-RAM is 100- 133 MHz
 With the help synchronous interface, SD-RAM has an internal finite state
machine that pipelines incoming instructions.
 Pipelines are used to describe the process whereby the SD-RAM can accept a
new instruction before it has finished processing the previous one.

2. EDO-RAM (Extended Data Output) RAM:

 It also known as Extended Data Output Dynamic RAM.

 It allows the data outputs to be kept active even after the signal goes inactive,
using an additional signal to control the data outputs.
 EDO-DRAM is primarily used with Intel’s Pentium processors as a additional
chip. And it speeds up the process.
 To make use of the advanced features of EDO an appropriate chipset (Triton)
must be used.

3. DDR-RAM(Double Data Rate Random Access Memory):

DDR Series:

Double data rate synchronous dynamic random-access memory

(DDR SDRAM) is a class of memory integrated circuits used in

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computers. DDR SDRAM, also called DDR1 SDRAM, has been superseded by
DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3.

DDR1-RAM:
 DDR1-RAM transfer data twice per clock cycle, hence the name double data
rate.
 DDR1-RAM clock speeds range between 200-400MHz.
 DDR1-200 transfers 1600 MB/s, while DDR1-400 transfers 3200MB/s.

DDR2-RAM:
 DDR2-RAM stands for Double Data Rate 2 Random Access Memory.
 DDR2 is twice as fast as DDR which means twice as much data is carried to
the module for each clock cycle.
 DDR2 consumes less power as compared to DDR1 memory.
 DDR2 speed ranges between 400-800MHz.
 DDR2-400 transfers 3200MB/s. and DDR2-800 transfers 6400MB/s.

DDR3-RAM:

 DDR3-RAM stands for Double Data Rate 3 Random Access Memory.

 DDR3 act twice as fast as DDR2 memories.
 DDR3 speed ranges between 800-1600MHz.
 DDR3-800 transfers 6400MB/s and DDR3-1600 transfers 12800MB/s.
 DDR3's pre fetch buffer width is 8 bit, whereas DDR2's is 4 bit, and DDR's is
2 bit.

Secondary Memory:

 Any additional storage used in computer other than primary memory may be
classified as secondary memory.
 These devices are normally very slow compare to primary memory.
 All the data required for processing as to be rooted through primary memory.

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 The size of secondary memory is larger and cost is also reasonable.

 It is non volatile in nature.
 CPU can access these memories via data cables.
 These are used for storing data/information permanently
 The content of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory and
the CPU can access it.
 Secondary memory on a computer is storage for data and programs not in use
at the moment.
 In modern computer the secondary storage device are hard disk & optical disk.
 Based on the data accessing techniques, Secondary memory is classified into
two ways.
1) Serial Access Memory (SAM)
2) Direct Access Memory (DAM)

1. Serial Access Memory (SAM):

 Serial Access memory is a class of data storage device that read their data in
sequence.
 It means, A group of element (Data in memory Array or a disk file or on
magnetic tape data storage) is accessed in predetermined order that is from
starting point of SAM, even if required data is present in somewhere near the
middle of SAM memory.
Ex: Magnetic tapes.

2. Direct Access Memory (DAM):

 Direct access memory is a method of transferring data from a computer RAM
to another part of a computer without processing it by using CPU.
 Most of data are input/output from a computer is processed by the CPU; some
data don’t require processing or can be processed by another device.
 In this situation, DMA can save processing time and it is a more efficient way
to move data from the computer’s memory to other device.
 There is memory need not to be sequential accessed to read a particular data.
 DAM has two types
1) Magnetic Disk
2) Optical Disc

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1. Magnetic Disk/Device:

 Magnetic disk is the storage of data on a magnetized medium.

 Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization.
 It store data in the form of non-volatile memory duration of magnetization.
 Magnetic disks are flat circular plates of metal or plastic, coated on both side
with iron oxide.
 Input signals, which may be audio, video or data are recorded on the surface of
a disk.
 For computer data storage application, a collection of as many as 20 disks is
mounted vertically on the spindle of a drive unit.
 Based on the storage capacity, the magnetic disk is classified into two groups.
1) Floppy Disk
2) Hard Disk
1. Floppy Disk:
 Floppy Disk is also called diskette.
 A floppy disk is a random access, removable data storage medium.
 It is composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic storage medium, with
sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes dust
particles.
 Floppy disk are read and written by a floppy disk drive(FDD).
 Floppy disk data are placed in concentric magnetic circles called tracks.
 The floppy disk have 80 tracks per side, each track is divided into storage units
called sectors.
 The number of sectors per tracks varies depending on the media and format.
 Physical sector numbering start with the number 1 at the beginning of each
track.
 Based on the size of floppy disk , It can be divided into two types,
a) 133 mm or 51/4 inch
b) 90 mm or 3 ½ inch

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a) 133 mm or 51/4 inch:

 133 mm is the diameter of a floppy disk.
 The floppy disk is protected by a flexible plastic jacket.
 It has read- write format.
 It stores 1MB data and information using high density media and recording
techniques.
 These types of floppy are generally capable of storing between 100k and 1.2
MB of data.
 The most common sizes are 360k and 1.2 MB

b) 90 mm or 3 ½ inch:

 The 90mm floppy or ‘micro floppy’ are use for storage medium for personal
computers.
 This type of floppy is generally capable of storing between from 400k to 1.4MB of data.
 The most common sizes for PCs are 720k (double density) and 1.44MB(high -density).

2. Hard Disk:

 Hard disk is a type of magnetic disk (HD, HDD) used as data storage device.
 The hard disk first introduced by IBM in 13th September 1956.
 It consists of one or more platters inside of an air-sealed box.
 Platters are electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces.
 The platters are paired with magnetic heads arranged on a moving arm, which
read and write data to the platters surfaces.
 There are thousands of tracks on each platter. Each track is divided into sectors.
A sector holds minimum 512 bytes of data.
 Data is accessed in random-access manner.
 A hard disk drive is a non-volatile memory.
 Internal hard disk resides in drive bay which is connect to the motherboard
using an ATA, SCSI or SATA cable and are powered by a connection to the
power supply unit.
 Characteristic of hard disk:
1) It provides large storage capacity.
2) It is much faster than floppy disks.
3) It is primary media for storing data and programs permanently.

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4) Data stored on the hard disk is safer than floppy disks.

Difference between Hard Disk and Floppy Disk:

Hard Disk Floppy Disk
1. A Magnetic disk, in which store a much A soft magnetic disk, in which we store
more data. less data.

2. It has more storage space and more 2. It has less storage space and less
expensive. expensive.

3. It’s access time is faster than floppy disk. 3. Its access time slower than hard disk.

4. Hard disk can transfer data faster than 4. Floppy disk can transfer data slower than
floppy. hard disk.

2. Optical Discs:

 Optical Disc is a digital format medium.

 In which data is read and written by lasers.
 It stores data as micron-wide dots of light and dark.
 A laser reads the dots and data convert to an electrical signal and finally audio
or visual output.
 A laser in this means, an electromagnetic wave with a very specific wavelength
within or near the visible light spectrum.
 Optical disc can store much more data up to 6GB other than most portable
magnetic media.
 This allows playing music or watching movies using pre-recorded discs.
 There are two basic types of optical disc: CD-ROM and DVD-ROM

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CD (Compact Disc)-ROM:
 Optical drive use to read optical disc.
 The ROM means here the data on the disc is read –only or can not be altered
or erased.
 The standard compact disc is a disc made of clear polycarbonate plastic,
coated with a reflective material and a protective coat of clear lacquer.
 Data is placed on the CD-ROM in the form of small pits recorded in a spiral
track, starting at the center at the center of the CD-ROM and working to the
outer edge.
 It is used to store data in the form of text and graphics as well as hi-fi stereo
sound.
 The data is permanent and can be read any number of times but can’t be
modified any single time.
 CD-ROM could hold up to 700MB data.
 In CD-ROM another type is CD-RW (CD-Rewritable), discs can be erased
and re-recorded just like a floppy or hard disk.
 CD-RW disc can be read in CD-RW drives.

DVD-ROM:
 DVD stands for Digital versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc.
 It is type of optical disc able to store large amount of data (high resolution
audio visual material).
 DVD is commonly used as medium for digital representation of movies and
other multimedia presentations that combine sound with graphics.
 A DVD holds minimum of 4.7 GB of data.
 Based on the usage and compatibility various DVDs are like DVD-RAM,
DVD+R, DVD +RW etc.

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Difference between Magnetic Disk and Optical Disk:

Magnetic Disk Optical Disk

1. It stores a data on the magnetized 1. Optical disk stores a data on an optical or
medium. laser disk in the form of tiny pits.

2. Magnetic disk is floppy and hard disk. 2. The optical disk are CD, DV-ROM etc.

3. It doesn’t use a laser to read/write data. 3. It uses a laser to read /write.

4. It is affected by magnetic field. 4. It is not affected by magnetic field.

5. It has a high storage capacity. It has less-storage capacity.

Difference between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory:

Primary Memory Secondary Memory
1. Primary memory is temporary. 1. Secondary memory is permanent.

2. These are semiconductor memories. 2.These are magnetic and optical memories
3. It is volatile memory. 3. It is non-volatile memory.

4. A computer can’t run without primary 4. The computer may run without
memory. secondary memory.
5. Primary storage is smaller in capacity. 5. Secondary storage is bigger in capacity.
6. It is usually faster and more expensive. 6. It is usually cheaper and larger.
7. It is closer to CPU, so it is faster. 7. It is connected to CPU via cables, so it is
slower.
8. Example: ROM , RAM etc. 8.Example: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, CD-
ROM etc.

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Other Secondary Storage Device:

1. Pendrive
 A pen drive, or a USB flash drive, is a portable data-storage device. Pen
drives have replaced the floppy drives of old and have become the most
popular data-storage devices
 They are fast and reliable way for storing and transferring files from one
computer to another
 Pendrive consist of a small printed circuit board. This circuit board provides
a strong base for pen drive.
 The circuit board consists of small micro chip within it. The microchip
enables the pen drive to extract or feed data.
 Currently available pen drives with storage capacities ranging from 8GB
and 32GB

Features:
Portable: The lightweight and "micro" characteristics of a pen drive make it
possible to carry it from place to place.
Compatibility: advanced pen drive are compatible with any OS.
Transfer rate: varies b/w 5MBPS to 60 MBPS

2. Flash memory:

 Flash memory is a memory storage device for computers and electronics. It

is most often used in devices like digital cameras, USB flash drives and
video games.
 Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for
transferring data between a personal computer.
 Capacity ranges from 64 MB to 64 GB.
 Type of memory cards are SD card, Mini SD card, Micro SD card

3. Smart Card:

 A smart card, chip card, or integrated circuit card (ICC) is any pocket-sized
card that has embedded integrated circuits.

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 Smart cards can be either contact or contactless smart card. Smart cards can
provide personal identification, authentication, data storage, and application
processing.
 Ability to store large amount of data, carry out their own on-card functions and
interact intelligently with a smart card reader.

4. Zip Card:

 Zip drive is small, portable disk drive used primarily for backing up and
archiving personal computer files.
 Zip drives and disk comes in two sizes.
 Holds 100,431,872 bytes of data or equivalent of 70 floppy diskettes.

System Utility tools

 Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure,
optimize or maintain a computer. It is used to support the computer
infrastructure in contrast to application software, which is aimed at directly
performing tasks that benefit ordinary users.

 Utility program that are included within most of OS, provide the function like
file manager, image viewer, personal firewall, uninstaller, diagnostic utility,
backup utility.

 Utility program are antivirus software, backup software and disk tools

Antivirus software:
 A computer virus is a computer program that can cause damage to the
computer software, hardware or data.
 It is referred to as a virus because it has the capability to replicate itself and
hide inside other computer files.
 One of the most common ways to get virus is to download a file from the
internet.
 Anti-virus software scans your online activity to make sure you are not
downloading infected files.

Disk tool:

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 It Include a range of different tools to mange hard disk drives & other storage
devices.
 This include utilizes to scan the hard disk for any potential problems, such as
disk cleaners to remove any unnecessary files and disk defragmenters to re-
organize file fragment on a hard disk drive to increase performance.

Backup software:
 It helps in the creation of backup of the files on your computer.
 Backup software helps you copy the most important files to another storage
device, such as an external hard disk.
 Backup software uses cloud storage to create backups.

Device Driver
 A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is
attached to your computer.
 Device driver act as a translator between the OS of the computer & the device
connected to it.
 When you plug in a device, the operating system starts looking for the right
driver, install it & you are ready to start using the device.

CHAPTER 4
Computer Organization and Architecture
Computer Architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental operation structure of a computer
system. Computer Organization encompasses all physical aspect of computer system.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
Computers are built from many components. The below block diagram illustrates us the different
and main components of the computer. They are:
 Input
 Central Processing unit
 Output Unit

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Input Unit: In order to solve any problem, the computer needs to receive data and instruction.
Therefore, we need to input the data and instructions into the computers.
Input unit consist of one/more input devices such as keyboard, mouse, scanner, floppy disk drive
etc.
Functions:
 Accept the data and instructions from the user.
 Convert the data into machine language.
 Supply the converted data to the computer for further process.

CPU [Central processing unit]

The control Unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the CPU [Central Processing
Unit]. CPU is the brain of the computer.
Functions:
 It performs all calculations
 It takes all decisions.
 It controls all units of the computer

a) Control Unit:
The control unit that controls the flow of information through the processor and coordinates
the activities of the other units within it.
It is a brain within the brain”, as it controls what happens inside the processor.

Functions:
The control unit performs the tasks of fetching, decoding, managing execution and then stores
the result also.

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b) ALU [Arithmetic and Logical Unit]:

ALU is the part of the part of the CPU. ALU performs both arithmetic and logical operations.
It receives the instruction from the Control Unit which contains object programming[OP]
code.

Functions:
 The Object-code specified operation to be perform
 The send back the result to the memory and it indicate whether the operation is
successful or not.

c) Memory Unit/ Storage Unit:

It stores the instructions from the input and also stores intermediate value which are generated
during processing.

Functions:
 All data and instructions are stored here before or after processing.
 Intermediate results of processing are also stored here

Output Unit:
It is used to communicate the result of data processing in an information processing system. Such
as CPU, which converts the electrically generated information into human-readable form?
Examples: Monitor, Printer, speakers etc.
Registers
Register is a storage device, which is used to stores the data temporarily.
It is very small-size and very fast memory.
Example: 8-it register means it can store 8-bit of data.
32-bit register means it can store 32-bit of data.

There are different types of register:

ACC [Accumulator]
PC [Program Counter]
MAR [Memory Address Register]
MDR [Memory Data Register]
IR [Index Register]
IR [Instruction Register]

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ACC [Accumulator Register]:

Accumulator is a register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic results are stored.
It is located inside ALU
Control unit will store the data into Accumulator for arithmetic and logical operation

PC [Program Counter] or IP [Instruction Pointer]:

Program counter is a register which holds the memory address of the next instruction being
executed.It is a 16-bit register used to hold memory address.

MAR [Memory Address Register]:

This register holds the memory address from which CPU can access data.
Suppose the CPU wants to store some data in the memory, it needed to place the address of the
memory location(containing data)in the MAR

MDR [Memory Data Register] or MBR [Memory Buffer Register]

This register is present in computer Control Unit
It acts like a buffer register (temporary register) to store data/instructionswhich read from the
memory or sent to memory.
Index Register or Base Register:
Index register is a circuit that receives, stores and output instructions changing codes in a
computer.
This circuit is also called an address register or a register of modification
A register is a data holding place in CPU.

Instruction Register:
Instruction register is the part of a CPU’s Control Unit that holds the instructions currently being
executed.

4.3 System Bus

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A system bus is a single computer bus, that connects the major components of a computer system,
combining the function of a data bus to carry information, an address bus to determine where it
should be sent, and a control bus to determine its operation
System Bus Architecture:
System bus is a collective word to refer to all three buses that include address bus, data bus and
Control bus. CPU performs primarily four operations,

Memory Read - read data from memory

Memory Write - write data into memory
I/O read - accept data from input devices
I/O write - sends data to output devices.

All these operation are part of the communication process b/w microprocessor unit (MPU) and
peripheral devices including memory.
Address Bus: The Address Bus is a group of 16 lines generally identified as A0 to A15. Address
Bus is unidirectional i.e., bits flow in one direction from CPU to peripheral devices.
Data Bus: Data Bus is group of 8 lines used for data flow. These lines are bidirectional i.e., data
flow in both the b/w CPU and memory/peripheral devices.
Control Bus: Control Bus is comprised of various single line that carry synchronization signals.
CPU uses these lines to provide timing or synchronization signals. CPU generates specific control
signal for every operation it performs.
Memory Unit
Computer employs many different types of memory to hold data and program. Each type has its
own characteristics and uses. They are: Register memory, Cache memory, Disk memory.
Register memory
 Register are memories located within the CPU. They are few in number & also, small in
size. Register size is less than 64 bits.

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 The content of Register can read and write very quickly.

 Register memory are faster than main memory. Register memory stores data temporarily.

Disk memory:
 Disk memory is used to hold programs & data over a longer term. The content of a disk are
not lost if the power is turned off.
 Capacity ranges 100GB- 1TB.
 Access time is slower than main memory. Access time b/w 2-4 millisecond

Cache memory:
 Cache memory also called as CPU memory, is a random access memory that a computer’s
microprocessor can access more quickly than accessing from RAM.
 It is placed on separate chip that has a separate bus interconnect with CPU. The basic
purpose of cache memory is to store program instructions that are frequently being used.
 Data is available temporarily.

Computer Layout
The basic parts of a computer are the computer case, monitor, Keyboard, Mouse and Power car.
Each part plays an important role when you use a computer

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 Computer case: The computer case is the metal and fiber (plastic) box that contains main
components of a computer such as motherboard, CPU, power supply and more

 Computer case comes in different shapes and sizes.

 A desktop case (horizontal case, an older model) lies flat on a desk and the monitor usually sits on top
it. A tower case (vertical case, a present model) is tall and sits next to the monitor or on the floor

SMPS: [Switch Mode Power Supply]

 A SMPS is an electronic circuit that converts power using switching devices that are turned
on and off at high frequencies, and storage components such as inductors or capacitors to
supply power when the switching device is in its non -conduction state.

 Switching power supplies have high efficiencies and are widely used in a variety of electron
equipment, including computers and other sensitive equipment stable and efficient power
supply.
 SMPS converts the input AC voltage to DC Voltage. Supplies power to motherboard, HD,
floppy drive, fan etc.
 Different cables are:

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 20 + 4 Pin ATX / Motherboard Connector

 CPU 4 + 4 Pin Connector
 SATA Power Connector
 Floppy 4 Pin Connector
 Peripheral 4 Pin Molex Connector
 PCI-e 6 Pin / PCI-e 8 Pin Conector

Advantage:
 Small in size and lighter
 It has a better power efficiency of 68% to 90%
 SMPS has wide output range
 High power density
 Flexible Technology
Disadvantages:
 Complex circuit design
 Expensive compared to liner supply.

Motherboard
 First motherboard is considered to be used in IBM personal computer, released in1981.
 It was referred as backplane board, base board, main circuit board, planar board, system
board, or a logic board.
 The base of a motherboard consists of a very firm sheet of non-conductive material, typically
some sort of rigid plastic.
 Thin layers of copper or aluminum foil, referred to as traces, are printed onto this sheet.
 These traces are very narrow and form the circuits between the various components. In
addition to circuits, a motherboard contains a number of sockets and slots to connect the
other components.

Components of motherboard:

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Microprocessor

 A microprocessor, sometimes called a logic chip, is a computer processor on a microchip.

 The microprocessor contains all or most of, the central processing unit (CPU) functions
and is called as the "engine".
 A microprocessor is designed to perform arithmetic and logic operations that make use of
small number-holding areas called registers.
 Typical microprocessor operations include adding, subtracting, comparing two numbers,
and fetching numbers from one area to another.
 When your computer is turned on, the microprocessor gets the first instruction from the
basic input/output system (BIOS) that comes with the computer as part of its memory.
 The heat sink fan is used to remove heat that is generated by microprocessor. Harder the
processor works more heat is generated.
 Without heat sink fan a processor will reduce operation & potential speed and destroy thr
microprocessor.
 Passive heat sinks are made out of metal finned radiator. This radiator dissipates heat
through convection. To work properly it need steady air flow.
 Active heatsink is one that uses power & is usually a fan or some other cooling device.
Active heatsink is combination of passive heatsink and a fan.
 Depending on the motherboard, there may be 2 slots to 4 memory slots.
 RAM which is used in common is SDRAM, DDR.

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Ports and Interface

A port serves as an interface between the computer and other computers or peripheral devices.
Computer ports have many uses, to connect a monitor, webcam, speakers, or other peripheral
devices.

1. Serial port and Parallel port

 Serial port is a type of connection of PC’s that is used for peripherals such as MODEMS, older
printers
 Serial port consists of 9 pins. Used to transmit one bit data at a time. Is slower when compare
to parallel port. Now-a-days is replaced by USB port
 A parallel port consists 25 pins. Used to transmit more than one-bit of data at a time. Is faster
when compare to serial port.

2. PS/2 Port
 The PS/2 port is a 6-pin mini-DIN connector used by older computers for connecting input
devices such as keyboard and mouse.
 Its name comes from the IBM Personal System/2 series of personal computers, with which it
was introduced in 1987.
 PS/2 port designed to accept s specific input, the keyboard and mouse connections are clor
coded .
 The keyboard port on the back of computer is often purple, while mouse port is usually green.
 PS/2 port consists of one male PS/2 port and female PS/2 port.

3. HDMI Port [High Definition Multimedia Interface]

 HDMI port combines both audio and video data into single digital interface for transmission
between the devices

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 It benefits “uncompressed digital video” transmit over the bandwidth

 This port is capable of transmitting high-quality and high bandwidth stream of audio and
video together between devices.
 There are 2 defined HDMI connectors for different application.
 A-type with 19pins that used in most consumer electronic applications.
 B-type with 29 pins and double data connections to six channels to provide a higher pixel
rate.

4. Display Port
 Display Port is a digital display interface
 It has a capability to provide a scalable digital display interface with optical audio and High
Definition Content Protection (HDCP).
 It can also be used to carry audio, USB and other form of data. Display port can be used to
connect the same device to multiple displays. It can carry HD quality video and audio
signals, high bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP).
 20 pins for external connections, 30/20 pins for internal connections on desktops, notebooks,
graphics card, monitor etc.

5. VGA Port [Video Graphics Array]

 A VGA port is a 15-pin, D-subminiature style port usually located on the back or side of
a laptop computer or the back of a desktop system.
 VGA ports are used to transfer analog video signals from one machine to another using
VGA cables. The arrangement of the 15 pins on the VGA port is in 3 groups of five pins,
lined up horizontally.
 The port is the "female" version of the pair, it appears as a series of holes, while the cable
is the "male" version with the appropriate pins.
 VGA ports first appeared in 1987 and are analog components capable of carrying red, green,
blue, horizontal sync, and vertical sync (RGBHV) video signals.
 VGA is popular display standard developed by IBM in 1987.
 VGA provides 640*480 resolution color display screen with 60 Hz.

6. DVI port
 DVI port used to transfer both analog and digital video signals. It offers better sharper
display, when compared to VGA
 DVI created by DDWG Digital Display Working Group.
 The maximum resolution potential depends on the equipment, though. Some cables and
hardware (called single-link) can only do 1,920x1,200, while others (dual-link) can do more.

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 If the display is analog, DVI connection converts digital signal to an analog signals. If the
display is digital, no conversion is needed.
 The digital video interface supports high bandwidth signal, over 160 Hz.
 There are three types of DVI connections:
DVI-A – designed for analog signals
DVI-D designed for digital signals
DVI-I – designed for both analog and digital signals.

7. Ribbon Cables
 A cable for transmitting electronic signals consisting of several insulated wires connected
together to form a flat ribbon.
 A thin, flat, multi- conductor cable that is widely used for internal peripheral connection in
electronic system.
 A 40 wire cable connect the IDE(ATA) drive and an 80 wire cable is used for IDE hard disk.
 These are the common ribbon cables used internally in a PC to connect hard disk, CD &
floppy.
 Now ribbon cable is replaced by SATA and e-SATA

8. SATA and e-SATA

 eSATA is an external interface technology that grew from the internal Serial ATA
interface. Serial ATA built upon the original ATA interface that connected hard drives to
motherboards.
 eSATA delivers improved performance and ease of use over the older ATA multi-pin
interface.
 External SATA [eSATA] brings the SATA Hard Drive bus outside the PC chassis and
allows external devices to be mounted to a SATA connection.
 The data cable runs out to a maximum of 6 feet. A shielded cable length of 3 feet or 6 feet
is common for eSATA. The eSATA cable is shielded, but otherwise the same cable as
used with SATA inside the PC.
SATA Advantages: SATA drives each have their own independent bus.
There is no competition for bandwidth.
SATA cables can be as long as one meter.
SATA is a data cable that uses only 7 conductors.

9. Universal Serial Bus(USB)

 Universal Serial Bus developed in 1995. There USB port come in 3 standard USB 1.1, USB
2.0 and USB 3.0
 Universal Serial Bus, an external bus standard that supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps.
 USB is small portable rectangular sport that comes with every computer.

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 A single USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices, such as mice, modems,
and keyboards.
 USB 1.1 could transfer data up to 12 Mbps, USB 2.0(high speed USB) transmit 480 Mbps.
USB 2.0 transfers data at a 4.8 Gbps.

10. Ethernet LAN port

 Ethernet LAN port standard way to connect computer in a network over a wired connection.
These look similar to telephone line.
 It provides a simple interface for connecting multiple devices, such as router and switches.
 Used mainly for data transfer. Ethernet has multiple standard that all use the same interface.
10 BASE-T- supports up to 10 Mbps
100 BASE-T –supports up to 100 Mbps
1000 BASE-T –supports up to 1000Mbps.

11. Audio Input/output

 An audio output device, sound board or audio card. A sound card is an expansion card or
IC for producing sound on a computer that can be heard through speaker or headphone.
 There are many possible sources of sound on a computer, including music CDs, online
videos and games. Regardless of the source, all sounds start as digital audio – numbers in
a file.
 Between the source file and the speaker, the audio must be converted to an analog format.
Microphones capture an analog audio signal, which is converted to digital. The conversions
happen inside or outside the computer, depending on the port type.
 They are often color-coded, yellow for composite video, red for the right audio channel,
and white or black for the left channel of stereo audio.
 Digital Out (white/yellow)- used with surround sound or loudspeakers.
 Sound in or line in( blue)- connection for external audio sources.
 Microphone(pink)- connection for microphone or headphone.
 Surround left/right (black) – Rear surround speaker for 5.1 & 7.1 System.
 Surround back left/right(gray) middle surround speaker for 7.1 system
 Sound out or line out (green) connection for your speaker or headphone.

A socket for plugging in an audio source is a jack. These devices vary widely, including audio disc
player, audio mixer, musical instruments, additional microphone etc.

Stereo cards with just 2 audio channels will have only green (output) and pink jacks. A few sound
cards with 8 audio channels do not provide the gray connector.

Expansion Slots

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Most computer have expansion slots on the motherboard that allow you to add various types of
expansion cards. These are sometimes called PCI(peripheral component interconnect) cards.
These cards after inserting into the slot may need the driver software to be installed with the
operating system to make the card work. PCI slot is the 32 bits bus running at clock speed 33 MHz
the maximum transfer speed of PCI bus is 133 MB/s
Below are some of the most common types of expansion cards.
Video card: it is responsible for what you see on the monitor. Most computer have a GPU (graphics
Processing Unit) built into the motherboard instead of having a separate video card. You can add
a faster video card to one of the expansion slots to get better performance.
Sound card: It is also called an audio card, responsible for what you hear on the speaker or
headphone. Most motherboard have integrated sound, but you can upgrade to a dedicated sound
card for higher quality sound.
Network card: it allows your computer to communicate over a network and to access over the
internet. It can either connect with an Ethernet cable or wireless communication.
TV Tuner card: it is a device you can use to connect an analog or digital TV signals to your
computer. Without a TV tuner, you cannot record Live TV in media center. TV tuner cards are
sometimes referred as PCI express bus or PCIbus Expansion card.

BIOS (Basic Input Output System)

BIOS is a “read only” memory, which consist of low level software that controls the system
hardware and act as an interface between the operating system and the hardware.
BIOS gives an essential link b/w the computer hardware and computer software.
All the motherboard include a small block of read only memory ROM which is separated from
main memory , used for loading and running software. The system BIOS is a ROM chip on the
motherboard used during the startup routine to check out the system and prepare to run the
hardware.

Chipset
 A chipset is group of small circuits that coordinates the flow of data to and from a PC’s key
component.
 A chipset also control data flow to and from hard disk and other device connected to the IDE
channels(Integrated Drive Electronic Channel)
 2main Chipset: North Bridge and South Bridge (A Bridge is generally used to designate a
component which connects two Buses.)
 North Bridge: also called Memory Controller, is in charge of controlling transfer b/w the
processor and RAM, hence it is locally present near processor.
 South Bridge: also called as expansion controller handle communication b/w slower
peripheral devices. It is also called as ICH(I/O controller Hub)

CHAPTER 5

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COMPUTER NETWORKS
Network: a group or system of interconnected people or things.
Networking: “It is a practice or process of linking two or more computing devices together for the
purpose of sharing data and resources”.

“Computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share
information and resources”.
Characteristics of a computer network
 Share Resources from one computer to another

 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network

 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let
other computers of the network use the machines available over network.

Classification of Computer Networks

Computer networks are classified based on various factors.They includes:

 Geographical span
 Inter-connectivity
 Administration
 Architecture
Geographical Span
Geographically a network can be seen in one of the following categories:

 It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices,. Ranging not more
than few meters.
 It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to connect all
floors.
 It may be spanned across a whole city.
 It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
 It may be one network covering whole world.
Inter-Connectivity
Components of a network can be connected to each other differently in some fashion. By
connectedness we mean either logically,physically, or both ways.

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 Every single device can be connected to every other device on network, making the
network mesh.
 All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically disconnected, created
bus like structure.
Administration
From an administrator’s point of view, a network can be private network which belongs a single
autonomous system and cannot be accessed outside its physical or logical domain. A network can
be public which is accessed by all.

Network Architecture
Computer networks can be discriminated into various types such as Client-Server, peer-to-
peer or hybrid, depending upon its architecture.

 There can be one or more systems acting as Server. Other being Client, requests the Server
to serve requests. Server takes and processes request on behalf of Clients.
 Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion. They both
reside at the same level and called peers.
 There can be hybrid network which involves network architecture of both the above types.

Need of Computer Network:

1. File sharing
2. Printer sharing
3. Communication and collaboration
4. Remote access
5. Data protection.

Advantages of networking:

1) Resource sharing - Through a network, data, s/w and h/w resources can be shared irrespective of
the physical location of the resources and the user.
2) Reliability – A file can have its copies on two or more computers of the network.
3) Reduced Cost – Sharing resources reduces the cost
4) Fast Communication – Information can be exchanged at a very fast speed
5) Parallel computing
6) Video conferences
DATA AND INFORMATION

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Data: it refers to the raw facts.

Information: The conversion of data into information.

Data Communication: “Transmission or Exchange of data between two or more computers”.

Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers
and a computer network or data network.
Three fundamental concepts of data communication are
 Destiny
 Reliability
 fast

Basic Elements of Communication system:

1. Sender: A device which sends the message.

2. Receiver: A device which receives the message.
3. Transmission medium: The path through which the message is transmitted.
4. Message: Actual data to be transmitted.
5. Protocol: A set of rules to be followed during communication.

Terms Used In Data Communication:

1. Data: A collection of raw facts that becomes information after processing.

2. Signal: Encoded data in electronic form.
3. Signaling: Propagation of signals across a transmission medium is called signaling
4. Transmission: The flow of data form sender to receiver.

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Data Representation
1. Text
2. Numbers
3. Images
4. Audio
5. Video

Data Representation:

Data refers to raw facts which on processing become an information. Information today comes in
different forms such as Text, numbers, pictures, audio and video which are represented in a specific
manner in order to transmit in data communication systems.

1) Text: Text is represented as a bit pattern, ie, sequence of 0’s and 1’s. different sets of bit
patterns(coding systems) are designed to represent text symbols.
1. Unicode: it is a universal code which uses a 32 bits to represent alphabets or symbols
2. ASCII: this refers to American Standard Code for Information Interchange which uses 7 bits to
represent characters or symbols

2) Number: Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. The number is directly converted to
a binary number.

3) Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. Image is composed of matrix of pixels,
where each pixel is a small dot. The size of pixel depends on the resolution. Several methods
are used to represent color images for ex: RGB(Red, green, Blue) ,CMYK(cyan ,magenta,
yellow, black).The intensity of each color combination is measured and a bit pattern will be
assigned to it.

4) Audio: This type of data is in the form of sound which is recorded and broadcasted with
signals.

5) Video: The video data refers to recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can
be either a continuous or discrete with combination of pictures. We can change thie video
to digital or analog signal

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Data Transmission Modes and Types of Communication

Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also called
communication mode.
“Transmission mode refers to direction of data signal flow between two linked devices”
The transmission is characterized by:
1. The direction of exchanges.
2. Transmission Mode: The number of bits sent simultaneously.
3. Synchronization between the transmitter and receiver one or many

1. Based on the direction, way the data can flow, Transmission can be classified into

 Simplex communication
 Half duplex Mode
 Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode
In this mode, the communication is unidirectional
i.e., data flows only one direction from sender to receiver
Example:
 Radio and Tv broadcasting
 Data flow from keyboard to compute

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HALF DUPLEX Mode

In this mode, the communication takes place in both direction but only one direction at a time.
Example: Walkie-talkie, Internet browsing

FULL DUPLEX Mode

In this mode, data communication takes place in both directionat the same time
Example: Telecommunication
In full duplex system, there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving
data.

2. Based on requirement and Network, Transmission can be classified into

1. Point-to-Point connection
2. Multipoint connection
3. Broadcasting

Point-To-Point Connection

It this type communication takes place between two end points or devices. In the case of voice
communication using telephone, there is one calling party and one called party. Hence the
communication is point-to-point

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Multipoint Connection: It is also called Multi drop configuration. In this type there will be one
sender and more recipients. From sender data can be multicast to specific or dedicated user rather
sending to all.

Ex:voice, video conferencing

Broadcasting: In this type there will be acentral location from which information is sent to all users
over the network. In a broadcasting system, all users (receivers) are passive there is no re verse
communication path with dedicated users

Types of Networks:

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Depending on the distance covered the networks can be classified into three types as follows:
1. LAN
2. MAN
3. WAN

LAN [Local Area Network]

 The interconnection between the devices within a single building or campus
 It covers on area up to 10 kms
 LANs are usually owned by a single person or small organization
 LAN covers organization offices,schools, colleges or universities.
 LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users. The resources such
as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among computers.

 LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely employed LAN
technology and uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen.

 LAN’s are high speed networks and inexpensive.

Metropolitan Area Network

 The interconnection between the devices within a city.
 It covers on area up to 50 kms
 LANs are usually owned by a large organization like govt
 MAN, generally expands throughout a city such as cable TV network.
 It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
 Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand
their LAN.
 MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics.
 MAN works in between LAN and WAN.

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 MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.

WAN [Wide Area Network]

 The interconnection between devices over large geographical area is called WAN
 Generally, telecommunication networks are WAN.
 These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs.
 WAN is very high-speed backbone and use very expensive network equipment.
 WAN may be managed by multiple administrator.
 WAN uses fiber optic cables and satellites as a medium

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LAN Topology: “The physical arrangements of computers in a network are called Topology”.

Types of topologies:
1. Bus
2. Star
3. Ring
4. Mesh
5. Tree
6. Hybrid

BUS Topology
In a bus topology, all the network devices are connected to single long cable called Bus.
A signal from the source is broadcasted to all the devices connected by bus by only the intended
device accepts it and other devices just ignore the signal

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is easy to install and reconfigure

2. Cable requirement is less compared to other network topology
3. Suitable for LAN
4. It is less expensive
5. Failure of one-node does not effects to the rest of the network

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Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. Security is low, because the signal is broadcasted to all the devices.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology, all the network devices are connected to a central controller called HUB
with a point-to-point connection
HUB acts like a junction to connect all the devices in a network

Advantages of Star Topology

 Installation and reconfiguration is easy

 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Failure of one-node does not effects to the rest of the network
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

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RING Topology
In this topology, all the network devices are connected to one another in the shape of closed ring
In this data is transmitted only in one direction from device to device.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Installation and reconfiguration is easy

2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

MESH Topology
In this topology, every device is connected to every other device in a network with a point-to-
point connection
A fully connected mesh network has n (n-1)/2 link to connect n devices.
Every device on the network must have (n-1) input ports and (n-1) output ports

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Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology, some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. It is robust and reliable means if one of the component fail there is always an alternative
present.
2. Data transfer rate is very fast
3. Fault identification is easily.
4. Failure of one node does not effects to the rest of thenetwork

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. It is very expensive
3. Cable requirement is more

TREE Topology

In tree topology, the number of start networks are connected using BUS. The main cable seems
like main steam and other start network are the branches
It is also called as the extended star topology

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Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Error detection and correction is easy

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. If BUS cable fails the entire network will be shutdown

2. It is expensive
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology

It is combination of 2/more different topology

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Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

CHAPTER 6
TRANSMISSION MEDIA AND NETWORK DEVICES
Transmission: the act or process of transmitting or Communication of data achieved by processing
of signals.
Media: that carries the message; plural "medium" refers to various means of communication. It is
also called as channel.
Transmission Media:
“Transmission media is a physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver”

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The characteristics and quality of data transmission can be determined based on by characteristics
of transmission media and signals.
1. Bandwidth: Data carrying capacity of a channel or a medium.
2. Radiation: It refers to leakage of signals due to undesirable characteristics.
3. Noise absorption: It refers to susceptibility of the media to external noise that can cause
distortion of signals
4. Attenuation: loss of energy or strength of a signal falls off. The amount of energy lost
depends on frequency.

Types of transmission media

It is classified into two types
The types of Bounded/ Guided are discussed below.
Types:
1. Guided: Signals are transmitted via a physical tangible guide between communicating points.
Ex. Coaxial cable, telephone cable , optical fiber.
2. Unguided: in this physically there is no connection between two points.
Ex. Microwave, radio waves, satellite signals,.

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Guided Transmission Media

Guided media are those that provide physical conduct from one device to another.
There are 3 types of guided media
Twisted-pair Cable:

 Twisted-pair cable were invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1881

 This cable consist of 2 this insulated copper wires, twisted to form a spiral
 Each wire pair acts as a communication link.
 One of the wire carries signal, the other is used as ground reference s
 A number of these pairs are bundled together into a cable by wrapping them into proactive
sheath.
 Twisting reduces the amount of interface and other cable.

Twisted Pair is of two types:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

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Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair
Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour plastic
insulator. Identification is the reason behind colored plastic insulation.

UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and
4 pair cable useRJ-45 connector.

Advantages:

 Installation is easy
 Flexible
 Cheap
 It has high speed capacity,
 100 meter limit
 Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.

It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical
form to reduce electrical interference from similar pair.

Disadvantages :

 Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable

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 Provides less protection from interference.

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk (explained in KEY TERMS Chapter).

It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It is
more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

Advantages :

 Easy to install

 Performance is adequate

 Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission

 Increases the signalling rate

 Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair

 Eliminates crosstalk

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Disadvantages :

 Difficult to manufacture
 Heavy

Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cable has a single copper conductor at its center, used to connect computers in a
network.
 A plastic layer provides insulation between the copper conductor and copper mesh
 Carries signal of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable.

Baseband

This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is mostly used for
LAN’s. Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The major drawback is
that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.

Broadband

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This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits several
simultaneous signal using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared with Baseband
Coaxial Cable.

Applications:

 T V distribution
 long distance telephone transmission
 LAN

Advantages:

 Bandwidth is high
 Used in long distance telephone lines.
 Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
 Much higher noise immunity
 Data transmission without distortion.
 The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared
to twisted pair cable

Disadvantages:

 Single cable failure can fail the entire network.

 Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
 If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

Optical Fiber cable

Optical fiber is made of a center glass core surrounded by a concentric layer of glass (cladding). It
transmits signal in the form of light.
A glass/core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass/plastic. The difference in density of 2
materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding
instead of being into it
Characteristics:

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 Refraction
 WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing) is used to carry several information streams
simultaneously.

Modes: The paths in which a light ray can follow when travelling down a fiber is known as
modes.On the basis of mode optical fibre can be classified into
1.Single mode: cable is single strand of glass fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has
one mode of transmission
2. Multimode: cable is made up of glass fibers, with a common diameters of 50 to 100 micron
range of light carrying component(most common is 62.5).

Advantages :

 Provides high quality transmission of signals at very high speed.

 These are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion is very less.
 Used for both analog and digital signals.

Disadvantages :

 It is expensive
 Difficult to install.
 Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
 Do not allow complete routing of light signals.

Unguided Transmission Media:

In this physically there is no connection between two points. It is also referred as wireless
communication, where transmission happens without any connecting cables. The Transmission
happens by the means of Electromagnetic radiations that can travel through air.

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Unguided Transmission media

Transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna

• directional

– transmitting antenna puts out focused beam

– transmitter and receiver must be aligned

• Omni-directional

– signal spreads out in all directions

– can be received by many antennas

Microwaves
Microwave technology was developed during world war II in connection with Secret military radar
research. It is used for transmission of information because of its longer wavelengths which ranges
from cm to microns. Microwaves uses line of sight in order to work properly and transmitted
through space. The line of sight means the data signals can only travel in straight line and cannot
bend.

Based on how far signal travels wireless communication can be classified into
Short range:( (5cm – 50 m) Bluetooth , infrared
Medium range: (50m-500m) wifi , wimax
Wide range: (>500m) cellular communications
The microwave communication has two types:
1. Terrestrial Links
2. Satellite links

Terrestrial Microwave station

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• used for long-distance telephone service

• uses radio frequency spectrum, from 4-6 and 21-23 Ghz

• parabolic dish transmitter, mounted high

• used by common carriers as well as private networks

• requires unobstructed line of sight between source and receiver

• curvature of the earth requires stations (repeaters) ~30 miles apart

Satellite Microwave Transmission

Satellite Microwave Transmission

• a microwave relay station will be in space

• can relay signals over long distances

• geostationary satellites

– remain above the equator at a height of 36000 -50000 km (geosynchronous orbit)

– travel around the earth in exactly the time the earth takes to rotate

Radio waves:
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiations whose frequency are easy to generate and the
wavelength is more so that can travel long distances and can penetrate buildings and other media.

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James Clerk Maxwell predicted the existence of radio waves in 1870.

Radio waves are unidirectional, meaning that they travel in all directions from source indoor,
outdoor and everywhere.

Applications of Radio waves

Traditional voice communication
Television communication
Cell phones
Radio communication (AM, FM)
Satellite Communication
A satellite is an object that orbits another object like a planet. In 1962, the American
telecommunications giant AT&T launched the world’s first true communications satellite called
Telstar.
A communication satellite is a station in space that is used for telecommunicating radio and
television signals. Satellite and radio communication is a non terrestrial microwave transmission
system utilizing a space relay station. Exotic application is GPS (Global Positioning System).
Process of Transmission
If two stations on the earth wants to communicate through radio broadcast which are too far away
can communicate with the help of satellite relay station for their communication. One earth station
sends a Transmission to the satellite, this is called uplink. The satellite transponder converts the
signal and sends it to down to second earth station. This is called downlink.

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1. Geostationary satellite: The satellite communication system involves a satellite relay

station that is launched into geostationary, geosynchronous orbit. Such satellites are called
geostationary satellites. Such orbit approximately 36000 km above the equator.

Applications of satellite communication.

Traditional communication, GPS services Cellular communication, Tv signals, Astrology, Marine
communication, commercial jets, etc.
Network Devices
1. NIC
 A network interface card (NIC) is a circuit board or card that is installed in a computer
so that it can be connected to a network.
 The NIC contains the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a wired
connection (e.g., Ethernet) or a wireless connection (e.g., WiFi).

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 An Ethernet connection uses a standard interface known as a RJ45 connector. 'RJ'

stands for 'registered jack.
 Ethernet cable is necessary.

2. Repeater
 A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it.
 Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can cover longer distances
or be received on the other side of an obstruction.
 It works at OSI physical layer consist of two ports . It receives the signal through one
port and retransmit the signal with other port

3. HUB
 a hub refers to a hardware device that enables multiple devices or connections to be
connected to a computer.ie broadcasting without filtering the data.
 HUB forwards the message which it receives to all the devices which are connected
except the device which sent.
 Also called multiport repeater, Ethernet hub, repeater hub, active hub, network hub.

TYPES OF HUB:
 Active Hub : it can regenerate the information signal. upgrade the signal before sending
to the destination.
 Passive Hub : like a simple bridge. it receives signal and forwards it.
 Intelligence HUB: performs both active Hubs and passive hubs

4. Bridge
 A bridge is a type of computer network device that provides interconnection with other
bridge networks that use the same protocol.

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 Bridge devices work at the data link layer of the Open System Interconnect (OSI) model,
connecting two different networks together and providing communication between
them.
 In bridge no specific relationship, so messages are sent out to every addresses and accept
by destination.
 Only one incoming port and one outgoing port

5. Switch
 In networks, a device that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments.
 Switches operate at the data link layer (layer 2) and sometimes the network
layer (layer 3) of the OSI Reference Model and therefore support any packet
protocol.
 It can also perform the task of router , it can receive data packets and successfully
forward them to their destination IP
 Multiple data cables plugged in to switch to enable communications between
different network devices.

6. Router
 A router is a device that forward data packets along networks.
 A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or
a LAN and its ISP's network.
 Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
 Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for forwarding
packets.
 A router is quite common to be found in homes and business.

7. Gateway
 A gateway is a network point/node that acts as an entrance to another type of
networks.

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 Computers that control traffic within your companies network called gateway
nodes.
 Gateway is considered as edge of the network as all data must flow through
it .
 A computer server acts as a gateway node also acts as proxy server and firewall
server.
8. Modem:

A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a network hardware device that modulates

one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital information for transmission and

demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information.

A common type of modem is one that turns the digital data of a computer into

modulated electrical signal for transmission over telephone lines and demodulated

by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.

Internal Modem - Modem that connects to a PCI slot inside a newer desktop

computer or ISA slot on an older computer. The Internal Modem shown at the

beginning of this document is an example of a PCI Modem.

External Modem - Modem within a box that connects to the computer externally,

usually the Serial Ports or USB port. The picture is an example of an external US

Robotics Modem.

Functions:
1. Error connection
2. Compressing the data
3. Flow control

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Reference model
It is a conceptual standard layout that describes how communication occurs between devices.

Two reference models are

1. OSI reference model
2. TCP/IP reference model

NETWORK TERMINOLOGIES:

1. Layer: a layer is a portion of a network.

2. Packet: a packet is a unit of data that is routed b/w source and destination.
3. Frame: a frame is a digital data transmission unit in computer networking and
telecommunications.
4. Subnet: the diving a network into two or more network is called subnet.

ISO
ISO stands for International organization of Standardization. This is called a model for Open
System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model.

The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system.

Layered Approach to Communications

 Seven Layers Altogether

 Each Layer Performs a Unique Function
 Each Layer Has Its Own Protocol

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Layer 7: Application Layer:

It provides the interface between all network aware applications and network services.

Example: browser, Gmail, file transfer

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 File transfer
 Remote database system
 E-mail services
 Directory services
 Remote file access

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer:

It is a network translator, which translates the data from system specific format to common format
at the sender side and retranslate common format to system specific format at receiver side

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 Data conversion

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 Data encryption and description

 Data compression and decompression

Layer 5: The Session Layer:

It is a network dialogue controller, which provides a mechanism for opening a connection between
two devices, managing the conversation between them and closing the connection

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 Session management
 Synchronization

Layer 4: Transport Layer:

It is responsible for Reliable delivery of entire message from a specific process running on sender
to a specific process running on receiver

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 Reliable delivery of data

 Process to process delivery of data
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Flow control
 Error control

Layer 3: The Network Layer:

It is responsible for source to destination delivery of each pocket from one network to another
network

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 Logical addressing
 Routing
 Source to destination delivery
 Internetworking

Layer 2: Data Link Layer:

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It is responsible for error free transfer of data frames from one node to another node over the
physical layer

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 Framing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Physical addressing

Layer 1: The Physical Layer:

It co-ordinates the function required to transmit a bit of stream over a physical medium
(transmission medium)

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 It receives the data frames from the data link layer and divides them into streams of bit and
then bits are encoded into signal to be transmitted through the transmission medium.
 It defines the type of transmission medium, topology, transmission mode and line
configuration

TCP/IP

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol.

TCP/IP model is an implementation of OSI model which describes the communication between
Heterogeneous computers in a network. It is commonly referred as a protocol suit.
TCP/IP is a 4 layered structure with each layer having their individual protocol

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Layer 4: Application Layer

It provides the interface between all network aware applications and network services.

The protocols defined of this layer are:

1. HTTP [Hyper Text Transfer Protocol]:

It responsible for communication between web-browser and web-server

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) It responsible for transferring the files from one computer to

another computer connected to internet.

3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) it responsible for sending and receiving email

messages.

4. DNS (Domain Name Server) it is responsible for transferring domain name and IP-address.

5. TELNET[Remote login]: it is responsible for login to a remote computer

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Layer 3: Transport Layer

Transport layer is responsible for reliable delivery of data, error an segmentation and reassembly
The 2 important protocols defined at transport later are:
1.TCP [Transmission Control Protocol]: it is connection oriented and reliable protocol
Connection oriented: a connection must be established between sender to receiver before data
transmission
Reliable: it has a mechanism to detect and retransmit the damaged/ lost data.
2.UDP [User Datagram Protocol]: it is connection less and unreliable protocol
Connection less: connection setup is not done instead individual blocks of information is
transmitted based on the destination address
Unreliable: if data is lost during transmission no effort is mode to transmit the lost data

Layer 2: Internet layer

Internet layer is responsible for source to destination delivery of packet from one network to another
network, logical addressing, routing and forwarding

The important protocol defined of this layer is:

IP [Internetworking Protocol]: is a connection less and unreliable protocol.
Ip uses some supporting protocols
ARP [Address Resolution Protocol]:
It is used to find the physical address of the device when its IP address in known.
RARP [Reverse Address Resolution Protocol]:
It is used to find the IP address of the device when its physical address in known.

Layer 1: Network Access Layer

It is responsible for framing , error control and flow control (data link layer) and it co-ordinates the
function required to transmit a stream of bit thorough transmission medium

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The 2 important protocols defined of this layer are:

SLIP [Serial Line Internet Protocol]
PPP [Point-to-Point Protocol]

Connection oriented and connection less services

Connection Oriented Services
There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of connection oriented service. These
are:
 Connection is established
 Information is sent
 Connection is released

A connection must be established between sender to receiver before data transmission

Example: TCP

Connection less Services

Connection setup is not done instead individual blocks of information is transmitted based on the
destination address. Each message is routed independently from source to destination. The order of
message sent can be different from the order received. It is unreliable
Example : UDP

1. Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Model

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control

Protocol / Internet Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard

independent standard, acting as a protocols around which the Internet has

communication gateway between the developed. It is a communication

network and end user. protocol, which allows connection of

hosts over a network.

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2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer

guarantees the delivery of packets. does not guarantees delivery of packets.

Still the TCP/IP model is more reliable.

3. OSI model has a separate 3. TCP/IP does not have a separate

Presentation layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.

4. Network layer of OSI model 4. The Network layer in TCP/IP model

provides both connection oriented provides connectionless service.

and connectionless service.

5. Protocols are hidden in OSI model 5. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not

and are easily replaced as the easy.

technology changes.

6. OSI model defines services, 6. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and

interfaces and protocols very clearly protocols are not clearly separated. It is

and makes clear distinction between also protocol dependent.

them. It is protocol independent.

10. It has 7 layers 10. It has 4 layers

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Chapter 3: Memory Managements Techniques

7. Introduction to Computer Memory

8. Memory Measurements Units in Computer

9. Classification of Memory

10. Cache memory

11. Primary Memory

 ROM (Read Only Memory)

* PROM
* EPROM
* EEPROM
 RAM (Read Access Memory)
* SDRAM
* EDORAM
* DDR Series (DDR1, DDR2 ,DDR3)
12. Secondary Memory
 Serial Access Memory (SAM)
 Direct Access Memory (DAM)
* Magnetic Disk
* Floppy Disk
* Hard Disk
* Optical Disk
*CD-ROM
* Flash Memory
* Smart Card
*ZIP Drive
*DVD-ROM

7. Other Secondary Storage Devices

*Pen Drive

8. System Utility Tools

* Antivirus Software
* Disk Tools
* Backup Software
9. Device Drivers
10. Difference between the Primary Memory and Secondary Memory.
11. Difference between ROM and RAM
12. Difference between Magnetic Disk and Optical Disk

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13. Difference between Hard Disk and Floppy Disk

Introduction of Computer Memory:

 A memory is just like a human brain.

 It is used to store data and instructions.

 Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be

processed and instructions required for processing are stored.

 The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells.

 Each location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory
size minus one.

Memory Measurements Units in Computer:

 Computer has its memory and this should be measured by using some
measurements units.
 Computer understand only binary image so information is stored in the form
of bits and bytes.

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 A bit(smallest unit of data ) is single data that can take a value either o and 1.
 A group of 8 bits make 1 byte. A byte is known as the smallest unit of memory
because to store any information in the memory, minimum of 8 bits is required.
 Each byte in memory has unique address and known as a memory cell or block.

8 Bits = 1 Byte

16 Bits = 1 word

1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Bytes(KB)

1024 Kilo Bytes(KB) = 1 Mega Byte(1MB)

1024 Mega Byte(MB) =1 Giga Byte(1GB)

1024 Giga Bytes(GB) = 1 Tera Bytes(TB)

1024 TeraBytes = 1 PetaBytes(PB)

1024 PetaBytes(PB)=1ExaBytes(EB)

Classification of Memory:

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Memory

Cache Primary Seconda

Memory Memory ry

ROM RAM Serial Direct

Access Access
Magneti Magneti Optica
PROM SD-RAM
c Tapes c Disk l Disk
EPROM EDO Floppy CD ROM
RAM Disk
EEPROM DDR Hard DVD
Series Disk ROM

Cache memory:
 The cache memory increases the operating speed of a system. But it is must
costlier than main memory. The cache memory is placed in between CPU and main
memory. It is a very high semi conductor memory which can speed up CPU.

 Cache memory acts a buffer between CPU and main memory and it is faster and
access time is much less compared to main memory.

 The cache memory is an intermediate memory and not accessible by the user. It
holds those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPUs. It
store instruction and data which are to be immediate executed.

Advantage:

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5. Cache memory is faster than main memory.

6. It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

7. It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

8. It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantage:
3. Cache memory has limited capacity.

4. It is very expensive.

Types/Levels of Cache Memory:

 A computer can have several different levels of cache memory. The level
numbers refers to distance from CPU where Level 1 is the closest. All levels
of cache memory are faster than RAM. The cache closest to CPU is always
faster but generally costs more and stores less data then other level of cache.

Level 1 (L1) Cache

 It is also called primary or internal cache. It is built directly into the processor
chip. It has small capacity from 8 Km to 128 Kb.

Level 2 (L2) Cache

 It is slower than L1 cache. Its storage capacity is more, i-e. From 64 Kb to 16
MB. The current processors contain advanced transfer cache on processor
chip that is a type of L2 cache. The common size of this cache is from 512 kb
to 8 Mb.

Level 3 (L3) Cache

 This cache is separate from processor chip on the motherboard. It exists on
the computer that uses L2 advanced transfer cache. It is slower than L1 and
L2 cache. The personal computer often has up to 8 MB of L3 cache.

Primary Memory (Main Memory):

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 Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is
currently working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is
switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories
are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed
reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories
 It is known as main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Semiconductor:
 A semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or
compound, that can conduct electricity under some conditions.

 It is a good medium for the control of electrical current.

 Its conductance varies depending on the current or voltage applied to a

control electrode, or on the intensity of irradiation by infrared (IR), visible
light, ultraviolet (UV), or X rays.

ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY):

 ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
 It is a type of internal memory, also known as firmware, is an integrated
circuit programmed with specific data at the time of manufacturing. These
data and programs cannot be changed or deleted afterwards.

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 The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
 This type of memory is non-volatile.
 ROM is used instruction and data to control the basic input and output
operation of a computer.
 The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
operation is referred to as bootstrap.
 ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic
items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Following are the various types of ROM:

4) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
5) EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
6) EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

4. PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

 PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user.

 The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
program, it remains there forever. If there is any error writing instruction and
data in PROM, the error can’t be erased.

 Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

 Difference between a PROM and ROM is that a PROM is manufactured as

blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacture
process.

 To write data onto a PROM chip, we need special device called a PROM
programmer or PROM burner.

 The process of programming a PROM is also known as burning the PROM.

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5. EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

 EPROM is initially blank. The user or manufacture can write programs or data
on it.

 EPROM data or instruction can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light

for duration up to 40 minutes. EPROM eraser use to achieves this function.

 To expose it, we have to remove EPROM chip from its environment. Erasing
and rewriting will eventually render the chip useless. We can’t erase the
selected portion of data in it.

6. EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

 EEPROM is a special type of ROM, which can programmed and erased with
the help of electrical signal.
 It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and
programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second).
 In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed.
EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip.
Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.
 It is also written as E2PROM and pronounce as “Double-EPROM ” or simple
“C-Squared”.

Advantages of ROM:
 Non-volatile in nature

 These cannot be accidentally changed

 Cheaper than RAMs

 Easy to test

 More reliable than RAMs

 These are static and do not require refreshing

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 Its contents are always known and can be verified

RAM (Random Access Memory) / Main Memory):

• RAM is a primary memory of computers that can be accessed randomly, i.e
any byte of memory can be accessed randomly without disturbing any other
bytes.

• RAM is made of small memory chips that form a memory module known as
main memory.

• These module also known as physical memory, installed in the RAM slots of
the motherboard in computer. Main memory is available in every computer so,
it is also known as primary storage of a computer.

• RAM is called volatile memory.

• Every time when open a program, its gets loaded from the hard drive into the
RAM.

• RAM takes a certain amount of time to read/write data, once the request has
been made by CPU, the time is called Access time and which should be
expressed in nanosecond.

• Any new data written to a location in the RAM overwrites the previous data.

• The access time is same for each memory location. RAM is divided into Static
RAM and Dynamic RAM.

Depending on the electronic component used and data transfer rate, RAM may be
classified into 3 types:

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4. SDRAM
5. EDORAM
6. DDR Series

4. SD-RAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory ):

 SD-RAM have single data rate. It can accept one command and transfer one
word of data per clock cycle.
 SD-RAM have synchronous interface therefore they depend on the computer
clock signals to perform operations.
 Speed of SD-RAM is 100- 133 MHz
 With the help synchronous interface, SD-RAM has an internal finite state
machine that pipelines incoming instructions.
 Pipelines are used to describe the process whereby the SD-RAM can accept a
new instruction before it has finished processing the previous one.

5. EDO-RAM (Extended Data Output) RAM:

 It also known as Extended Data Output Dynamic RAM.

 It allows the data outputs to be kept active even after the signal goes inactive,
using an additional signal to control the data outputs.
 EDO-DRAM is primarily used with Intel’s Pentium processors as a additional
chip. And it speeds up the process.
 To make use of the advanced features of EDO an appropriate chipset (Triton)
must be used.

6. DDR-RAM(Double Data Rate Random Access Memory):

DDR Series:

Double data rate synchronous dynamic random-access memory

(DDR SDRAM) is a class of memory integrated circuits used in

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computers. DDR SDRAM, also called DDR1 SDRAM, has been superseded by
DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3.

DDR1-RAM:
 DDR1-RAM transfer data twice per clock cycle, hence the name double data
rate.
 DDR1-RAM clock speeds range between 200-400MHz.
 DDR1-200 transfers 1600 MB/s, while DDR1-400 transfers 3200MB/s.

DDR2-RAM:
 DDR2-RAM stands for Double Data Rate 2 Random Access Memory.
 DDR2 is twice as fast as DDR which means twice as much data is carried to
the module for each clock cycle.
 DDR2 consumes less power as compared to DDR1 memory.
 DDR2 speed ranges between 400-800MHz.
 DDR2-400 transfers 3200MB/s. and DDR2-800 transfers 6400MB/s.

DDR3-RAM:

 DDR3-RAM stands for Double Data Rate 3 Random Access Memory.

 DDR3 act twice as fast as DDR2 memories.
 DDR3 speed ranges between 800-1600MHz.
 DDR3-800 transfers 6400MB/s and DDR3-1600 transfers 12800MB/s.
 DDR3's pre fetch buffer width is 8 bit, whereas DDR2's is 4 bit, and DDR's is
2 bit.

Secondary Memory:

 Any additional storage used in computer other than primary memory may be
classified as secondary memory.
 These devices are normally very slow compare to primary memory.
 All the data required for processing as to be rooted through primary memory.

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 The size of secondary memory is larger and cost is also reasonable.

 It is non volatile in nature.
 CPU can access these memories via data cables.
 These are used for storing data/information permanently
 The content of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory and
the CPU can access it.
 Secondary memory on a computer is storage for data and programs not in use
at the moment.
 In modern computer the secondary storage device are hard disk & optical disk.
 Based on the data accessing techniques, Secondary memory is classified into
two ways.
1) Serial Access Memory (SAM)
2) Direct Access Memory (DAM)

1. Serial Access Memory (SAM):

 Serial Access memory is a class of data storage device that read their data in
sequence.
 It means, A group of element (Data in memory Array or a disk file or on
magnetic tape data storage) is accessed in predetermined order that is from
starting point of SAM, even if required data is present in somewhere near the
middle of SAM memory.
Ex: Magnetic tapes.

2. Direct Access Memory (DAM):

 Direct access memory is a method of transferring data from a computer RAM
to another part of a computer without processing it by using CPU.
 Most of data are input/output from a computer is processed by the CPU; some
data don’t require processing or can be processed by another device.
 In this situation, DMA can save processing time and it is a more efficient way
to move data from the computer’s memory to other device.
 There is memory need not to be sequential accessed to read a particular data.
 DAM has two types
1) Magnetic Disk
2) Optical Disc

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3. Magnetic Disk/Device:

 Magnetic disk is the storage of data on a magnetized medium.

 Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization.
 It store data in the form of non-volatile memory duration of magnetization.
 Magnetic disks are flat circular plates of metal or plastic, coated on both side
with iron oxide.
 Input signals, which may be audio, video or data are recorded on the surface of
a disk.
 For computer data storage application, a collection of as many as 20 disks is
mounted vertically on the spindle of a drive unit.
 Based on the storage capacity, the magnetic disk is classified into two groups.
1) Floppy Disk
2) Hard Disk
1. Floppy Disk:
 Floppy Disk is also called diskette.
 A floppy disk is a random access, removable data storage medium.
 It is composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic storage medium, with
sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes dust
particles.
 Floppy disk are read and written by a floppy disk drive(FDD).
 Floppy disk data are placed in concentric magnetic circles called tracks.
 The floppy disk have 80 tracks per side, each track is divided into storage units
called sectors.
 The number of sectors per tracks varies depending on the media and format.
 Physical sector numbering start with the number 1 at the beginning of each
track.
 Based on the size of floppy disk , It can be divided into two types,
a) 133 mm or 51/4 inch
b) 90 mm or 3 ½ inch

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a) 133 mm or 51/4 inch:

 133 mm is the diameter of a floppy disk.
 The floppy disk is protected by a flexible plastic jacket.
 It has read- write format.
 It stores 1MB data and information using high density media and recording
techniques.
 These types of floppy are generally capable of storing between 100k and 1.2
MB of data.
 The most common sizes are 360k and 1.2 MB

b) 90 mm or 3 ½ inch:

 The 90mm floppy or ‘micro floppy’ are use for storage medium for personal
computers.
 This type of floppy is generally capable of storing between from 400k to 1.4MB of data.
 The most common sizes for PCs are 720k (double density) and 1.44MB(high -density).

2. Hard Disk:

 Hard disk is a type of magnetic disk (HD, HDD) used as data storage device.
 The hard disk first introduced by IBM in 13th September 1956.
 It consists of one or more platters inside of an air-sealed box.
 Platters are electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces.
 The platters are paired with magnetic heads arranged on a moving arm, which
read and write data to the platters surfaces.
 There are thousands of tracks on each platter. Each track is divided into sectors.
A sector holds minimum 512 bytes of data.
 Data is accessed in random-access manner.
 A hard disk drive is a non-volatile memory.
 Internal hard disk resides in drive bay which is connect to the motherboard
using an ATA, SCSI or SATA cable and are powered by a connection to the
power supply unit.
 Characteristic of hard disk:
1) It provides large storage capacity.
2) It is much faster than floppy disks.
3) It is primary media for storing data and programs permanently.

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4) Data stored on the hard disk is safer than floppy disks.

Difference between Hard Disk and Floppy Disk:

Hard Disk Floppy Disk
1. A Magnetic disk, in which store a much A soft magnetic disk, in which we store
more data. less data.

2. It has more storage space and more 2. It has less storage space and less
expensive. expensive.

3. It’s access time is faster than floppy disk. 3. Its access time slower than hard disk.

4. Hard disk can transfer data faster than 4. Floppy disk can transfer data slower than
floppy. hard disk.

4. Optical Discs:

 Optical Disc is a digital format medium.

 In which data is read and written by lasers.
 It stores data as micron-wide dots of light and dark.
 A laser reads the dots and data convert to an electrical signal and finally audio
or visual output.
 A laser in this means, an electromagnetic wave with a very specific wavelength
within or near the visible light spectrum.
 Optical disc can store much more data up to 6GB other than most portable
magnetic media.
 This allows playing music or watching movies using pre-recorded discs.
 There are two basic types of optical disc: CD-ROM and DVD-ROM

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CD (Compact Disc)-ROM:
 Optical drive use to read optical disc.
 The ROM means here the data on the disc is read –only or can not be altered
or erased.
 The standard compact disc is a disc made of clear polycarbonate plastic,
coated with a reflective material and a protective coat of clear lacquer.
 Data is placed on the CD-ROM in the form of small pits recorded in a spiral
track, starting at the center at the center of the CD-ROM and working to the
outer edge.
 It is used to store data in the form of text and graphics as well as hi-fi stereo
sound.
 The data is permanent and can be read any number of times but can’t be
modified any single time.
 CD-ROM could hold up to 700MB data.
 In CD-ROM another type is CD-RW (CD-Rewritable), discs can be erased
and re-recorded just like a floppy or hard disk.
 CD-RW disc can be read in CD-RW drives.

DVD-ROM:
 DVD stands for Digital versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc.
 It is type of optical disc able to store large amount of data (high resolution
audio visual material).
 DVD is commonly used as medium for digital representation of movies and
other multimedia presentations that combine sound with graphics.
 A DVD holds minimum of 4.7 GB of data.
 Based on the usage and compatibility various DVDs are like DVD-RAM,
DVD+R, DVD +RW etc.

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Difference between Magnetic Disk and Optical Disk:

Magnetic Disk Optical Disk

1. It stores a data on the magnetized 1. Optical disk stores a data on an optical or
medium. laser disk in the form of tiny pits.

2. Magnetic disk is floppy and hard disk. 2. The optical disk are CD, DV-ROM etc.

3. It doesn’t use a laser to read/write data. 3. It uses a laser to read /write.

4. It is affected by magnetic field. 4. It is not affected by magnetic field.

5. It has a high storage capacity. It has less-storage capacity.

Difference between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory:

Primary Memory Secondary Memory
1. Primary memory is temporary. 1. Secondary memory is permanent.

2. These are semiconductor memories. 2.These are magnetic and optical memories
3. It is volatile memory. 3. It is non-volatile memory.

4. A computer can’t run without primary 4. The computer may run without
memory. secondary memory.
5. Primary storage is smaller in capacity. 5. Secondary storage is bigger in capacity.
6. It is usually faster and more expensive. 6. It is usually cheaper and larger.
7. It is closer to CPU, so it is faster. 7. It is connected to CPU via cables, so it is
slower.
8. Example: ROM , RAM etc. 8.Example: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, CD-
ROM etc.

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Other Secondary Storage Device:

5. Pendrive
 A pen drive, or a USB flash drive, is a portable data-storage device. Pen
drives have replaced the floppy drives of old and have become the most
popular data-storage devices
 They are fast and reliable way for storing and transferring files from one
computer to another
 Pendrive consist of a small printed circuit board. This circuit board provides
a strong base for pen drive.
 The circuit board consists of small micro chip within it. The microchip
enables the pen drive to extract or feed data.
 Currently available pen drives with storage capacities ranging from 8GB
and 32GB

Features:
Portable: The lightweight and "micro" characteristics of a pen drive make it
possible to carry it from place to place.
Compatibility: advanced pen drive are compatible with any OS.
Transfer rate: varies b/w 5MBPS to 60 MBPS

6. Flash memory:

 Flash memory is a memory storage device for computers and electronics. It

is most often used in devices like digital cameras, USB flash drives and
video games.
 Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for
transferring data between a personal computer.
 Capacity ranges from 64 MB to 64 GB.
 Type of memory cards are SD card, Mini SD card, Micro SD card

7. Smart Card:

 A smart card, chip card, or integrated circuit card (ICC) is any pocket-sized
card that has embedded integrated circuits.

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 Smart cards can be either contact or contactless smart card. Smart cards can
provide personal identification, authentication, data storage, and application
processing.
 Ability to store large amount of data, carry out their own on-card functions and
interact intelligently with a smart card reader.

8. Zip Card:

 Zip drive is small, portable disk drive used primarily for backing up and
archiving personal computer files.
 Zip drives and disk comes in two sizes.
 Holds 100,431,872 bytes of data or equivalent of 70 floppy diskettes.

System Utility tools

 Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure,
optimize or maintain a computer. It is used to support the computer
infrastructure in contrast to application software, which is aimed at directly
performing tasks that benefit ordinary users.

 Utility program that are included within most of OS, provide the function like
file manager, image viewer, personal firewall, uninstaller, diagnostic utility,
backup utility.

 Utility program are antivirus software, backup software and disk tools

Antivirus software:
 A computer virus is a computer program that can cause damage to the
computer software, hardware or data.
 It is referred to as a virus because it has the capability to replicate itself and
hide inside other computer files.
 One of the most common ways to get virus is to download a file from the
internet.
 Anti-virus software scans your online activity to make sure you are not
downloading infected files.

Disk tool:

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 It Include a range of different tools to mange hard disk drives & other storage
devices.
 This include utilizes to scan the hard disk for any potential problems, such as
disk cleaners to remove any unnecessary files and disk defragmenters to re-
organize file fragment on a hard disk drive to increase performance.

Backup software:
 It helps in the creation of backup of the files on your computer.
 Backup software helps you copy the most important files to another storage
device, such as an external hard disk.
 Backup software uses cloud storage to create backups.

Device Driver
 A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is
attached to your computer.
 Device driver act as a translator between the OS of the computer & the device
connected to it.
 When you plug in a device, the operating system starts looking for the right
driver, install it & you are ready to start using the device.

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Chapter-4
Computer Organization and Architecture
Computer Architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental operation structure of a computer
system. Computer Organization encompasses all physical aspect of computer system.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
Computers are built from many components. The below block diagram illustrates us the different
and main components of the computer. They are:
 Input
 Central Processing unit
 Output Unit

Input Unit: In order to solve any problem, the computer needs to receive data and instruction.
Therefore, we need to input the data and instructions into the computers.
Input unit consist of one/more input devices such as keyboard, mouse, scanner, floppy disk drive
etc.
Functions:
 Accept the data and instructions from the user.
 Convert the data into machine language.
 Supply the converted data to the computer for further process.

CPU [Central processing unit]

The control Unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the CPU [Central Processing
Unit]. CPU is the brain of the computer.
Functions:
 It performs all calculations
 It takes all decisions.

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 It controls all units of the computer

d) Control Unit:
The control unit that controls the flow of information through the processor and coordinates
the activities of the other units within it.
It is a brain within the brain”, as it controls what happens inside the processor.

Functions:
The control unit performs the tasks of fetching, decoding, managing execution and then stores
the result also.

e) ALU [Arithmetic and Logical Unit]:

ALU is the part of the part of the CPU. ALU performs both arithmetic and logical operations.
It receives the instruction from the Control Unit which contains object programming[OP]
code.

Functions:
 The Object-code specified operation to be perform
 The send back the result to the memory and it indicate whether the operation is
successful or not.

f) Memory Unit/ Storage Unit:

It stores the instructions from the input and also stores intermediate value which are generated
during processing.

Functions:
 All data and instructions are stored here before or after processing.
 Intermediate results of processing are also stored here

Output Unit:
It is used to communicate the result of data processing in an information processing system. Such
as CPU, which converts the electrically generated information into human-readable form?
Examples: Monitor, Printer, speakers etc.
Registers
Register is a storage device, which is used to stores the data temporarily.
It is very small-size and very fast memory.
Example: 8-it register means it can store 8-bit of data.

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32-bit register means it can store 32-bit of data.

There are different types of register:

ACC [Accumulator]
PC [Program Counter]
MAR [Memory Address Register]
MDR [Memory Data Register]
IR [Index Register]
IR [Instruction Register]

ACC [Accumulator Register]:

Accumulator is a register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic results are stored.
It is located inside ALU
Control unit will store the data into Accumulator for arithmetic and logical operation

PC [Program Counter] or IP [Instruction Pointer]:

Program counter is a register which holds the memory address of the next instruction being
executed.It is a 16-bit register used to hold memory address.

MAR [Memory Address Register]:

This register holds the memory address from which CPU can access data.
Suppose the CPU wants to store some data in the memory, it needed to place the address of the
memory location(containing data)in the MAR

MDR [Memory Data Register] or MBR [Memory Buffer Register]

This register is present in computer Control Unit
It acts like a buffer register (temporary register) to store data/instructionswhich read from the
memory or sent to memory.
Index Register or Base Register:
Index register is a circuit that receives, stores and output instructions changing codes in a
computer.

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This circuit is also called an address register or a register of modification

A register is a data holding place in CPU.

Instruction Register:
Instruction register is the part of a CPU’s Control Unit that holds the instructions currently being
executed.

4.3 System Bus

A system bus is a single computer bus, that connects the major components of a computer system,
combining the function of a data bus to carry information, an address bus to determine where it
should be sent, and a control bus to determine its operation
System Bus Architecture:
System bus is a collective word to refer to all three buses that include address bus, data bus and
Control bus. CPU performs primarily four operations,

Memory Read - read data from memory

Memory Write - write data into memory
I/O read - accept data from input devices
I/O write - sends data to output devices.

All these operation are part of the communication process b/w microprocessor unit (MPU) and
peripheral devices including memory.
Address Bus: The Address Bus is a group of 16 lines generally identified as A0 to A15. Address
Bus is unidirectional i.e., bits flow in one direction from CPU to peripheral devices.

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Data Bus: Data Bus is group of 8 lines used for data flow. These lines are bidirectional i.e., data
flow in both the b/w CPU and memory/peripheral devices.
Control Bus: Control Bus is comprised of various single line that carry synchronization signals.
CPU uses these lines to provide timing or synchronization signals. CPU generates specific control
signal for every operation it performs.
Memory Unit
Computer employs many different types of memory to hold data and program. Each type has its
own characteristics and uses. They are: Register memory, Cache memory, Disk memory.
Register memory
 Register are memories located within the CPU. They are few in number & also, small in
size. Register size is less than 64 bits.
 The content of Register can read and write very quickly.
 Register memory are faster than main memory. Register memory stores data temporarily.

Disk memory:
 Disk memory is used to hold programs & data over a longer term. The content of a disk are
not lost if the power is turned off.
 Capacity ranges 100GB- 1TB.
 Access time is slower than main memory. Access time b/w 2-4 millisecond

Cache memory:
 Cache memory also called as CPU memory, is a random access memory that a computer’s
microprocessor can access more quickly than accessing from RAM.
 It is placed on separate chip that has a separate bus interconnect with CPU. The basic
purpose of cache memory is to store program instructions that are frequently being used.
 Data is available temporarily.

Computer Layout

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The basic parts of a computer are the computer case, monitor, Keyboard, Mouse and Power car.
Each part plays an important role when you use a computer

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 Computer case: The computer case is the metal and fiber (plastic) box that contains main
components of a computer such as motherboard, CPU, power supply and more

 Computer case comes in different shapes and sizes.

 A desktop case (horizontal case, an older model) lies flat on a desk and the monitor usually sits on top
it. A tower case (vertical case, a present model) is tall and sits next to the monitor or on the floor

SMPS: [Switch Mode Power Supply]

 A SMPS is an electronic circuit that converts power using switching devices that are turned
on and off at high frequencies, and storage components such as inductors or capacitors to
supply power when the switching device is in its non -conduction state.

 Switching power supplies have high efficiencies and are widely used in a variety of electron
equipment, including computers and other sensitive equipment stable and efficient power
supply.
 SMPS converts the input AC voltage to DC Voltage. Supplies power to motherboard, HD,
floppy drive, fan etc.
 Different cables are:

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 20 + 4 Pin ATX / Motherboard Connector

 CPU 4 + 4 Pin Connector
 SATA Power Connector
 Floppy 4 Pin Connector
 Peripheral 4 Pin Molex Connector
 PCI-e 6 Pin / PCI-e 8 Pin Conector

Advantage:
 Small in size and lighter
 It has a better power efficiency of 68% to 90%
 SMPS has wide output range
 High power density
 Flexible Technology
Disadvantages:
 Complex circuit design
 Expensive compared to liner supply.

Motherboard
 First motherboard is considered to be used in IBM personal computer, released in1981.
 It was referred as backplane board, base board, main circuit board, planar board, system
board, or a logic board.
 The base of a motherboard consists of a very firm sheet of non-conductive material, typically
some sort of rigid plastic.
 Thin layers of copper or aluminum foil, referred to as traces, are printed onto this sheet.
 These traces are very narrow and form the circuits between the various components. In
addition to circuits, a motherboard contains a number of sockets and slots to connect the
other components.

Components of motherboard:

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Microprocessor

 A microprocessor, sometimes called a logic chip, is a computer processor on a microchip.

 The microprocessor contains all or most of, the central processing unit (CPU) functions
and is called as the "engine".
 A microprocessor is designed to perform arithmetic and logic operations that make use of
small number-holding areas called registers.
 Typical microprocessor operations include adding, subtracting, comparing two numbers,
and fetching numbers from one area to another.
 When your computer is turned on, the microprocessor gets the first instruction from the
basic input/output system (BIOS) that comes with the computer as part of its memory.
 The heat sink fan is used to remove heat that is generated by microprocessor. Harder the
processor works more heat is generated.
 Without heat sink fan a processor will reduce operation & potential speed and destroy thr
microprocessor.
 Passive heat sinks are made out of metal finned radiator. This radiator dissipates heat
through convection. To work properly it need steady air flow.
 Active heatsink is one that uses power & is usually a fan or some other cooling device.
Active heatsink is combination of passive heatsink and a fan.
 Depending on the motherboard, there may be 2 slots to 4 memory slots.
 RAM which is used in common is SDRAM, DDR.

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Ports and Interface

A port serves as an interface between the computer and other computers or peripheral devices.
Computer ports have many uses, to connect a monitor, webcam, speakers, or other peripheral
devices.

12. Serial port and Parallel port

 Serial port is a type of connection of PC’s that is used for peripherals such as MODEMS, older
printers
 Serial port consists of 9 pins. Used to transmit one bit data at a time. Is slower when compare
to parallel port. Now-a-days is replaced by USB port
 A parallel port consists 25 pins. Used to transmit more than one-bit of data at a time. Is faster
when compare to serial port.

13. PS/2 Port

 The PS/2 port is a 6-pin mini-DIN connector used by older computers for connecting input
devices such as keyboard and mouse.
 Its name comes from the IBM Personal System/2 series of personal computers, with which it
was introduced in 1987.
 PS/2 port designed to accept s specific input, the keyboard and mouse connections are clor
coded .
 The keyboard port on the back of computer is often purple, while mouse port is usually green.
 PS/2 port consists of one male PS/2 port and female PS/2 port.

14. HDMI Port [High Definition Multimedia Interface]

 HDMI port combines both audio and video data into single digital interface for transmission
between the devices

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 It benefits “uncompressed digital video” transmit over the bandwidth

 This port is capable of transmitting high-quality and high bandwidth stream of audio and
video together between devices.
 There are 2 defined HDMI connectors for different application.
 A-type with 19pins that used in most consumer electronic applications.
 B-type with 29 pins and double data connections to six channels to provide a higher pixel
rate.

15. Display Port

 Display Port is a digital display interface
 It has a capability to provide a scalable digital display interface with optical audio and High
Definition Content Protection (HDCP).
 It can also be used to carry audio, USB and other form of data. Display port can be used to
connect the same device to multiple displays. It can carry HD quality video and audio
signals, high bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP).
 20 pins for external connections, 30/20 pins for internal connections on desktops, notebooks,
graphics card, monitor etc.

16. VGA Port [Video Graphics Array]

 A VGA port is a 15-pin, D-subminiature style port usually located on the back or side of
a laptop computer or the back of a desktop system.
 VGA ports are used to transfer analog video signals from one machine to another using
VGA cables. The arrangement of the 15 pins on the VGA port is in 3 groups of five pins,
lined up horizontally.
 The port is the "female" version of the pair, it appears as a series of holes, while the cable
is the "male" version with the appropriate pins.
 VGA ports first appeared in 1987 and are analog components capable of carrying red, green,
blue, horizontal sync, and vertical sync (RGBHV) video signals.
 VGA is popular display standard developed by IBM in 1987.
 VGA provides 640*480 resolution color display screen with 60 Hz.

17. DVI port

 DVI port used to transfer both analog and digital video signals. It offers better sharper
display, when compared to VGA
 DVI created by DDWG Digital Display Working Group.
 The maximum resolution potential depends on the equipment, though. Some cables and
hardware (called single-link) can only do 1,920x1,200, while others (dual-link) can do more.

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 If the display is analog, DVI connection converts digital signal to an analog signals. If the
display is digital, no conversion is needed.
 The digital video interface supports high bandwidth signal, over 160 Hz.
 There are three types of DVI connections:
DVI-A – designed for analog signals
DVI-D designed for digital signals
DVI-I – designed for both analog and digital signals.

18. Ribbon Cables

 A cable for transmitting electronic signals consisting of several insulated wires connected
together to form a flat ribbon.
 A thin, flat, multi- conductor cable that is widely used for internal peripheral connection in
electronic system.
 A 40 wire cable connect the IDE(ATA) drive and an 80 wire cable is used for IDE hard disk.
 These are the common ribbon cables used internally in a PC to connect hard disk, CD &
floppy.
 Now ribbon cable is replaced by SATA and e-SATA

19. SATA and e-SATA

 eSATA is an external interface technology that grew from the internal Serial ATA
interface. Serial ATA built upon the original ATA interface that connected hard drives to
motherboards.
 eSATA delivers improved performance and ease of use over the older ATA multi-pin
interface.
 External SATA [eSATA] brings the SATA Hard Drive bus outside the PC chassis and
allows external devices to be mounted to a SATA connection.
 The data cable runs out to a maximum of 6 feet. A shielded cable length of 3 feet or 6 feet
is common for eSATA. The eSATA cable is shielded, but otherwise the same cable as
used with SATA inside the PC.
SATA Advantages: SATA drives each have their own independent bus.
There is no competition for bandwidth.
SATA cables can be as long as one meter.
SATA is a data cable that uses only 7 conductors.

20. Universal Serial Bus(USB)

 Universal Serial Bus developed in 1995. There USB port come in 3 standard USB 1.1, USB
2.0 and USB 3.0
 Universal Serial Bus, an external bus standard that supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps.
 USB is small portable rectangular sport that comes with every computer.

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 A single USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices, such as mice, modems,
and keyboards.
 USB 1.1 could transfer data up to 12 Mbps, USB 2.0(high speed USB) transmit 480 Mbps.
USB 2.0 transfers data at a 4.8 Gbps.

21. Ethernet LAN port

 Ethernet LAN port standard way to connect computer in a network over a wired connection.
These look similar to telephone line.
 It provides a simple interface for connecting multiple devices, such as router and switches.
 Used mainly for data transfer. Ethernet has multiple standard that all use the same interface.
10 BASE-T- supports up to 10 Mbps
100 BASE-T –supports up to 100 Mbps
1000 BASE-T –supports up to 1000Mbps.

22. Audio Input/output

 An audio output device, sound board or audio card. A sound card is an expansion card or
IC for producing sound on a computer that can be heard through speaker or headphone.
 There are many possible sources of sound on a computer, including music CDs, online
videos and games. Regardless of the source, all sounds start as digital audio – numbers in
a file.
 Between the source file and the speaker, the audio must be converted to an analog format.
Microphones capture an analog audio signal, which is converted to digital. The conversions
happen inside or outside the computer, depending on the port type.
 They are often color-coded, yellow for composite video, red for the right audio channel,
and white or black for the left channel of stereo audio.
 Digital Out (white/yellow)- used with surround sound or loudspeakers.
 Sound in or line in( blue)- connection for external audio sources.
 Microphone(pink)- connection for microphone or headphone.
 Surround left/right (black) – Rear surround speaker for 5.1 & 7.1 System.
 Surround back left/right(gray) middle surround speaker for 7.1 system
 Sound out or line out (green) connection for your speaker or headphone.

A socket for plugging in an audio source is a jack. These devices vary widely, including audio disc
player, audio mixer, musical instruments, additional microphone etc.

Stereo cards with just 2 audio channels will have only green (output) and pink jacks. A few sound
cards with 8 audio channels do not provide the gray connector.

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Expansion Slots
Most computer have expansion slots on the motherboard that allow you to add various types of
expansion cards. These are sometimes called PCI(peripheral component interconnect) cards.
These cards after inserting into the slot may need the driver software to be installed with the
operating system to make the card work. PCI slot is the 32 bits bus running at clock speed 33 MHz
the maximum transfer speed of PCI bus is 133 MB/s
Below are some of the most common types of expansion cards.
Video card: it is responsible for what you see on the monitor. Most computer have a GPU (graphics
Processing Unit) built into the motherboard instead of having a separate video card. You can add
a faster video card to one of the expansion slots to get better performance.
Sound card: It is also called an audio card, responsible for what you hear on the speaker or
headphone. Most motherboard have integrated sound, but you can upgrade to a dedicated sound
card for higher quality sound.
Network card: it allows your computer to communicate over a network and to access over the
internet. It can either connect with an Ethernet cable or wireless communication.
TV Tuner card: it is a device you can use to connect an analog or digital TV signals to your
computer. Without a TV tuner, you cannot record Live TV in media center. TV tuner cards are
sometimes referred as PCI express bus or PCIbus Expansion card.

BIOS (Basic Input Output System)

BIOS is a “read only” memory, which consist of low level software that controls the system
hardware and act as an interface between the operating system and the hardware.
BIOS gives an essential link b/w the computer hardware and computer software.
All the motherboard include a small block of read only memory ROM which is separated from
main memory , used for loading and running software. The system BIOS is a ROM chip on the
motherboard used during the startup routine to check out the system and prepare to run the
hardware.

Chipset
 A chipset is group of small circuits that coordinates the flow of data to and from a PC’s key
component.
 A chipset also control data flow to and from hard disk and other device connected to the IDE
channels(Integrated Drive Electronic Channel)
 2main Chipset: North Bridge and South Bridge (A Bridge is generally used to designate a
component which connects two Buses.)
 North Bridge: also called Memory Controller, is in charge of controlling transfer b/w the
processor and RAM, hence it is locally present near processor.

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 South Bridge: also called as expansion controller handle communication b/w slower
peripheral devices. It is also called as ICH(I/O controller Hub)

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CHAPTER 5
COMPUTER NETWORKS
Network: a group or system of interconnected people or things.
Networking: “It is a practice or process of linking two or more computing devices together for the
purpose of sharing data and resources”.

“Computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share
information and resources”.
Characteristics of a computer network
 Share Resources from one computer to another

 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network

 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let
other computers of the network use the machines available over network.

Classification of Computer Networks

Computer networks are classified based on various factors.They includes:

 Geographical span
 Inter-connectivity
 Administration
 Architecture
Geographical Span
Geographically a network can be seen in one of the following categories:

 It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices,. Ranging not more
than few meters.
 It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to connect all
floors.
 It may be spanned across a whole city.
 It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
 It may be one network covering whole world.
Inter-Connectivity
Components of a network can be connected to each other differently in some fashion. By
connectedness we mean either logically,physically, or both ways.

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 Every single device can be connected to every other device on network, making the
network mesh.
 All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically disconnected, created
bus like structure.
Administration
From an administrator’s point of view, a network can be private network which belongs a single
autonomous system and cannot be accessed outside its physical or logical domain. A network can
be public which is accessed by all.

Network Architecture
Computer networks can be discriminated into various types such as Client-Server, peer-to-
peer or hybrid, depending upon its architecture.

 There can be one or more systems acting as Server. Other being Client, requests the Server
to serve requests. Server takes and processes request on behalf of Clients.
 Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion. They both
reside at the same level and called peers.
 There can be hybrid network which involves network architecture of both the above types.

Need of Computer Network:

6. File sharing
7. Printer sharing
8. Communication and collaboration
9. Remote access
10. Data protection.

Advantages of networking:

1) Resource sharing - Through a network, data, s/w and h/w resources can be shared irrespective of
the physical location of the resources and the user.
2) Reliability – A file can have its copies on two or more computers of the network.
3) Reduced Cost – Sharing resources reduces the cost
4) Fast Communication – Information can be exchanged at a very fast speed
5) Parallel computing
6) Video conferences
DATA AND INFORMATION

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Data: it refers to the raw facts.

Information: The conversion of data into information.

Data Communication: “Transmission or Exchange of data between two or more computers”.

Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers
and a computer network or data network.
Three fundamental concepts of data communication are
 Destiny
 Reliability
 fast

Basic Elements of Communication system:

1. Sender: A device which sends the message.

2. Receiver: A device which receives the message.
3. Transmission medium: The path through which the message is transmitted.
4. Message: Actual data to be transmitted.
5. Protocol: A set of rules to be followed during communication.

Terms Used In Data Communication:

1. Data: A collection of raw facts that becomes information after processing.

2. Signal: Encoded data in electronic form.
3. Signaling: Propagation of signals across a transmission medium is called signaling
4. Transmission: The flow of data form sender to receiver.

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Data Representation
1. Text
2. Numbers
3. Images
4. Audio
5. Video

Data Representation:

Data refers to raw facts which on processing become an information. Information today comes in
different forms such as Text, numbers, pictures, audio and video which are represented in a specific
manner in order to transmit in data communication systems.

6) Text: Text is represented as a bit pattern, ie, sequence of 0’s and 1’s. different sets of bit
patterns(coding systems) are designed to represent text symbols.
1. Unicode: it is a universal code which uses a 32 bits to represent alphabets or symbols
2. ASCII: this refers to American Standard Code for Information Interchange which uses 7 bits to
represent characters or symbols

7) Number: Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. The number is directly converted to
a binary number.

8) Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. Image is composed of matrix of pixels,
where each pixel is a small dot. The size of pixel depends on the resolution. Several methods
are used to represent color images for ex: RGB(Red, green, Blue) ,CMYK(cyan ,magenta,
yellow, black).The intensity of each color combination is measured and a bit pattern will be
assigned to it.

9) Audio: This type of data is in the form of sound which is recorded and broadcasted with
signals.

10) Video: The video data refers to recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can
be either a continuous or discrete with combination of pictures. We can change thie video
to digital or analog signal

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Data Transmission Modes and Types of Communication

Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also called
communication mode.
“Transmission mode refers to direction of data signal flow between two linked devices”
The transmission is characterized by:
1. The direction of exchanges.
2. Transmission Mode: The number of bits sent simultaneously.
3. Synchronization between the transmitter and receiver one or many

1. Based on the direction, way the data can flow, Transmission can be classified into

 Simplex communication
 Half duplex Mode
 Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode
In this mode, the communication is unidirectional
i.e., data flows only one direction from sender to receiver
Example:
 Radio and Tv broadcasting
 Data flow from keyboard to compute

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HALF DUPLEX Mode

In this mode, the communication takes place in both direction but only one direction at a time.
Example: Walkie-talkie, Internet browsing

FULL DUPLEX Mode

In this mode, data communication takes place in both directionat the same time
Example: Telecommunication
In full duplex system, there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving
data.

2. Based on requirement and Network, Transmission can be classified into

4. Point-to-Point connection
5. Multipoint connection
6. Broadcasting

Point-To-Point Connection

It this type communication takes place between two end points or devices. In the case of voice
communication using telephone, there is one calling party and one called party. Hence the
communication is point-to-point

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Multipoint Connection: It is also called Multi drop configuration. In this type there will be one
sender and more recipients. From sender data can be multicast to specific or dedicated user rather
sending to all.

Ex:voice, video conferencing

Broadcasting: In this type there will be acentral location from which information is sent to all users
over the network. In a broadcasting system, all users (receivers) are passive there is no re verse
communication path with dedicated users

Types of Networks:

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Depending on the distance covered the networks can be classified into three types as follows:
4. LAN
5. MAN
6. WAN

LAN [Local Area Network]

 The interconnection between the devices within a single building or campus
 It covers on area up to 10 kms
 LANs are usually owned by a single person or small organization
 LAN covers organization offices,schools, colleges or universities.
 LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users. The resources such
as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among computers.

 LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely employed LAN
technology and uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen.

 LAN’s are high speed networks and inexpensive.

Metropolitan Area Network

 The interconnection between the devices within a city.
 It covers on area up to 50 kms
 LANs are usually owned by a large organization like govt
 MAN, generally expands throughout a city such as cable TV network.
 It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
 Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand
their LAN.
 MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics.
 MAN works in between LAN and WAN.

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 MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.

WAN [Wide Area Network]

 The interconnection between devices over large geographical area is called WAN
 Generally, telecommunication networks are WAN.
 These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs.
 WAN is very high-speed backbone and use very expensive network equipment.
 WAN may be managed by multiple administrator.
 WAN uses fiber optic cables and satellites as a medium

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LAN Topology: “The physical arrangements of computers in a network are called Topology”.

Types of topologies:
1. Bus
2. Star
3. Ring
4. Mesh
5. Tree
6. Hybrid

BUS Topology
In a bus topology, all the network devices are connected to single long cable called Bus.
A signal from the source is broadcasted to all the devices connected by bus by only the intended
device accepts it and other devices just ignore the signal

Advantages of Bus Topology

6. It is easy to install and reconfigure

7. Cable requirement is less compared to other network topology
8. Suitable for LAN
9. It is less expensive
10. Failure of one-node does not effects to the rest of the network

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Disadvantages of Bus Topology

5. Cables fails then whole network fails.

6. Security is low, because the signal is broadcasted to all the devices.
7. Cable has a limited length.
8. It is slower than the ring topology.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology, all the network devices are connected to a central controller called HUB
with a point-to-point connection
HUB acts like a junction to connect all the devices in a network

Advantages of Star Topology

 Installation and reconfiguration is easy

 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Failure of one-node does not effects to the rest of the network
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

5. Cost of installation is high.

6. Expensive to use.
7. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
8. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

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RING Topology
In this topology, all the network devices are connected to one another in the shape of closed ring
In this data is transmitted only in one direction from device to device.

Advantages of Ring Topology

3. Installation and reconfiguration is easy

4. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

4. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

5. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
6. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

MESH Topology
In this topology, every device is connected to every other device in a network with a point-to-
point connection
A fully connected mesh network has n (n-1)/2 link to connect n devices.
Every device on the network must have (n-1) input ports and (n-1) output ports

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Types of Mesh Topology

3. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology, some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
4. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

5. It is robust and reliable means if one of the component fail there is always an alternative
present.
6. Data transfer rate is very fast
7. Fault identification is easily.
8. Failure of one node does not effects to the rest of thenetwork

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

4. Installation and configuration is difficult.

5. It is very expensive
6. Cable requirement is more

TREE Topology

In tree topology, the number of start networks are connected using BUS. The main cable seems
like main steam and other start network are the branches
It is also called as the extended star topology

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Advantages of Tree Topology

4. Extension of bus and star topologies.

5. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
6. Error detection and correction is easy

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

5. If BUS cable fails the entire network will be shutdown

6. It is expensive
7. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
8. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology

It is combination of 2/more different topology

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Advantages of Hybrid Topology

5. Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.

6. Effective.
7. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
8. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

3. Complex in design.
4. Costly.

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CHAPTER 6
TRANSMISSION MEDIA AND NETWORK DEVICES
Transmission: the act or process of transmitting or Communication of data achieved by processing
of signals.
Media: that carries the message; plural "medium" refers to various means of communication. It is
also called as channel.
Transmission Media:
“Transmission media is a physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver”

The characteristics and quality of data transmission can be determined based on by characteristics
of transmission media and signals.
5. Bandwidth: Data carrying capacity of a channel or a medium.
6. Radiation: It refers to leakage of signals due to undesirable characteristics.
7. Noise absorption: It refers to susceptibility of the media to external noise that can cause
distortion of signals
8. Attenuation: loss of energy or strength of a signal falls off. The amount of energy lost
depends on frequency.

Types of transmission media

It is classified into two types
The types of Bounded/ Guided are discussed below.
Types:

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1. Guided: Signals are transmitted via a physical tangible guide between communicating points.
Ex. Coaxial cable, telephone cable , optical fiber.
2. Unguided: in this physically there is no connection between two points.
Ex. Microwave, radio waves, satellite signals,.

Guided Transmission Media

Guided media are those that provide physical conduct from one device to another.
There are 3 types of guided media
Twisted-pair Cable:

 Twisted-pair cable were invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1881

 This cable consist of 2 this insulated copper wires, twisted to form a spiral
 Each wire pair acts as a communication link.
 One of the wire carries signal, the other is used as ground reference s
 A number of these pairs are bundled together into a cable by wrapping them into proactive
sheath.
 Twisting reduces the amount of interface and other cable.

Twisted Pair is of two types:

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 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair
Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour plastic
insulator. Identification is the reason behind colored plastic insulation.

UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and
4 pair cable useRJ-45 connector.

Advantages:

 Installation is easy
 Flexible
 Cheap
 It has high speed capacity,
 100 meter limit
 Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.

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It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical
form to reduce electrical interference from similar pair.

Disadvantages :

 Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable

 Provides less protection from interference.

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk (explained in KEY TERMS Chapter).

It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It is
more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

Advantages :

 Easy to install

 Performance is adequate

 Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission

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 Increases the signalling rate

 Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair

 Eliminates crosstalk

Disadvantages :

 Difficult to manufacture
 Heavy

Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cable has a single copper conductor at its center, used to connect computers in a
network.
 A plastic layer provides insulation between the copper conductor and copper mesh
 Carries signal of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable.

Baseband

This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is mostly used for
LAN’s. Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The major drawback is
that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.

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Broadband

This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits several
simultaneous signal using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared with Baseband
Coaxial Cable.

Applications:

 T V distribution
 long distance telephone transmission
 LAN

Advantages:

 Bandwidth is high
 Used in long distance telephone lines.
 Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
 Much higher noise immunity
 Data transmission without distortion.
 The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared
to twisted pair cable

Disadvantages:

 Single cable failure can fail the entire network.

 Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
 If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

Optical Fiber cable

Optical fiber is made of a center glass core surrounded by a concentric layer of glass (cladding). It
transmits signal in the form of light.

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A glass/core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass/plastic. The difference in density of 2

materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding
instead of being into it
Characteristics:
 Refraction
 WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing) is used to carry several information streams
simultaneously.

Modes: The paths in which a light ray can follow when travelling down a fiber is known as
modes.On the basis of mode optical fibre can be classified into
1.Single mode: cable is single strand of glass fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has
one mode of transmission
2. Multimode: cable is made up of glass fibers, with a common diameters of 50 to 100 micron
range of light carrying component(most common is 62.5).

Advantages :

 Provides high quality transmission of signals at very high speed.

 These are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion is very less.
 Used for both analog and digital signals.

Disadvantages :

 It is expensive
 Difficult to install.
 Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
 Do not allow complete routing of light signals.

Unguided Transmission Media:

In this physically there is no connection between two points. It is also referred as wireless
communication, where transmission happens without any connecting cables. The Transmission
happens by the means of Electromagnetic radiations that can travel through air.

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Unguided Transmission media

Transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna

• directional

– transmitting antenna puts out focused beam

– transmitter and receiver must be aligned

• Omni-directional

– signal spreads out in all directions

– can be received by many antennas

Microwaves
Microwave technology was developed during world war II in connection with Secret military radar
research. It is used for transmission of information because of its longer wavelengths which ranges
from cm to microns. Microwaves uses line of sight in order to work properly and transmitted
through space. The line of sight means the data signals can only travel in straight line and cannot
bend.

Based on how far signal travels wireless communication can be classified into
Short range:( (5cm – 50 m) Bluetooth , infrared
Medium range: (50m-500m) wifi , wimax
Wide range: (>500m) cellular communications
The microwave communication has two types:
1. Terrestrial Links
2. Satellite links

Terrestrial Microwave station

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• used for long-distance telephone service

• uses radio frequency spectrum, from 4-6 and 21-23 Ghz

• parabolic dish transmitter, mounted high

• used by common carriers as well as private networks

• requires unobstructed line of sight between source and receiver

• curvature of the earth requires stations (repeaters) ~30 miles apart

Satellite Microwave Transmission

Satellite Microwave Transmission

• a microwave relay station will be in space

• can relay signals over long distances

• geostationary satellites

– remain above the equator at a height of 36000 -50000 km (geosynchronous orbit)

– travel around the earth in exactly the time the earth takes to rotate

Radio waves:
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiations whose frequency are easy to generate and the
wavelength is more so that can travel long distances and can penetrate buildings and other media.

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James Clerk Maxwell predicted the existence of radio waves in 1870.

Radio waves are unidirectional, meaning that they travel in all directions from source indoor,
outdoor and everywhere.

Applications of Radio waves

Traditional voice communication
Television communication
Cell phones
Radio communication (AM, FM)
Satellite Communication
A satellite is an object that orbits another object like a planet. In 1962, the American
telecommunications giant AT&T launched the world’s first true communications satellite called
Telstar.
A communication satellite is a station in space that is used for telecommunicating radio and
television signals. Satellite and radio communication is a non terrestrial microwave transmission
system utilizing a space relay station. Exotic application is GPS (Global Positioning System).
Process of Transmission
If two stations on the earth wants to communicate through radio broadcast which are too far away
can communicate with the help of satellite relay station for their communication. One earth station
sends a Transmission to the satellite, this is called uplink. The satellite transponder converts the
signal and sends it to down to second earth station. This is called downlink.

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2. Geostationary satellite: The satellite communication system involves a satellite relay

station that is launched into geostationary, geosynchronous orbit. Such satellites are called
geostationary satellites. Such orbit approximately 36000 km above the equator.

Applications of satellite communication.

Traditional communication, GPS services Cellular communication, Tv signals, Astrology, Marine
communication, commercial jets, etc.
Network Devices
1. NIC
 A network interface card (NIC) is a circuit board or card that is installed in a computer
so that it can be connected to a network.
 The NIC contains the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a wired
connection (e.g., Ethernet) or a wireless connection (e.g., WiFi).

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 An Ethernet connection uses a standard interface known as a RJ45 connector. 'RJ'

stands for 'registered jack.
 Ethernet cable is necessary.

2. Repeater
 A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it.
 Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can cover longer distances
or be received on the other side of an obstruction.
 It works at OSI physical layer consist of two ports . It receives the signal through one
port and retransmit the signal with other port

3. HUB
 a hub refers to a hardware device that enables multiple devices or connections to be
connected to a computer.ie broadcasting without filtering the data.
 HUB forwards the message which it receives to all the devices which are connected
except the device which sent.
 Also called multiport repeater, Ethernet hub, repeater hub, active hub, network hub.

TYPES OF HUB:
 Active Hub : it can regenerate the information signal. upgrade the signal before sending
to the destination.
 Passive Hub : like a simple bridge. it receives signal and forwards it.
 Intelligence HUB: performs both active Hubs and passive hubs

4. Bridge
 A bridge is a type of computer network device that provides interconnection with other
bridge networks that use the same protocol.

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 Bridge devices work at the data link layer of the Open System Interconnect (OSI) model,
connecting two different networks together and providing communication between
them.
 In bridge no specific relationship, so messages are sent out to every addresses and accept
by destination.
 Only one incoming port and one outgoing port

5. Switch
 In networks, a device that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments.
 Switches operate at the data link layer (layer 2) and sometimes the network
layer (layer 3) of the OSI Reference Model and therefore support any packet
protocol.
 It can also perform the task of router , it can receive data packets and successfully
forward them to their destination IP
 Multiple data cables plugged in to switch to enable communications between
different network devices.

6. Router
 A router is a device that forward data packets along networks.
 A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or
a LAN and its ISP's network.
 Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
 Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for forwarding
packets.
 A router is quite common to be found in homes and business.

7. Gateway
 A gateway is a network point/node that acts as an entrance to another type of
networks.

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 Computers that control traffic within your companies network called gateway
nodes.
 Gateway is considered as edge of the network as all data must flow through
it .
 A computer server acts as a gateway node also acts as proxy server and firewall
server.
8. Modem:

A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a network hardware device that modulates

one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital information for transmission and

demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information.

A common type of modem is one that turns the digital data of a computer into

modulated electrical signal for transmission over telephone lines and demodulated

by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.

Internal Modem - Modem that connects to a PCI slot inside a newer desktop

computer or ISA slot on an older computer. The Internal Modem shown at the

beginning of this document is an example of a PCI Modem.

External Modem - Modem within a box that connects to the computer externally,

usually the Serial Ports or USB port. The picture is an example of an external US

Robotics Modem.

Functions:
4. Error connection
5. Compressing the data
6. Flow control

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Reference model
It is a conceptual standard layout that describes how communication occurs between devices.

Two reference models are

3. OSI reference model
4. TCP/IP reference model

NETWORK TERMINOLOGIES:

1. Layer: a layer is a portion of a network.

2. Packet: a packet is a unit of data that is routed b/w source and destination.
3. Frame: a frame is a digital data transmission unit in computer networking and
telecommunications.
4. Subnet: the diving a network into two or more network is called subnet.

ISO
ISO stands for International organization of Standardization. This is called a model for Open
System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model.

The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system.

Layered Approach to Communications

 Seven Layers Altogether

 Each Layer Performs a Unique Function
 Each Layer Has Its Own Protocol

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Layer 7: Application Layer:

It provides the interface between all network aware applications and network services.

Example: browser, Gmail, file transfer

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 File transfer
 Remote database system
 E-mail services
 Directory services
 Remote file access

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer:

It is a network translator, which translates the data from system specific format to common format
at the sender side and retranslate common format to system specific format at receiver side

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 Data conversion

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 Data encryption and description

 Data compression and decompression

Layer 5: The Session Layer:

It is a network dialogue controller, which provides a mechanism for opening a connection between
two devices, managing the conversation between them and closing the connection

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 Session management
 Synchronization

Layer 4: Transport Layer:

It is responsible for Reliable delivery of entire message from a specific process running on sender
to a specific process running on receiver

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 Reliable delivery of data

 Process to process delivery of data
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Flow control
 Error control

Layer 3: The Network Layer:

It is responsible for source to destination delivery of each pocket from one network to another
network

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 Logical addressing
 Routing
 Source to destination delivery
 Internetworking

Layer 2: Data Link Layer:

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It is responsible for error free transfer of data frames from one node to another node over the
physical layer

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 Framing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Physical addressing

Layer 1: The Physical Layer:

It co-ordinates the function required to transmit a bit of stream over a physical medium
(transmission medium)

Responsibilities of this layer are:

 It receives the data frames from the data link layer and divides them into streams of bit and
then bits are encoded into signal to be transmitted through the transmission medium.
 It defines the type of transmission medium, topology, transmission mode and line
configuration

TCP/IP

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol.

TCP/IP model is an implementation of OSI model which describes the communication between
Heterogeneous computers in a network. It is commonly referred as a protocol suit.
TCP/IP is a 4 layered structure with each layer having their individual protocol

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Layer 4: Application Layer

It provides the interface between all network aware applications and network services.

The protocols defined of this layer are:

6. HTTP [Hyper Text Transfer Protocol]:

It responsible for communication between web-browser and web-server

7. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) It responsible for transferring the files from one computer to

another computer connected to internet.

8. SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) it responsible for sending and receiving email

messages.

9. DNS (Domain Name Server) it is responsible for transferring domain name and IP-address.

10. TELNET[Remote login]: it is responsible for login to a remote computer

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Layer 3: Transport Layer

Transport layer is responsible for reliable delivery of data, error an segmentation and reassembly
The 2 important protocols defined at transport later are:
1.TCP [Transmission Control Protocol]: it is connection oriented and reliable protocol
Connection oriented: a connection must be established between sender to receiver before data
transmission
Reliable: it has a mechanism to detect and retransmit the damaged/ lost data.
2.UDP [User Datagram Protocol]: it is connection less and unreliable protocol
Connection less: connection setup is not done instead individual blocks of information is
transmitted based on the destination address
Unreliable: if data is lost during transmission no effort is mode to transmit the lost data

Layer 2: Internet layer

Internet layer is responsible for source to destination delivery of packet from one network to another
network, logical addressing, routing and forwarding

The important protocol defined of this layer is:

IP [Internetworking Protocol]: is a connection less and unreliable protocol.
Ip uses some supporting protocols
ARP [Address Resolution Protocol]:
It is used to find the physical address of the device when its IP address in known.
RARP [Reverse Address Resolution Protocol]:
It is used to find the IP address of the device when its physical address in known.

Layer 1: Network Access Layer

It is responsible for framing , error control and flow control (data link layer) and it co-ordinates the
function required to transmit a stream of bit thorough transmission medium

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The 2 important protocols defined of this layer are:

SLIP [Serial Line Internet Protocol]
PPP [Point-to-Point Protocol]

Connection oriented and connection less services

Connection Oriented Services
There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of connection oriented service. These
are:
 Connection is established
 Information is sent
 Connection is released

A connection must be established between sender to receiver before data transmission

Example: TCP

Connection less Services

Connection setup is not done instead individual blocks of information is transmitted based on the
destination address. Each message is routed independently from source to destination. The order of
message sent can be different from the order received. It is unreliable
Example : UDP

2. Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Model

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control

Protocol / Internet Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard

independent standard, acting as a protocols around which the Internet has

communication gateway between the developed. It is a communication

network and end user. protocol, which allows connection of

hosts over a network.

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2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer

guarantees the delivery of packets. does not guarantees delivery of packets.

Still the TCP/IP model is more reliable.

3. OSI model has a separate 3. TCP/IP does not have a separate

Presentation layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.

4. Network layer of OSI model 4. The Network layer in TCP/IP model

provides both connection oriented provides connectionless service.

and connectionless service.

5. Protocols are hidden in OSI model 5. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not

and are easily replaced as the easy.

technology changes.

6. OSI model defines services, 6. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and

interfaces and protocols very clearly protocols are not clearly separated. It is

and makes clear distinction between also protocol dependent.

them. It is protocol independent.

10. It has 7 layers 10. It has 4 layers

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