DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Prepared By

Dr. YASH VERMA

Adjunct Assistant Professor
ECE Department
IIIT NAGPUR
Contents
❑ Introduction
❑ Number System
❑ Classifications of Number System
❑ Code Conversion Techniques
❑ Combinational Circuits
❑ Types of Combinational Circuits
❑ Advantages, Limitations and Applications of Combinational Circuits
❑ Sequential Circuits
❑ Main Components of Sequential Circuits
❑ Types of Sequential Circuits
❑ Advantages, Limitations and Applications of Sequential Circuits
❑ Latch
❑ Flip Flops
❑ Advantages, Limitations and Applications of Sequential Circuits
Introduction
❑ Digital circuits are electronic circuits that process information represented by discrete,
or digital, signals, typically in the form of binary values (0s and 1s).
❑ These circuits are the foundation of modern digital systems like computers,
smartphones, digital clocks and other electronic devices.
❑ Digital electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with systems and devices that use
digital signals, which are discrete representations of data, to process information.
❑ It deals with the relationship between binary inputs and outputs by passing electrical
signals through logical gates, resistors, capacitors, amplifiers, and other electrical
components.
❑ A digital circuit is typically constructed from small electronic circuits called logic gates
that can be used to create combinational logic.
❑ Each logic gate is designed to perform a function of Boolean logic when acting on logic
signals.
Number System
❑ A number system is a way to represent and express numbers using a consistent
set of symbols or digits.
❑ A number system uses a base (or radix) to represent values.
❑ The base refers to the number of unique digits, including zero, that a system
uses to represent numbers.
❑ Most commonly used number systems are Decimal (base-10), Binary (base-2),
Octal (base-8), and Hexadecimal (base-16).
❑ Each system has its own set of rules for representing.
❑ Digital systems primarily rely on the Binary system for data processing.
Number System Contd..

Fig 1 : Different types of number system

Classifications of Number System
1. Decimal Number System
❑ The Decimal system is a base-10 number system.
❑ It uses ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
❑ Each digit’s place value is a power of 10 (e.g., 100, 101, 102).
❑ It is the standard system for everyday counting and calculations.
2. Binary Number System
❑ The Binary system is a base-2 number system.
❑ It uses two digits: 0 and 1.
❑ Each digit’s place value is a power of 2 (e.g., 20, 21, 22).
❑ The Binary system is the foundation for data representation in computers and digital
electronics.
Classifications of Number System Contd..
3. Octal Number System
❑ The Octal system is a base-8 number system.
❑ It uses eight digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.
❑ Each digit’s place value is a power of 8 (e.g., 80, 81, 82).
❑ It is often used to simplify the representation of binary numbers by grouping them into sets
of three bits.
4. Hexadecimal Number System
❑ The Hexadecimal system is a base-16 number system.
❑ It uses sixteen digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F (where A = 10, B = 11,
etc.).
❑ Each digit’s place value is a power of 16 (e.g., 160, 161, 162).
❑ Hexadecimal simplifies binary by representing every 4 bits as one digit (0-F).
Code Conversion Techniques

❑ Decimal to Binary Number System Conversion and vice

versa
❑ Decimal to Octal Number System Conversion and vice
versa
❑ Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion System and vice
versa.
❑ Hexadecimal to Binary Number System Conversion and
vice versa.
❑ Octal to Binary Number System Conversion and vice
versa.
Combinational Circuits

❑ A combinational circuit, also called a combinational

logic circuit, is a digital electronic circuit whose output is
determined by present inputs only.
❑ The output of a combinational logic circuit does not
depend on the history of the circuit operation or in other
words it does not depend on any feedback or previous
input or output values.
❑ The most important characteristic of a combinational
circuit is that it does not have any feedback path between
input and output.
Combinational Circuits Contd..

Key elements in the circuit diagram of a combinational

circuit, they are −

Input Lines − The input lines are used to enter the input
values into the combinational circuit.

Processing Unit − It is the main element that processes the

input values depending on the type of the circuit. For
example, a full adder adds three binary bits.

Fig 2 : Block Diagram of Combinational Circuit Output Lines − The output lines are used to take results
generated by the circuit.
Types of Combinational Circuits

❑ Binary Adders
❑ Binary Subtractors
❑ Multiplexers (MUX)
❑ Demultiplexers (DEMUX)
❑ Encoders
❑ Decoders
❑ Comparators
 Binary Adders
A binary adder is a combinational circuit that performs the addition of binary digits or bits.

Half Adder Full Adder

❑ The half adder is a combinational logic ❑ The full adder is designed to overcome the
circuit with two inputs and two outputs. drawback of a half adder which is the ability
to add only two bits.
❑ The half adder circuit is designed to add two
single-bit binary numbers A and B. ❑ Therefore, the full adder is a three-input and
two-output combinational circuit. Where, the
❑ It is the basic building block for the addition
inputs are two one-bit numbers A and B, and
of two single-bit numbers.
a carry C from the previous addition.
❑ This circuit has two outputs namely, sum and
❑ The outputs are sum and carry output.
carry.

Fig 3 : Block Diagram of Half Adder Fig 4 : Block Diagram of Full Adder
 Binary Subtractor
A binary subtractor is a combinational logic circuit used to subtract one binary number from another.
Half Subtractor Full Subtractor
❑ A half subtractor is a combination circuit with ❑ The full subtractor is also a combinational
two inputs (A and B) and two outputs circuit with three inputs A, B, and Bin, and
(difference and borrow). two outputs D and Bout.
❑ It produces the difference between the two ❑ Here, A is the minuend bit, B is the
binary bits at the input and also produces an subtrahend bit, Bin is the previous borrow bit
output (Borrow) to indicate if a 1 has been produced by the previous stage, D is the
borrowed. difference output and Bout is the borrow
output.
❑ In binary subtraction (A-B), A is called a
Minuend bit and B is called a Subtrahend bit.

Fig 5 : Block Diagram of Half Subtractor Fig 6 : Block Diagram of Full Subtractor
 Multiplexers (MUX)
❑ A multiplexer is a special type of combinational logic circuit. It consists of n-data input lines, one
output, and m-select lines. For a multiplexer, 𝑛 = 2𝑚
❑ A multiplexer is a digital circuit that selects one of the n data inputs and routes it to the output line. The
selection of one of the n data inputs is done by the select lines. Depending on the digital code applied at
the select lines, one out of "n" data inputs is selected and transmitted to the output line.
❑ In some multiplexers, there is also an enable input E which is useful in cascading of multiple
multiplexers.
❑ Depending on the number of input lines, there can be several types of multiplexers. Some common types
of multiplexers include 2:1 Multiplexer, 4:1 Multiplexer, 16:1 Multiplexer, and 32:1 Multiplexer.

Fig 7 : Block Diagram of Multiplexer

 Demultiplexers (DEMUX)
❑ A demultiplexer performs a distribution operation i.e., it receives one data input and distributes it over
several output lines. For a demultiplexer, 𝑛 = 2𝑚 .
❑ A demultiplexer has only one input line, "n" output lines, and "m" select lines.
❑ At a time, only one output line is selected by the digital code applied to the select lines and the data
input is transmitted to the selected output line.
❑ Demultiplexers can be classified into various types depending on the number of output lines. Some
commonly used types of demultiplexers include: 1:2 Demultiplexer, 1:4 Demultiplexer, 1:16
Demultiplexer, and 1:32 Demultiplexer.

Fig 8 : Block Diagram of Demultiplexer

 Encoder
❑ An encoder is a combinational circuit that is designed to convert a piece of information into a binary
code. An encoder has n number of input lines and m number of output lines, where 𝑛 = 2𝑚 .
❑ An encoder generates an m-bit binary code corresponding to the digital input applied to it. In other
words, an encoder accepts an n-input digital word and converts it into an m-bit another digital word.
❑ Examples of encoder include 4-to-2 encoder, octal-to-binary encoder, hexadecimal-to-binary encoder,
priority encoder, etc.

Fig 9 : Block Diagram of Encoder

 Decoder
❑ A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts a binary code into a normal word like a decimal digit.
A decoder typically consists of n input lines and m output lines, where the where 𝑚 = 2𝑛 .
❑ Decoders are widely used in display drivers, data distribution systems, etc.
❑ Some of the commonly used types of decoders are 2 to 4 decoder, 3 to 8 decoder, 4 to 16 decoder, BCD
to seven segment decoder, etc.

Fig 10 : Block Diagram of Decoder

 Comparators
❑ A comparator is a combinational logic circuit developed to compare two binary numbers. Comparators
are mainly used in arithmetic and control circuits to perform comparison or logical operations.
❑ A comparator, as its name suggests, compares the input values and checks whether they are equal or one
input is greater/less than the other input.

Fig 11 : Block Diagram of Comparator

 Advantages of Combinational Circuits

❑ Simple design and implementation using basic logic gates.

❑ High speed operation since there is no need for clock signals.
❑ Robust, deterministic behavior as outputs depend only on present inputs.
❑ Widely employed as fundamental building blocks in digital design.
 Limitations of Combinational Circuits

❑ Combinational circuits do not have any memory element. They are incapable to store
history of circuit operation.
❑ Combinational circuits cannot be used to implement certain highly complex logic
functions.
❑ Combinational circuits do not have any feedback mechanism. That makes the
combinational circuits to have limited functionality.
❑ At large scale, combinational circuits have several design complexities that can result
in poor performance and inefficient resource utilization.
 Applications of Combinational Circuits

❑ Microprocessors and Microcontrollers

❑ Digital Computers
❑ Calculators
❑ Digital Communication Systems
❑ Keyboards
❑ Smartphones and Digital Watches, etc
Sequential Circuits
❑ A sequential circuit is a logic circuit that consists of a memory element to store history of past
operation of the circuit.
❑ The output of a sequential circuit depends on present inputs as well as past outputs of the circuit.

Fig 12: Block diagram of a typical sequential circuit

❑ A sequential circuit is basically a combination of a combinational circuit and a memory element. The
combinational circuit performs the logical operations specified, while the memory element records
the history of operation of the circuit.
Main Components of Sequential Circuits
Logic Gates
❑ The logic gates like AND, OR, NOT, etc. are used to implement the data processing mechanism of the
sequential circuits.
❑ These logic gates are basically interconnected in a specific manner to implement combinational
circuits to perform logical operations on input data.

Memory Element
❑ In sequential circuits, the memory element is another crucial component that holds history of circuit
operation. Generally, flip-flops are used as the memory element in sequential circuits.
❑ In sequential circuits, a feedback path is provided between the output and the input that transfers
information from output end to the memory element and from memory element to the input end.
Types of Sequential Circuits
Based on structure, operation, and applications, the sequential circuits are classified into the following two types.

❑ Asynchronous Sequential Circuit

❑ Synchronous Sequential Circuit
 Asynchronous Sequential Circuit
❑ A type of sequential circuit whose operation does not depend on the clock signals is
known as an asynchronous sequential circuit.
❑ This type of sequential circuits operates using the input pulses that means their state
changes with the change in the input pulses.
❑ The main components of the asynchronous sequential circuits include un-clocked flip
flops and combinational logic circuits.
❑ Asynchronous sequential circuits are mainly used in applications where the clock
signals are not available or practical to use. For example, in conditions when speed of
the task execution is important.
❑ Asynchronous sequential circuits are relatively difficult to design and sometimes they
produce uncertain output.
❑ The ripple counter is a common example of asynchronous sequential circuit.
 Synchronous Sequential Circuit
❑ A synchronous sequential circuit is a type of sequential circuit in which all the memory elements are synchronized
by a common clock signal. Hence, synchronous sequential circuits take a clock signal along with input signals.
❑ In synchronous sequential circuits, the duration of the output pulse is equivalent to the duration of the clock pulse
applied.

Fig 13: Block diagram of a synchronous sequential circuit

❑ The major disadvantage of the synchronous sequential circuits is that their operation is quite slow. This is because,
every time the circuit has to wait for a clock pulse for the operation to take place.
❑ However, the most significant advantage of synchronous sequential circuits is that they have a reliable and
predictable operation.
❑ Some common examples of synchronous sequential circuits include counters, registers, memory units, control
units, etc.
 Sequential Circuits vs. Combinational Circuits

Advantages of using sequential circuits over combinational logic circuits

❑ Sequential circuits can retain the operation history which is important in various
applications like data storage, feedback control systems, etc.
❑ Sequential circuits exhibit dynamic behavior and can execute complex operation in
real time.
❑ Sequential circuits comprise a feedback mechanism which improves the stability and
optimizes the system performance.
❑ Synchronous sequential circuits use a common clock signal for synchronization that
ensures reliable operation of the circuit.
❑ Sequential circuits can perform more complex operations using simpler circuit
designs than combinational circuits. Hence, their hardware complexity is lesser.
Disadvantages of Sequential Circuits
❑ Sequential circuits have higher propagation delay because the input signal passes
through multiple stages of logic circuits and memory elements.
❑ Sequential circuits are relatively complicated and time taking process to design and
analyze.
❑ Sequential circuits require a proper synchronization and clock distribution to work as
intended.
❑ As compared to combinational circuits, sequential circuits consume relatively more
power due to complex design and use of additional components like clock and
memory element.
Applications of Sequential Circuits
❑ Sequential circuits are used in digital counters employed in applications like
frequency division, event counting, time keeping, and more.
❑ Sequential circuits are also used in digital memory devices like flip-flops, registers,
etc. to store and retrieve data.
❑ Sequential circuits are used to design control circuits in digital systems.
❑ Sequential circuits play an important role in sequential logic and state-based data
processing operations.
❑ Sequential circuits are also used in automation systems to control the operation of
machines based on predefined logics.
❑ In communication systems, sequential circuits are used to implement communication
protocols and data transmission standards.
Latch
❑ In digital electronics, a latch is an asynchronous sequential circuit that can store 1-bit
information. It is used as the fundamental memory element in digital circuits.
❑ A latch can have two stable states namely, set and reset. The set state is denoted by the
logic 1 and the reset state is represented by the logic 0. Due to these two stable states,
a latch is also known as a bistable-multivibrator.
❑ The state of a latch toggles according to the applied input.
❑ The most important thing to be noted about latches is that they do not have a clock
signal for synchronization. That is why they are called asynchronous sequential
circuits.
❑ The logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of latches. Since there is no
synchronization and clock signal used. Hence, the latches operate immediately on the
application of input signals.
Characteristics of Latches
❑ Latches can store 1-bit of digital information that can be represented using either logic
0 or logic 1. Thus, the latches are mainly used as memory elements in digital circuits.
❑ Latches have a feedback mechanism that allows them to maintain their current state as
it is until the next input is applied.
❑ The operation of latches is completely controlled by applied inputs that means the
output of the latches updates based on the change in the input signals.

Types of Latches
❑ SR Latch
❑ JK Latch
❑ D Latch
❑ T Latch
SR Latch
❑ The SR latch is a type of latch which has two input lines designated as S and R. Where, S represents the Set input
and R represents the Reset input. Thus, it is also known as Set-Reset Latch.
❑ The SR latch has two stable states namely Set state (S) and Reset state (R).

Fig 14: Block diagram of SR latch Fig 15: Circuit diagram of SR latch

❑ In the case of SR latch, the S input sets the output Q to 1 and Q' to 0. On the other hand, the R input sets the output
Q to 0 and Q' to 1. In case, when both S and R inputs are high, the latch is said to be in forbidden state.
JK Latch
❑ The JK latch is another type of latch which has two inputs namely, J and K. Here, the input J is similar to S input
and the input K is similar to R input in an SR latch.
❑ The operation of the JK latch is similar to that of the SR latch but it does not have the forbidden state. Instead, it has
a toggle state in which the outputs Q and Q' swap their states when both inputs J and K are 1.
❑ The JK latch is mainly designed to overcome the problem of forbidden state in the SR latch.

Fig 16: Block diagram of JK latch Fig 17: Circuit diagram of JK latch

❑ The circuit diagram of the JK latch consists of a combination of two NOR gates and two AND gates
D Latch
❑ The D Latch, also known as Data latch or transparent latch, is a type of bistable multivibrator which has two input
signals namely, D (Data) input and E (Enable) input.
❑ The output Q of the D latch is same as the input applied at the D input line as long as the E input is high.

Fig 18: Block diagram of D latch Fig 19: Circuit diagram of D latch
❑ When the E input goes low, the output of the D latch is held as it is until the new input is applied to the D input.
T Latch
❑ T latch is a type of latch that toggles its output state (Q) when a logic 1 is applied to its input line. Hence, it is also
known as toggle latch.
❑ The T latch is implemented by connecting the J and K inputs of the JK latch together as shown in the following
block diagram.

Fig 20: Block diagram of T latch Fig 21: Circuit diagram of T latch
Applications of Latches
❑ Latches are used as 1-bit memory element in digital systems.
❑ Latches are used to design digital registers which are employed for storage and
manipulation of data in microprocessors and microcontrollers.
❑ Latches are used to design flip-flops which are basically the synchronized
latches.
❑ Latches are also used in communication systems for temporary data storage or
buffering purposes.
Flip Flops
❑ A flip-flop is a sequential digital electronic circuit having two stable states that
can be used to store one bit of binary data.
❑ Flip-flops are the fundamental building blocks of all memory devices.

Types of Flip Flops

❑ S-R Flip-Flop
❑ J-K Flip-Flop
❑ D Flip-Flop
❑ T Flip-Flop
SR Flip Flop
❑ This is the simplest flip-flop circuit. It has a set input (S) and a reset input (R).
❑ When in this circuit when S is set as active, the output Q would be high and the Q' will be low. If R is set to active
then the output Q is low and the Q' is high.
❑ Once the outputs are established, the results of the circuit are maintained until S or R get changed, or the power is
turned off.

Fig 22: Circuit diagram of SR Flip Flop

JK Flip Flop
❑ The JK flip-flop operates with only positive or negative clock transitions. The operation of the JK flip-flop is
similar to the SR flip-flop.
❑ When the input J and K are different then the output Q takes the value of J at the next clock edge.
❑ When J and K both are low then NO change occurs at the output.
❑ If both J and K are high, then at the clock edge, the output will toggle from one state to the other.

Fig 23: Circuit diagram of JK Flip Flop

D Flip Flop
❑ In a D flip-flop, the output can only be changed at positive or negative clock transitions, and when the inputs
changed at other times, the output will remain unaffected.
❑ The D flip-flops are generally used for shift-registers and counters.
❑ The change in output state of D flip-flop depends upon the active transition of clock.
❑ The output (Q) is same as input and changes only at active transition of clock.

Fig 24: Circuit diagram of D Flip Flop

T Flip Flop
❑ A T flip-flop (Toggle Flip-flop) is a simplified version of JK flip-flop.
❑ The T flop is obtained by connecting the J and K inputs together.
❑ The flip-flop has one input terminal and clock input.
❑ These flip-flops are said to be T flip-flops because of their ability to toggle the input state. Toggle flip-flops are
mostly used in counters.

Fig 25: Circuit diagram of T Flip Flop

Applications of Flip-Flops
❑ Counters
❑ Shift Registers
❑ Storage Registers
Advantages of Digital Electronics
❑ Digital signals are more accurate and reliable than analog signals, as they are
less susceptible to noise and interference.
❑ Digital signals can be easily stored, processed, and transmitted, as they are easy
to represent with 1s and 0s.
❑ Digital electronics are more precise and can perform more complex operations
than analog electronics.
❑ Digital electronics are easier to design and manufacture than analog electronics,
as they can be implemented using standard components such as transistors and
gates.
❑ Digital electronics are more energy efficient than analog electronics, as they can
perform the same operations using less power.
Disadvantages of Digital Electronics
❑ Digital electronics require a source of electricity to operate, which may not be
available in some situations.
❑ Digital signals can suffer from a phenomenon known as quantization error,
where the signal is not perfectly represented by a finite number of bits.
❑ Digital electronics may require additional hardware to convert analog signals
into digital signals, and vice versa.
❑ Digital electronics may be more expensive to produce than analog electronics,
as they may require more complex manufacturing processes.
❑ Digital electronics may have a higher latency than analog electronics, as they
may require additional time to process and transmit signals.
Applications of Digital Electronics
❑ Computing: Digital electronics are used in computers to store, process, and transmit data. They are used in the central
processing units (CPUs) of computers, as well as in other components such as memory, storage, and input/output devices.

❑ Communication: Digital electronics are used in a variety of communication systems, including cell phones, satellite systems,
and the internet. They are used to transmit and receive data, as well as to process and decode signals.

❑ Entertainment: Digital electronics are used in a variety of entertainment devices, including TVs, video game consoles, and
music players. They are used to process and display images, as well as to store and playback audio and video content.

❑ Transportation: Digital electronics are used in transportation systems, including vehicles and traffic control systems. They
are used to control the operation of engines and other systems, as well as to navigate and communicate with other vehicles.

❑ Industrial control: Digital electronics are used in industrial control systems to automate and control manufacturing
processes. They are used to monitor and control the operation of machines, as well as to process and transmit data.

❑ Medical equipment: Digital electronics are used in medical equipment, such as x-ray machines and patient monitoring
systems. They are used to process and display medical images, as well as to monitor and analyze patient data.

❑ Military: Digital electronics are used in military systems, such as radar systems and missile guidance systems. They are used
to detect and track objects, as well as to communicate and control military operations.

❑ Security: Digital electronics are used in security systems, such as alarm systems and surveillance cameras. They are used to
detect and monitor activity, as well as to communicate and respond to security threats.
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