WS / HW / / RS /657 : 2018 - 2019: TERM: I/II
NAME________________________ CLASS: 9 DIV: A B C D F ROLL NO.: ____ DATE: ____________
SUBJECT: Biology TOPIC: Animal Nutrition Notes (Ch 7) TEACHER’S NAME: Ms. Seema Bajpai
Note: This sheet can be assessed. MARKS / GRADE: ___
____________________________________________________________________________
7.1 Diet
Most animals need seven types of nutrient in their diet;
o carbohydrates
o proteins
o fats
o vitamins
o minerals
o water
o fibre
A balanced diet is a diet that contains all the main nutrients in the correct amounts and
proportions to maintain good health.
The amount of energy we need varies. This is due to the following factors:
Age
Activity levels
Gender
Age:
The amount of energy we need tends to increase as we approach adulthood. While children
are growing they need more protein per kilogram of body weight than adults do.
The energy needs of adults go down as they age.
Activity level:
People who are active tend to need more energy than sedentary people.
Gender:
Females tend to have lower energy requirements than males.
Females, on average, a lower body mass than males, which has a lower demand on energy
intake.
Pregnant women and lactating mothers need extra nutrients for the development of the fetus.
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The effects of malnutrition in relation to starvation, coronary heart disease,
constipation, and obesity:
Malnutrition is the result of not eating a balanced diet. There may be:
wrong amount of food: too little or too much
incorrect proportion of main nutrients
lacking in one or more key nutrients
Starvation:
Occurs when a person has a severe deficiency of energy, nutrient and vitamin intake.
Prolonged starvation may cause organ damage, and if not treated properly, death.
Coronary heart disease:
Occurs when the diet contains too much fat.
Deposits of a fatty substance buildup in the arteries, which result in blood clots.
If coronary arteries ( arteries supplying blood to the heart muscles) become blocked,
blood supply to the heart can be reduced resulting in angina (chest pain when exercising)
and coronary heart disease.
And eventually a heart attack.
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Constipation:
Constipation occurs when one finds it difficult to pass feaces.
Common causes: lack of fibre intake, lack of water intake.
Obesity:
A person is considered obese if his/her body weight is 20%above the standard body
weight.
An over-abundance of calorie intake, increased dependence on fast food and sugary foods
have accelerated the number of obese people.
Suffer from high blood pressure, coronary heart disease and diabetes.
Scurvy:
Is caused by the lack of vitamin C in the diet.
Symptoms include bleeding under the skin, swollen and bleeding gums and poor healing of
wounds.
Nutrient Sources Use in the body
Carbohydrates Rice, potato, yam, pasta, breat Source of energy;excess
, millets, sugary foods carbohydrates stored as
glycogen and fats
Lipids Butter, milk, cheese, egg-yolk, Source of energy; insulation
animal fat, groundnuts. against heat loss, insulation of
Meat and animal fats sources nerve fibres; form part of cell
of saturated fats; plant sources membrane, make steroid
are rich in unsaturated fats hormones
Protein Meat, fish, egg, legumes, To make enzymes, form carrier
soyabean, paneer proteins, hormones(insulin,
glucagon), antibodies,
haemoglobin
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Vitamins:
Vitamins are organic substances which are only needed in tiny amounts.
They are not digested or broken down for energy.
Mostly, they are not build into body structures.
They are essential in small quantities for health.
They are needed for chemical reactions in the cells, working in association with enzymes.
Mineral salts:
Minerals are inorganic substances, which are only needed in small amounts to maintain a
healthy body. A lack of the correct mineral ions in the diet also leads to deficiency symptoms.
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Dietary fibre (roughage):
Dietary fibre consists of material in food that cannot be digested, in particular cellulose from plant
cell walls.
Sources of fibre include:
fruit
vegetables
Cereals
Dietary fibre is important because it provides bulk, which helps the walls of the intestine move food
and faeces along the gut. Lack of dietary fibre can lead to constipation.Long term deficiency
leads to bowel cancer.
Water:
About two-thirds of the human body is water. It is found in the cytoplasm of our cells and in body
fluids like blood.
Sources of water include:
food
drinks
metabolic processes – such as aerobic respiration
Water acts as a solvent and as a transport medium.
Causes and effects of protein-energy malnutrition:
Kwashiorkor is caused by a lack of protein in the diet.
Slow muscle development and swollen liver( inadequate proteind to make amino acids)
Swoolen abdomen due to water from blood left behind in body tissues)Symptoms include
dry skin, pot-belly, changes to hair colour, weakness and irritability.
Marasmus is caused by a very poor diet with inadequate carbohydrates intake as well as
a lack of protein.
Symptom include reduced fat and muscle tissue, skin is thin and hangs in folds.
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7.2 Alimentary canal
• Define ingestion as the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body
through the mouth
• Define mechanical digestion as the breakdown of food into smaller pieces
without chemical change to the food molecules
• Define chemical digestion as the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into
small, soluble molecules
• Define absorption as the movement of small food molecules and ions through the
wall of the intestine into the blood
• Define assimilation as the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of
the body where they are used, becoming part of the cells
• Define egestion as the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed,
as faeces, through the anus
Diarrhoea: is the loss of watery faeces.
Treatment of diarrhoea is known as oral hydration therapy. This involves drinking plenty of fluids
– sipping small amounts of water at a time to rehydrate the body.
Cholera: is a disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholera which causes acute
diarrhoea.
When the Vibrio cholera bacteria are ingested, they multiply in the small intestine and
invade its epithelial cells.
As the bacteria become embedded, they release toxins which irritate the intestinal lining
and lead to the secretion of large amounts of water and salts, including chloride ions.
The salt decrease the osmotic potential of the gut contents, drawing more water from
surrounding tissues and blood by osmosis.
This makes the undigested food much more watery, leading to acute diarrhoea, and the
loss of body fluids and salt leads to dehydration and kidney failure.
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The Alimentary Canal
The alimentary canal runs from the mouth to the anus. It also includes the liver and the pancreas.
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Peristalsis is the longitudinal movement of the muscles in the oesophagus that help the food
bolus to travel through the alimentary canal.
Sphincter muscles act as valves and are found throughout the canal. they help regulate the
movement of food through it.
The Mouth
1. The teeth bite and grind the food into smaller pieces.
2. The tongue helps move the food and mixes it evenly with the saliva.
3. This forms a food bolus.
4. Salivary glands produce saliva containing amylase.
5. Amylase breaks down starch containing food such as bread into maltose.
Amylase
Starch —————–> Maltose
The Oesophagus
Originally, when the food moves through the mouth, there are two tubes leading to different
destinations:
1. The trachea
2. The Oesophagus
Food needs to pass into the oesophagus and not through the trachea which leads to the lungs.
To regulate this passage, the epiglottis is used.
The epiglottis is a cartilage that stops the food from entering into the trachea.
Note: There are no enzymes in the oesophagus and so the food bolus moves unchanged into the
stomach.
The Stomach
The stomach is strong and muscular.
It secretes mucus and other enzymes such as pepsin.
Another enzyme- renin is only secreted in young mammals and it is used to clot milk.
Hydrochloric acid is also produced and it acts as a barrier by killing any pathogens that
may have got into the food. It denatures enzymes in harmful microorganisms in food and
maintains the optimum pH for pepsin activity.
The mucus is secreted by goblet cells that are present on the walls of the stomach. the
mucus prevents the stomach to get digested by the hydrochloric acid it produces!
Enzymes present:
1.Pepsin: helps the breakdown of proteins to polypeptides
Pepsin
Proteins ——————–> Polypeptides
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3. Renin: helps the clotting of milk in young mammals
Renin
Milk ——————–> Coagulate
The pyloric sphincter opens the stomach and let’s the chyme move into the duodenum.
The Small Intestine
The small intestine is present between the stomach and the colon.
It consists of 3 parts:
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum
The Duodenum and the Pancreas
The duodenum has a duct leading from the pancreas that carries the pancreatic juice to it.
The Pancreas is a cream coloured gland which is also important for blood glucose
concentration control.
The pancreatic juice contains sodium hydrogen carbonate, which is used to neutralize
the acidic chyme so that the enzymes in it can work efficiently.
Enzymes in pancreatic juice:
1. Amylase: Breaks down starch containing food to maltose
Amylase
Starch —————–> Maltose
2. Trypsin: like pepsin, it breaks down proteins into polypeptides
Trypsin
Proteins ——————–> Polypeptides
3. Lipase: breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Lipase
Fats ———————> Fatty acids + Glycerol
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Bile
Bile is a yellowish-green, watery liquid, which is made in the liver.
It is stored in the gall bladder.
It flows to the duodenum along the bile duct.
There are no enzymes present in bile but it does contain bile salts that emulsify fats.
Role of bile is emulsifying fats to increase the surface area for the chemical digestion of
fat to fatty acids and glycerol by lipase
Bile is slightly alkaline, it neutralizes the acidic mixture of food and gastric juices entering
the duodenum from the stomach.
It provides a suitable pH for enzyme action in small intestine.
Bile also contains bile pigments which are produced when red blood cells are broken down
in the spleen.
Ilium
Enzymes present:
1. Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose
Maltase
Maltose ————-> Glucose
2.Sucrase: Breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose
Sucrase
Sucrose ————-> Glucose + Fructose
3. Lactase: Breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose
Lactase
Lactose —————-> Glucose + Galactose
4. Peptidase: Breaks down polypeptides into amino acids
Peptidase
Polypeptides——————> Amino acids
5. Lipase: Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Lipase
Fats ———————> Fatty acids + Glycerol
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Large Intestine
In the large intestine, caecum and appendix have no functions.
The Colon specializes in the absorption of water and salt.
In the rectum, faeces are formed, which is an undigested mixture of undigested food,
bacteria, bile pigments and some dead cells.
Faeces are disposed out of the body, at the end of the alimentary canal.
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7.3 Mechanical digestion
Types of teeth in mammals:
1. Incisors: are chisel shaped for biting off pieces of food.
2. Canines: are similar to incisors but instead of a chisel shape, they have a sharp pointed
crown and are used to cutting and tearing food.
3. Premolars: are plateau shaped teeth which specialize at tearing and grinding food.
4. Molars: are like premolars and are also used to chew and grind food.
Premolars and molars have a series of elevations, or cusps, that are used for breaking up
particles of food.
Each premolar has two cusps.
Each molar typically has four or five cusps.
The number of roots for each type of tooth varies from
one for incisors, canines, premolars;
two or three for molars.
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Animals have two sets of teeth in their lifetime:
1. Milk teeth: the teeth which form during 5-30 months of your life. there are usually 20-22 milk
teeth.
2. Permanent teeth: the teeth that replace milk teeth when you grow towards your teens. there
are usually 32 permanent teeth.
Tooth structure:
Crown: The part of the tooth that is visible above the gum line.
Gum: Is a tissue the overlays the jaws.
Root: The rest of the teeth, embedded in the jaw bone.
Enamel: Covers tooth crown. Enamel is very hard (harder than bone), and prevents the tooth from
decaying.
Dentine: Located under the enamel, similar in composition to bone. Not as hard as enamel.
Pulp: Found at center of tooth, and contains blood vessels, nerves and soft tissues which delivers
nutrients to your tooth.
Cement: The layer of bone-like tissue covering the root. It is not as hard as enamel.
Nerves: Each tooth and periodontal ligament has a nerve supply and the teeth are sensitive to a
wide variety of stimuli.
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Tooth decay:
Plaque is a sticky, colorless film of bacteria that constantly forms on our teeth and along the
gum line. Plaque contains bacteria that cause cavities and gum disease. Tartar is calcified or
hardened plaque that attaches to the enamel on your teeth and below the gum line.
Tooth decay happens when the hard outer enamel of the tooth is damaged. This can happen
when bacteria in the mouth convert sugars into acids that react with the enamel. Bacteria can
then enter the softer dentine inside.
Tooth decay can be prevented by:
avoiding foods with a high sugar content
using toothpaste and drinking water containing fluoride
regular, effective brushing to prevent the buildup of plaque (a sticky layer on the teeth)
Visit a dentist twice a year.
7.5) Absorption
The small intestine is the region where digested food is absorbed.
Most absorption happens in the ileum. This is the longest part of the small intestine and is
between 2-4 metres long.
The small intestine has a large internal surface area for absorption to happen quickly and
efficiently.
Glucose and amino acids pass into the bloodstream.
Fatty acids and glycerol pass into the lacteals connected to the lymphatic system.
Water is absorbed in both the small intestine and the colon, but the most absorption
of water happens in the small intestine.
The ileum is efficient in the absorption of digested food:
It is fairly long and presents a large absorbing surface to the digested food.
Its internal surface is greatly increased by circular folds bearing thousands of tiny
projections called villi. These villi are about 0.55mm long and may be finger-like or
flattened in shape.
The lining epithelium is very thin and the fluids can pass rapidly through it. The outer
membrane of each epithelial cell has microvilli, which increase by 20 times the exposed
surface of the cell.
There is a dense network of blood capillaries (tiny blood vessels) in each villus.
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Network of blood capillaries – transports glucose and amino acids away from the
small intestine in the blood
Internal structure called a lacteal – transports fatty acids and glycerol away from the
small intestine in the lymph
The hepatic portal vein transports absorbed food from the small intestine to the liver.
Digested and undigested foods have different outcomes once they have passed through
the alimentary canal (gut).
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