CHAPTER 4: CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Chapter 4: Carbon and Its Compounds

Why carbon matters?
 Carbon is the backbone of life and of many materials used daily. However, only about 0.02% of Earth’s
crust is carbon (as carbonates, hydrogencarbonates, coal, petroleum) and about 0.03% CO₂ in the air;
its chemistry is immense due to bonding and stability features.
 Most everyday organics produce CO₂ on burning; the limewater test for CO₂ confirms a carbon
compound upon combustion via milky CaCO₃ formation principle (class activity context).

Covalent Bonding in Carbon

 Atomic number of carbon = 6; electronic configuration = 2, 4; valency = 4 (tetravalent).
 Forming C⁴⁻ is hard (nucleus of 6 protons can’t hold 10 electrons effectively), and forming C⁴⁺ needs
very high ionisation energy; hence, carbon shares electrons to complete an octet: covalent bond
formation.
 Covalent bonds share electron pairs; there are single, double, and triple bonds depending on the number
of shared pairs.
Electron-dot and line structures:

 H₂: each H shares 1e⁻ to attain He-like configuration; single bond H−H; dot model shows one shared
pair between H atoms.
 Cl₂: each Cl (17) shares 1e⁻ to complete octet; single bond Cl−Cl; dot model with three lone pairs per
Cl and one shared pair.
 O₂: each O (8) shares 2e⁻; double bond O=O; dot structure has two shared pairs and two lone pairs per
O.
 N₂: each N (7) shares 3e⁻; triple bond N≡N; dot structure with three shared pairs and one lone pair per
N.
 H₂O: O shares with two H atoms; two single O−H bonds; two lone pairs on O; bent geometry
conceptually.
 NH₃: N shares with three H atoms; three single N−H bonds; one lone pair on N.
 CH₄ (methane): C shares 4e⁻ with four H atoms; four single C−H bonds; tetra-valency satisfied; dot
structure has 4 shared pairs around C.
Key properties of covalent compounds:

 Strong intramolecular covalent bonds but weak intermolecular forces lead to generally low
melting/boiling points compared to ionic solids; poor electrical conductors due to the absence of free
ions.

Allotropes of Carbon
 Diamond: each C bonded to four C atoms in a 3D rigid network; hardest known; electrical insulator;
synthetic diamonds made under high P, T.
 Graphite: each C bonded to three C atoms in planar hexagons; layers held by weak forces; soft, slippery;
good electrical conductor due to delocalized electrons.

1
  Buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀): spherical molecules resembling a football; another allotrope class called
fullerenes.

Versatile Nature of Carbon

Two reasons for millions of compounds:

1. Catenation: carbon bonds with itself to form long chains, branched chains, and rings with
single/double/triple bonds; very strong and stable C−C bonds enable long stable frameworks.
2. Tetravalency with strong bonds to many elements (H, O, N, S, halogens), forming stable, diverse
molecules; small atomic size helps strong shared-pair attraction.
Saturated vs Unsaturated:

 Saturated: only single C−C bonds (alkanes); relatively less reactive.

 Unsaturated: one or more C=C (alkenes) or C≡C (alkynes); more reactive.

Building Hydrocarbon Structures

Stepwise drawing method:

 First connect carbons with the required C−C backbone, then satisfy the remaining valencies with H.
Core examples and dot hints:

 Ethane, C₂H₆: H−C−C−H with each C bonded to 3 H; dot: each C shares with 3 H plus one C−C single
bond.
 Ethene, C₂H₄: H₂C=CH₂; introduce a C=C double bond to satisfy valency; dot shows two shared pairs
between C and 2 H each on C.
 Ethyne, C₂H₂: HC≡CH; triple C≡C bond; dot shows three shared pairs between C and one shared pair
per C−H.
Chains, branches, and rings:

 Straight chains: CH₄, C₂H₆, C₃H₈, C₄H₁₀, C₅H₁₂, C₆H₁₄ (alkanes) increase by −CH₂−.
 Structural isomerism: C₄H₁₀ has n-butane (CH₃−CH₂−CH₂−CH₃) and isobutane (2-methylpropane,
(CH₃)₃CH); same formula, different connectivity.
 Rings: cyclohexane C₆H₁₂ (saturated ring); benzene C₆H₆ (unsaturated aromatic ring).
Memory cue:

 For alkanes: general formula 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 ; for alkenes: 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛 (one double bond); for alkynes: 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛−2
(one triple bond).

Functional Groups and Heteroatoms

 Replacing one or more H atoms in a hydrocarbon chain by heteroatoms (Cl/Br/O/N/S) or groups creates
specific properties; these atoms/groups are functional groups.
 Common functional groups: halo (−Cl/−Br), alcohol (−OH), aldehyde (−CHO), ketone (>C=O),
carboxylic acid (−COOH).

2
  Functional group determines chemical properties; physical properties vary gradually with chain length.

Homologous Series
 A family of organic compounds with the same functional group and successive members differing by
a −CH₂− unit; similar chemical properties; physical properties show gradation (m.p./b.p increase with
molecular mass).
 Alkenes series example: C₂H₄, C₃H₆, C₄H₈, C₅H₁₀ differ by −CH₂−; general formula 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛 .
 For alkanes, difference between CH₄ and C₂H₆ is −CH₂−; similar step holds across series.

Nomenclature (IUPAC style)

How to name:

1. Count the longest carbon chain (meth-, eth-, prop-, but-, pent-, hex-...).
2. Identify functional group: use suffix (−ol, −al, −one, −oic acid) or prefix (chloro-, bromo-) as
appropriate.
3. If the suffix begins with a vowel, drop the final ‘e’ of the parent name: propane → propanone (not
“propan e one”).
4. Unsaturation: replace −ane by −ene (double bond) or −yne (triple bond); e.g., propene, propyne.
Examples:

 CH₃−CH₂−Br: bromoethane (halo prefix + parent alkane).

 Three-carbon ketone: propanone (parent propan- + one).
 Three-carbon alkene: propene; three-carbon alkyne: propyne.

Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds

1. Combustion:
 Carbon and most carbon compounds burn in O₂ to give CO₂ and release heat and light (exothermic)
[Equations]
o 𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + heat and light
o 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + heat and light (balance as exercise)
o 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + heat and light (balance as exercise)
 Saturated hydrocarbons generally give a clean blue flame; unsaturated hydrocarbons often give a
sooty yellow flame (more carbon).
 Incomplete combustion (limited air) causes sooty flame and blackened vessel bottoms; ensure air
inlets are open for a clean flame.
 Fuels with S and N produce SOₓ and NOₓ upon burning, major pollutants.
2. Oxidation:
 Alcohols can be oxidised to carboxylic acids by oxidising agents like alkaline KMnO₄ or acidified
K₂Cr₂O₇ with heat: ethanol → ethanoic acid [Equation]

3
 alkaline KMnO4
o 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻.
heat

 Oxidising agents add oxygen or remove hydrogen; they decolourise permanganate until the oxidant
is exhausted.
3. Addition reaction:
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen (hydrogenation) in the presence of catalysts (Ni/Pd) to
form saturated hydrocarbons [Equation]
Ni
o 𝑅𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻𝑅 + 𝐻2 → 𝑅𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 𝑅.
 Industrially used to hydrogenate vegetable oils to fats; oils are generally unsaturated, and animal
fats are more saturated.
4. Substitution reaction:
 Saturated hydrocarbons are relatively unreactive; in sunlight, Cl₂ replaces H atoms in alkanes
stepwise (substitution), e.g. [Equation]
sunlight
o 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 (further substitutions possible).

Ethanol (C₂H₅OH): Properties and Reactions

Properties and uses:

 Liquid at room temperature; miscible with water; active ingredient of alcoholic drinks; solvent in
tincture iodine, cough syrups, tonics; excessive consumption harms health; absolute alcohol is lethal;
methanol is highly toxic and can cause blindness/death; denatured alcohol has methanol/dyes to prevent
misuse.
Reactions:

 With Na metal: produces hydrogen and sodium ethoxide [Equation]

o 2𝑁𝑎 + 2𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 → 2𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂− 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐻2 ↑.
 Dehydration to ethene: hot conc. H₂SO₄ at 443 K removes water (acts as a dehydrating agent)
[Equation]
conc. 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
o 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻2 𝑂.
443𝐾

Ethanoic acid (acetic acid, CH₃COOH): Properties and Reactions

Properties and uses:

 5–8% solution is vinegar used as a preservative; m.p. 290 K (freezes in cold climates → glacial acetic
acid); weak acid (partially ionised) vs strong mineral acids like HCl.
Reactions:

 Esterification with ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst gives a sweet-smelling ester; hydrolyses
with NaOH back to alcohol and sodium salt (saponification) [Equations]
acid
o 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝐻2 𝑂.

4
 o 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎.
 Neutralisation with base: sodium ethanoate and water [Equation]
o 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2 𝑂.
 With carbonates/hydrogencarbonates: gives salt, CO₂, and water; CO₂ turns limewater milky
[Equations]
o 2𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 2𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↑.
o 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↑.
Distinguishing tests:

 Alcohol vs carboxylic acid: add NaHCO₃—vigorous effervescence with acid (CO₂), no CO₂ with
alcohol; pH and indicator behaviour differentiate weak organic acid from neutral alcohol.

Soaps and Detergents

Soap structure and micelles:

 Soap = sodium/potassium salts of long-chain fatty acids; has a hydrophilic ionic head and hydrophobic
hydrocarbon tail.
 In water, soap molecules form micelles: tails embedded in oil droplet, heads outward in water; dirt is
emulsified and removed upon rinsing/agitation [diagram-as-text below].
Diagram-as-text: Micelle

 Outer sphere: many hydrophilic “−COO⁻ Na⁺” heads facing water

 Interior: packed hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails trapping grease/oil
 Oil droplet sits inside aggregated tails; suspension appears cloudy due to colloidal micelles.
Hard water and scum:

 Hardness from Ca²⁺/Mg²⁺ ions causes insoluble precipitates (scum) with soap; foam formation is poor;
more soap is needed.[3][1]
 Detergents (sodium salts of sulfonic acids or ammonium salts) have charged ends that do not precipitate
with Ca²⁺/Mg²⁺, thus work in hard water and are used in shampoos and laundry.
Why is agitation needed:

 Agitation helps micelles contact dirt, detach it, and keep it suspended for rinsing; micelles remain
dispersed due to charge repulsion.

Practice-oriented Memory Tips

 Series jump: each successive homologue adds −CH₂− and about 14 u molecular mass; physical
properties rise smoothly; chemistry stays dominated by functional group.
 Naming trick: if the suffix starts with a vowel (−ol, −al, −one, −oic acid), drop the terminal ‘e’ of the
parent: propane → propanone, butane → butanoic acid.
 Test for unsaturation: addition reactions (like hydrogenation) apply to alkenes/alkynes, not alkanes;
unsaturated compounds often give a sooty flame.

5
  Blue flame = complete combustion; yellow sooty = incomplete or unsaturation/excess carbon; clean
the air inlets on burners to restore blue flame.

Representative Equations to Memorise

1. Combustion: 𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 ; 𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 (balanced).
KMnO4 /𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7
2. Oxidation: 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻.
𝑁𝑖
3. Hydrogenation: 𝑅𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻𝑅 + 𝐻2 → 𝑅𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 𝑅.
ℎ𝜈
4. Substitution: 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐.
5. Dehydration of ethanol: 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻2 𝑂.
443𝐾
acid
6. Esterification: 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝐻2 𝑂.
7. Saponification: 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻.
8. Neutralisation: 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2 𝑂.
9. With carbonate: 2𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 2𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 .
10. With hydrogencarbonate: 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 .

6
Comprehensive Question Bank - Carbon and Its Compounds

Probable Questions with Answers

1-Mark Questions
Q1. Define catenation.
Answer: Catenation is the unique ability of carbon atoms to form strong covalent bonds with other carbon
atoms, giving rise to large molecules in the form of straight chains, branched chains, or rings.

Q2. What is the valency of carbon?

Answer: Carbon has a valency of 4 (tetravalent) because it has 4 electrons in its outermost shell.

Q3. Name the hardest allotrope of carbon.

Answer: Diamond is the hardest allotrope of carbon.

Q4. Write the molecular formula of ethene.

Answer: The molecular formula of ethene is C₂H₄.

Q5. What is the functional group of alcohols?

Answer: The functional group of alcohols is −OH (hydroxyl group).

Q6. Name the first member of alkyne series.

Answer: Ethyne (HC≡CH) is the first member of alkyne series.

Q7. What is denatured alcohol?

Answer: Denatured alcohol is ethanol made unfit for drinking by adding poisonous substances like
methanol and dyes to prevent its misuse in industrial applications.

Q8. Define homologous series.

Answer: A homologous series is a group of carbon compounds where each successive member differs
from the previous one by a −CH₂− unit and has the same functional group.

Q9. Write the formula of methane.

Answer: The formula of methane is CH₄.

Q10. What are hydrocarbons?

Answer: Hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

2-Mark Questions
Q1. Why does carbon form covalent bonds?
Answer: Carbon forms covalent bonds because:

 It has 4 electrons in its outermost shell and needs 4 more to complete its octet
 Gaining 4 electrons to form C⁴⁻ would be difficult as 6 protons cannot hold 10 electrons effectively
 Losing 4 electrons to form C⁴⁺ requires very high ionization energy
 Therefore, carbon shares electrons with other atoms to achieve stable noble gas configuration.
Q2. Draw electron dot structure of methane.
Answer:

7
Q3. Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated compounds.
Answer: Saturated compounds: Contain only single bonds between carbon atoms, are less reactive, and
have the general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ for alkanes

Unsaturated compounds: Contain double (C=C) or triple (C≡C) bonds between carbon atoms, are
more reactive, and include alkenes (CₙH₂ₙ) and alkynes (CₙH₂ₙ₋₂).

Q4. What are the two properties of carbon that lead to formation of large number of compounds?
Answer:

1. Catenation: Ability to form strong bonds with other carbon atoms creating chains, branches, and
rings
2. Tetravalency: Carbon can form four covalent bonds, allowing it to bond with many different
elements like H, O, N, S, and halogens.
Q5. Write two uses of ethanol.
Answer:

1. Used as a solvent in medicines like tincture iodine and cough syrups

2. Used as fuel additive in petrol as it burns cleanly producing only CO₂ and H₂O.
Q6. How will you test for CO₂ gas?
Answer: Pass the gas through freshly prepared lime water [Ca(OH)₂]. If CO₂ is present, the lime water
turns milky due to formation of calcium carbonate: Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ → CaCO₃ + H₂O.

Q7. Name two oxidizing agents for alcohols.

Answer:

1. Alkaline potassium permanganate (KMnO₄)

2. Acidified potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇).
Q8. Why do covalent compounds have low melting points?
Answer: Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points because they have strong
intramolecular bonds but weak intermolecular forces of attraction. Only small amount of energy is needed
to break these weak intermolecular forces.

3-Mark Questions
Q1. Explain the formation of covalent bond in methane.
Answer:

 Carbon (atomic number 6) has electronic configuration 2,4 with 4 valence electrons
 Each hydrogen atom (atomic number 1) has 1 valence electron
 Carbon shares its 4 electrons with 4 hydrogen atoms forming 4 C−H covalent bonds
 This sharing allows carbon to complete its octet and each hydrogen to complete its duplet
 The resulting molecule CH₄ has 4 single covalent bonds with tetrahedral geometry.
Q2. Draw structures of first three members of alkane series.
Answer:

1. Methane (CH₄): H−C−H with H above and below C

8
 2. Ethane (C₂H₆): H₃C−CH₃
3. Propane (C₃H₈): H₃C−CH₂−CH₃
All have only single bonds and follow the general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂.

Q3. Write three differences between soaps and detergents.

Answer:

Property Soaps Detergents

Effectiveness in hard water Less effective, forms scum Work effectively
Chemical nature Na/K salts of fatty acids Na salts of sulfonic acids
Cost Cheaper More expensive [1][2]

Q4. Explain why diamond is hard while graphite is soft.

Answer:

 Diamond: Each carbon atom forms 4 covalent bonds with other carbon atoms in a rigid 3D
tetrahedral structure, making it extremely hard
 Graphite: Each carbon atom forms 3 covalent bonds in planar hexagonal arrays arranged in layers.
Weak van der Waals forces between layers allow them to slide over each other, making graphite soft
and slippery.
Q5. What is esterification? Write the reaction.
Answer:
Esterification is the reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst to
form an ester and water.
conc. H₂SO₄
𝐶𝐻₃𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶₂𝐻₅𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻₃𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶₂𝐻₅ + 𝐻₂𝑂

Esters are sweet-smelling and used in perfumes and flavoring agents.

Q6. How can you distinguish between ethanol and ethanoic acid?
Answer:

1. Litmus test: Ethanoic acid turns blue litmus red; ethanol has no effect
2. Sodium bicarbonate test: Ethanoic acid produces effervescence (CO₂); ethanol shows no reaction
3. pH: Ethanoic acid has pH < 7; ethanol has pH ≈ 7.
Q7. Explain micelle formation.
Answer:

 Soap molecules have hydrophilic head (−COO⁻Na⁺) and hydrophobic tail (hydrocarbon chain)
 In water, soap molecules arrange themselves with hydrophobic tails pointing inward and hydrophilic
heads facing outward
 This spherical arrangement is called a micelle
 Oil/grease gets trapped in the hydrophobic center while the charged surface keeps micelles suspended
in water.

9
5-Mark Questions
Q1. Describe the versatile nature of carbon.
Answer: Carbon shows versatile nature due to:

1. Catenation:

 Carbon can form strong bonds with other carbon atoms

 Forms long chains, branched chains, and rings
 Can be linked by single, double, or triple bonds
 Creates millions of compounds
2. Tetravalency:

 Carbon has valency of 4

 Can bond with 4 other atoms simultaneously
 Forms bonds with H, O, N, S, halogens, and other elements
3. Small atomic size:

 Nucleus holds shared electrons strongly

 Forms stable compounds
 Bonds are much stronger than those formed by larger atoms
4. Bond strength:

 Carbon-carbon bonds are very strong and stable

 Unlike silicon which forms reactive chains of only 7-8 atoms
 This stability allows formation of large molecules.
Q2. Explain the cleansing action of soaps.
Answer: Structure of soap: Sodium or potassium salts of long-chain fatty acids with hydrophilic head
(ionic) and hydrophobic tail (hydrocarbon chain).

Mechanism:

1. Micelle formation: In water, soap molecules arrange with hydrophobic tails inward and hydrophilic
heads outward
2. Oil entrapment: Oily dirt gets trapped in the hydrophobic center of micelles
3. Emulsification: Forms stable emulsion of oil in water
4. Removal: Agitation helps micelles contact dirt and suspend it; rinsing removes the suspended dirt
Why agitation is needed: Helps micelles come in contact with dirt, detach it from fabric, and keep it
suspended due to charge repulsion between micelles.

Q3. What are allotropes of carbon? Describe three allotropes.

Answer: Allotropes are different physical forms of the same element. Carbon has three main allotropes:

10
1. Diamond:

 Each carbon bonded to 4 others in rigid 3D structure

 Hardest known substance
 Electrical insulator
 Used in jewelry and cutting tools
2. Graphite:

 Each carbon bonded to 3 others in hexagonal layers

 Soft and slippery due to weak interlayer forces
 Good conductor of electricity
 Used in pencils and lubricants
3. Fullerenes (C₆₀):

 Carbon atoms arranged in football-like cage structure

 Named after architect Buckminster Fuller
 Used in nanotechnology applications.
Q4. Describe the chemical properties of carbon compounds.

Answer: Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds:

1. Combustion:
 Carbon and most carbon compounds burn in O₂ to give CO₂ and release heat and light (exothermic)
[Equations]
o 𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + heat and light
o 𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + heat and light
1. Oxidation:
 Alcohols can be oxidised to carboxylic acids by oxidising agents like alkaline KMnO₄ or acidified
K₂Cr₂O₇ with heat: ethanol → ethanoic acid [Equation]
alkaline KMnO4
o 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻.
heat

 Oxidising agents add oxygen or remove hydrogen; they decolourise permanganate until the oxidant
is exhausted.
2. Addition reaction:
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen (hydrogenation) in the presence of catalysts (Ni/Pd) to
form saturated hydrocarbons [Equation]
Ni
o 𝑅𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻𝑅 + 𝐻2 → 𝑅𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 𝑅.
 Industrially used to hydrogenate vegetable oils to fats; oils are generally unsaturated, and animal
fats are more saturated.
3. Substitution reaction:

11
  Saturated hydrocarbons are relatively unreactive; in sunlight, Cl₂ replaces H atoms in alkanes
stepwise (substitution), e.g. [Equation]
sunlight
𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 (further substitutions possible).

MCQ Practice Questions

Q1. Ethane, with molecular formula C₂H₆ has:
(a) 6 covalent bonds (b) 7 covalent bonds (c) 8 covalent bonds (d) 9 covalent bonds

Answer: (b) 7 covalent bonds (1 C−C bond + 6 C−H bonds).

Q2. Butanone is a four-carbon compound with functional group:

(a) carboxylic acid (b) aldehyde (c) ketone (d) alcohol

Answer: (c) ketone (>C=O group).

Q3. If the bottom of vessel gets blackened during cooking, it means:

(a) food is not cooked completely (b) fuel is not burning completely (c) fuel is wet (d) fuel is burning
completely

Answer: (b) fuel is not burning completely (incomplete combustion due to insufficient oxygen).

Q4. Which compound will undergo addition reaction:

(a) CH₄ (b) C₃H₈ (c) C₂H₆ (d) C₂H₄

Answer: (d) C₂H₄ (ethene, being unsaturated, can undergo addition reactions).

Q5. The allotrope of carbon that conducts electricity is:

(a) Diamond (b) Graphite (c) Charcoal (d) None of these

Answer: (b) Graphite (due to delocalized electrons in its layered structure).

Competency-Based Questions
Q1. On complete combustion, an organic compound produces only CO₂ and H₂O. Which homologous
series could it belong to?
(a) Only alkanes (b) Only alcohols (c) Only aldehydes (d) Any of alkanes, alcohols, or aldehydes

Answer: (d) Any compound containing only C, H, and O will produce only CO₂ and H₂O on complete
combustion.

Q2. 1 mole each of ethene and ethyne undergo complete addition to form saturated compounds.
What will be different?
(a) Moles of saturated compound (b) Moles of H₂ consumed (c) Both (d) Neither

Answer: (b) Ethene needs 1 mole H₂, ethyne needs 2 moles H₂ for complete saturation.

12
Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

2024 Board Exam Questions

Q1. (A)(i) Define a homologous series of carbon compounds. (ii) Why are the melting and boiling
points of C₄H₈ higher than that of C₃H₆ or C₂H₄? (iii) Why do we NOT see any gradation in the
chemical properties of homologous series compounds? (4 marks)

Answer:
(i) A homologous series is a group of carbon compounds where each member differs from the next by a
−CH₂− unit, has the same functional group, and exhibits similar chemical properties.

(ii) The melting and boiling points of C₄H₈ are higher than C₃H₆ or C₂H₄ because melting and boiling points
increase with increasing molecular mass in a homologous series.

(iii) There is no gradation in chemical properties because these properties are determined solely by the
functional group, which remains the same throughout the series.

Q2. Write the name and structure of an organic compound 'X' having two carbon atoms in its
molecule and its name is suffixed with '-ol'. What happens when 'X' is heated with excess
concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K? (3 marks)

Answer: Compound X is Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)

Structure: H₃C−CH₂−OH

When heated with conc. H₂SO₄ at 443K:

conc. H₂SO₄
𝐶₂𝐻₅𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶₂𝐻₄ + 𝐻₂𝑂
443𝐾

Concentrated H₂SO₄ acts as a dehydrating agent, removing water to form ethene.

2023 Board Exam Questions

Q1. Explain why carbon forms compounds mainly by covalent bonding. (3 marks)

Answer: Carbon forms covalent bonds because:

 Carbon has 4 electrons in its valence shell

 Forming C⁴⁺ requires very high energy to remove 4 electrons
 Forming C⁴⁻ is difficult as nucleus with 6 protons cannot effectively hold 10 electrons
 Sharing electrons (covalent bonding) is energetically favorable and allows carbon to complete its
octet.
Q2. Draw electron dot structure of ethanoic acid. (2 marks)

Answer: Ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH) electron dot structure shows:

 Carbon-carbon single bond

 Carbon-oxygen double bond in carboxyl group
 Carbon-oxygen single bond with hydrogen

13
  All atoms achieve stable electronic configuration through sharing.

2022 Board Exam Questions

Q1. Write the molecular formula of first two members having functional group −OH. (1 mark)

Answer:

1. CH₃OH (Methanol)
2. C₂H₅OH (Ethanol).
Q2. What happens when ethanol is oxidized with alkaline KMnO₄? (2 marks)

Answer: When ethanol is oxidized with alkaline KMnO₄:

alkaline KMnO₄
𝐶₂𝐻₅𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻₃𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻₂𝑂

Ethanol gets converted to ethanoic acid. The purple color of KMnO₄ disappears as it gets reduced,
indicating the oxidation of alcohol.

2021 Board Exam Questions

Q1. What are structural isomers? Give example. (2 marks)

Answer: Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural
arrangements.

Example: Butane (C₄H₁₀) has two structural isomers:

 n-Butane: CH₃−CH₂−CH₂−CH₃ (straight chain)

 Isobutane: (CH₃)₃CH (branched chain).
Q2. Why is soap less effective in hard water? (2 marks)

Answer: Soap is less effective in hard water because:

 Hard water contains Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions

 These ions react with soap to form insoluble precipitates (scum)
 This reduces the cleaning efficiency and requires more soap.

2020 Board Exam Questions

Q1. Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points. Why? (2 marks)

Answer: Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points because:

 They have strong intramolecular covalent bonds but weak intermolecular forces
 Only small amount of energy is needed to overcome these weak intermolecular attractions
 No ions are formed, so no strong electrostatic forces exist between molecules.

14
Important and Doubt Q&As

15
16