Chemistry Notes
Unit 1 - Organic compounds
Key concept - System
Related concept - pattern model, form
Global context - Personal and cultural expression
Student will explore - Products, systems, and institutions
Criteria -
- A - Knowing and understanding
- B - Inquiring and designing
Ionic and covalent compounds
NaCl - Ionic - sodium transfers 1 electron, chlorine takes 1 electron -
attains octet
CH4 - Covalent - Carbon and 4 hydrogen share electrons so all - attains
octet
Commonalities between chair, gas cylinder, vinegar, and leafs -
- Carbon
- Hydrogen
Organic compounds will have these
Carbohydrates are carbon and hydrogen… how surprising
Allotropy is the property of an element to have different physical
structures
Different physical forms and structures
Allotropes of carbon
- Graphite
- Diamond
- Isomerism
- Fullerene
Carbon catenation is the formation of a very large number of compounds.
- Same molecular formula but different structural formula
- For example CH2–CH2–OH and CH2–OH–CH2
Organic compounds can be acyclic or cyclic
- Acyclic is when it is a closed chain compound
- Cyclic is when it is a open chain compound
- This can be further divided to saturated (single bond) or
unsaturated (double or triple bond compounds)
- Alkanes - single bond
- Alkenes - double / triple bond
- Alkynes - double / triple bond
Hydrocarbons
Sr Alkane CnH2n+2 Sr Alkene CnH2n Sr Alkyne CnH2n-2
1 CH4 4 hydrogen, 1 2 C2H4 2 carbon, 4 2 C2H2 2 carbon, 2
carbon hydrogen hydrogen
2 C2H6 6 hydrogen, 2 3 C3H6 3 carbon, 6 3 C3H4 3 carbon, 4
carbon hydrogen hydrogen
3 C3H8 8 hydrogen, 3 4 C4H8 4 carbon, 8 4 C4H6 4 carbon, 6
carbon hydrogen hydrogen
4 C4h10 10 hydrogen, 5 C5H10 5 carbon, 10 5 C5H8 5 carbon, 8
carbon hydrogen hydrogen
Prefix Prefix Prefix Prefix
1 Methane Methyl
2 Ethane Ethene Ethyne Ethyl
3 Propane Propene Propyne Propyl
4 Butane Butene Butyne Butyl
5 Pentane Pentene Pentyne Pentyl
6 Hexane Hexene Hexyne Hexyl
7 Heptane Heptene Heptyne Heptyl
8 Octane Octene Octyne Octyl
9 Nonane Nonene Nonyne Nonyl
10 Decane Decene Decyne Decyl
Homologous series
- A group of carbon compounds having similar chemical structures and
similar chemical properties
- Member differ by CH2
- Members differ by 14 units of mass
- Are alkynes, alkanes, and alkenes
Alkyl groups
- C(n)H(2n)+1
- Basically remove 1 hydrogen from all on the alkanes list
- Alkyls will have 1 element which has not attained octet
- Add kl as the suffix - Methyl
Functional group
- An atom or a group of atoms that decide properties a carbon compound
- Halo group (C[n]H[2n+1])
- Halogens (Group 17)
- Halo alkane or alkyl halide - Naming
- Iodo, fluoro, chloro, bromo
- Alcohol group (C[n]H[2n+1])
- OH is added
- Suffix is ol - Naming - Ethanol
- Carboxylic acid (C[n]H[2n+1]COOH)
- COOH is added to the chemical formula
- Suffix is oic - Ethanoic
- The carbon in COOH is also counted as one of the carbons
- Esters (C[n]H[])
Rules for nomenclature
- Find and name the longest continuous carbon chains
- Identify and name groups attached to this chain
- Number the chain consecutively, starting at the end nearest a
substituent group
- Designate the location of each substituent group by an appropriate
number and name
- Assemble the name, listing group in alphabetical order using the full
name
Acids have the highest priority in terms of naming
Physical properties of alcohols
- Alcohols have a higher boiling point when compared to other
hydrocarbons
- The solubility of alcohol depends on the hydroxyl group present
- Alcohols are acidic due to the polarity of the OH bond
- Alcohols also have a very low melting point, the melting point of
ethanol being -114.1 degrees celsius
- Most alcohols are colourless, ethanol, methanol being to examples of a
colourless alcohol
The boiling point increases down the homologous series
The melting point decreases down the homologous series
The solubility decreases down the homologous series
Chemical properties of alcohols
- Combustion, hydrocarbon + oxygen will give C02, H2O and heat energy
- Oxidation, addition of oxygen
Structural isomers of the alkanes
- Isomerism is the representation of the same molecular formula as
different structures
- Butane and butene have 2 isomers
Isomerism - Pentane
Physical properties of organic compound:
- Melting point - The temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid
- Boiling point - The temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas
- Density- Mass per unit volume
Melting and boiling point go down the homologous series
Physical properties of hydrocarbons
- Hydrocarbons are colourless and odourless
- They undergo a combustion reaction with oxygen giving carbon dioxide
and water.
- Greater number of carbon the greater the melting point of hydrocarbons
Combustion
- Carbon compounds burn in oxygen to form water carbon dioxide heat and
light
- Eg: C + O2 → CO2 + heat + light
- CH4 + 2O2 → H2O + CO2 + heat + light
Oxidation reaction
- Carbon compounds like alcohols are oxidised to carboxylic acid on
heating with oxidising agents like alkaline potassium permanganate
- KMnO4 or acidic potassium dichromate - k2cr2o7.
Substitution reaction
- Saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reactions with halogens to
form substitution products.
- Methane undergoes substitution reaction with chlorine in the presence
of sunlight to form substitution products.
Test for saturated or unsaturated
Chemical solution + bromine water, if the colour stays orange-red, it is
unsaturated, if it becomes a colourless solution, it is saturated
What is a saturated compound?
only single bonds between carbon atoms
What are unsaturated compounds?
The have on double and triple bonds
Ethanol
Is a colourless and odourless solution, which has a burning taste
Fermentation
Is the process where substances like glucose are broken down anaerobically,
produce an enzyme that converts glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide gas.
Hydration
Ethene + steam -> ethanol
Cracking
- Breaking down of longer chain hydrocarbons into smaller hydrocarbons
- Propane and butane are small hydrocarbons, meaning they are easily
flammable, have a lower boiling point.
- Lower hydrocarbons are also easy to ignite, so can be used as fuel.
- Alkenes are used in the manufacture of plastics.
- Thermal or catalytic cracking
- Thermal is high pressure, and temperature fuse
- Catalytic is low pressure, and temperature
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xsqlv4rWnEg
There are 2 types of cracking
- Catalytic cracking(through catalyst)
- Uses zeolite catalyst
- 500 degrees celsius
- Thermal cracking (through steam)
- Carried out at 750 degrees celsius and 70 atm
- Thermal cracking gives a mixture of products with many double
bonds
- Polymerisation
Cracking of petroleum
Breaking of larger hydrocarbons into smaller and more useful hydrocarbons
Why are higher alcohols not soluble in water
More steric hindrance due to large number of hydrocarbon chains, which
results in less solubility
Ethanoic acid properties
- It is a colourless liquid with a pungent smell and sour taste
- It is soluble in water
- A solution of 5% to 8% ethanoic acid in water is called vinegar
Esterification
- Ethanoic acid + ethanol conc H2SO4 → CH3COOC2H5
- Carboxylic acid + alcohol → CH3C
- Artificial flavourings, perfumes, organs, soaps, and cosmetics
- Has a fruity smell
General formula for esters R - C - O - R = O
Saponification
Is the process involving conversion of lipids, fats, and oils into soap and
alcohol by the action of aqueous alkali
CH3COO2H5 + NaOH → CH3COONa + C2H5OH
Ethylethanoate = Sodium ethanoate + Ethanol
Unit 2 - Fuels burnt out
Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation is the process of separation of miscible
liquids. The liquids have less than 25 degrees of difference in their
boiling points. We can collect different oils from crude oils,
dividing into fractions.
1st fraction - gas <40
2nd fraction - petrol 20 - 70
3rd fraction - naphtha 70 - 160
4th fraction - kerosene 160 - 250
5th fraction - diesel 250 - 350
6th fraction - residue 300 - 370
7th fraction - bitumen >370
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZdvsQzOKuk&ab_channel=FuseSchool-Glob
alEducation
Global warming
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oJAbATJCugs&ab_channel=NationalGeograp
hic
Enthalpy of combustion
- Is how much heat is produced when one mol of the substance is
burnt in the presence of oxygen.
- The symbol of enthalpy is ΔHC
- Energy flows from system to surrounding environment
- Combustion reaction are always exothermic
Video on the molar heat / enthalpy of combustion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nmXjvTGAIeQ&ab_channel=KeipertLabs
Unit 3 - How fast is reaction
Rate of reaction
Rate of reaction is the measure of how fast a reaction happens. It is
measured using time unit-1.
Factors that affect rate of reaction
1. Concentration
2. Surface area
3. Temperature
4. Catalyst
Collision theory
Collision theory is the theory that successful collisions in molecules
are increased by increment in concentration, surface area,
temperature, or the addition of a catalyst. This makes the rate of
reaction higher.
Le Chatelier's principle
If the dynamic equilibrium is shifted by changing conditions, the
position of equilibrium changes shifts to counteract the change and
re-establish equilibrium.
Haber’s process
In the Haber process, “the atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted to
ammonia (NH3) by reacting it with hydrogen (H2)”.
Endo and exothermic reactions
In endothermic reactions molecules absorb heat energy, and exothermic
reactions are the exact opposite, emitting heat energy.
Unit 4 - Electrochemistry
Half cell reaction and its balancing
(Al+3 + 3e- → Al) * 4 = 4Al+3 + 12e- → 4Al
(2O2 → O2 + 4e-) * 3 = 6O2 → 3O2 + 12e-
4Al+3 + 6O2 → 3O2 + 4Al
Anode is positive, and reduction happens there
Cathode is negative, and oxidation happens there
The oxidation state needs to be balanced, just like the chemical
formula. That can be done through the use of lowest common multiple
In the above example, the lowest common multiple of the oxidation
states was 12.
3Cu+2 + 2Al → 2Al+3 + 3Cu
