SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

LECTURE NOTE

Updated by:
Wuhib Zeine Ousman
Contents
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................... 3
1. WASTE MANAGEMENT ......................................................................................... 3
1.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 3
1.2. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE ........................... 4
1.3. DEFINITIONS ......................................................................................................... 5
1.4. Historical Overview of Solid Waste Management .................................................. 7
1.5. Impacts of waste/ solid/ ........................................................................................... 9
1.6. Materials Flow in a Technological Society ........................................................... 13
Raw Materials ................................................................................................................... 13
Consumer .......................................................................................................................... 13
Manufacturing ................................................................................................................... 13
1.7. Functional Elements in Solid Waste Management ................................................ 15
1.8. Main activities classified under integrated solid waste management. ................... 18
1.9. Waste management hierarchy as a key element of Integrated solid waste
management. ..................................................................................................................... 21
1.10. Solid waste management hierarchy .................................................................... 21
1.11. Solid Waste Management Planning ................................................................... 22
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................ 30
2. Generation of Solid Wastes ...................................................................................... 30
2.1. Sources of Solid Wastes......................................................................................... 30
2.2. Types of Municipal Solid Wastes .......................................................................... 31
2.3. Physical Composition, Chemical Properties and Biological Properties of
Municipal Solid Wastes .................................................................................................... 32
2.3.1. Physical Composition......................................................................................... 33
C. Density ................................................................................................................. 40
2.3.2. Chemical Properties ........................................................................................... 43
2.3.3. Biological properties of MSW (excluding plastics, rubber, and leather
Components) ..................................................................................................................... 44
Biodegradability of Organic Waste Components ............................................................. 44
2.3.4. Solid Waste Generation and Factors Affecting Generation Rates ..................... 46
2.3.5. Methods Used to Estimate Waste Quantities ..................................................... 48
Material inflow.................................................................................................................. 50
Accumulation = Inflow – Outflow + Generation.............................................................. 51
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................ 55
3. Handling of Solid Wastes ......................................................................................... 55
Onsite Handling Methods and Onsite Storage of Solid Wastes ................................... 55
CHAPTER FOUR........................................................................................................... 61
4. COLLECTION OF SOLID WASTES ..................................................................... 61
4.1. Collection Services ................................................................................................ 62
4.2. Types of Collection Systems ................................................................................. 63
4.4. Analysis of Collection System ............................................................................... 69

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4.4.2. Haul .................................................................................................................... 73
A) Analyzing a hauled container collection system ......................................................... 76
CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 81
5. SEPARATION, PROCESSING, RECOVERY AND TRANSFORMATION OF
SOLID WASTES .............................................................................................................. 81
Equipment ................................................................................................................. 82
Typical Materials Recovery Facilities for Source-Separated Wastes ............................... 84
5.2.1. Planning and Design Process for MRFs ............................................................. 86
5.2.2. Issues in the implementation and operation of MRFs ........................................ 87
5.3. Waste transformation ......................................................................................... 89
Purpose.............................................................................................................................. 89
CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................... 103
6. DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES.......................................................................... 103

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CHAPTER ONE

1. WASTE MANAGEMENT

1.1. INTRODUCTION
Waste is a consequence of everyday life of all creatures. Biological organisms including
man kind constantly make decisions on what to use and what to discard. For example, a
Chimpanzee knows that the inside of a banana is good and throws the peel. A
Paramecium uses certain high energy organic molecules and discharges its products after
having extracted the energy in the carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds. Humans
buy a can of soft drink with the full understanding that the can will become waste.

Waste is a material perceived to have little or no value by society’s producers or

consumers. Nearly all human activities produce waste. Solid waste is generated during
the acquisition of raw materials, during refining and manufacturing process and when
products are used by consumers.
Solid waste production started when people begun to congregate together and start to
process their food. This development of processing was nothing more than to bring fruits
and meat (kill) to the caves where they peel and de-bone the meat. Archeological
findings indicated that cave men used to pile this refuse outside the caves. Ever since, the
production of solid waste has started to increase with the development of society.

Problems related to waste production were further complicated when the western society
manufactured disposable items. The practice of using disposable items gave rise to what
are now called the “throw away society”. The problem of plastics and non- biodegradable
wastes were originally perceived as the problem of the developed world. However, in
recent years, developing countries are the victims as there is little or no regulation to
waste management as compared to developed countries. Another major problem in
developing countries is also the organic waste which is able to produce pollution to the

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land and water. Disease producing organisms and mechanical transmitters grow and
multiply in organic waste piles.

The world population whether living in developing or developed countries are now
worried too much about wastes. Disposal areas are getting scarcer every year. Wastes are
getting complex from time to time. Therefore, Environmentalists, scientists,
entrepreneurs and naturalists are working very hard not only to minimize but also to reuse
and recycle the waste materials so that they could make money from it and also conserve
the natural resources. If paper used in one country is recycled at least once, one can
imagine how many trees could be saved. If plastics could be recycled, how much money
could be saved? How much solid pollutants could have been eliminated?

The trend now is material reuse and recycles; use glasses, pottery products, and cloth
materials for shopping, storing, eating and drinking utensils than using disposables. The
conscious mind in the world today is thinking to have ZERO waste. Because, wastes are
products of the natural resources, why not we use those organic resources to rebuild the
natural resources by changing their form? For example, solid organic waste could be
changed to compost, which is a rich humus material. Excreta and urine could be
processed together with the compost to improve the nutrient value of the compost. Urine,
which is naturally sterile, can be used directly as nitrogen fertilizer.

The problem in our country is that we are generating too much organic waste and yet we
have no program of recycling or reuse; moreover, we have not developed the behavior to
handle wastes in a sanitary manner.
Let us therefore make it our responsibility to be partners with those who are striving to
contain wastes in sanitary manner.

1.2. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND CLIMATE

CHANGE

Whatever people call it, solid waste is a problem that must be properly managed. While it
is generally understood that proper waste management helps protect human health and

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the environment and preserve natural resources, many do not realize that solid waste also
impacts climate change. The manufacture, distribution, and use of products—as well as
the disposal of the resulting waste—all result in emissions of atmospheric gases called
“greenhouse gases” that affect the Earth’s climate. When organic waste decomposes in
landfills and uncontrolled dumps, it produces methane, one of the major greenhouse
gases contributing to climate change. Waste generation increases with population
expansion and industrialization. Countries in Asia, Latin America, and Africa account for
nearly 40 percent of annual methane emissions from landfills, which is equal to 37
million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MTCO2e) or the amount of air
emissions from more than 102 million automobiles. You can reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, however, through proper solid waste management (for a more detailed
explanation of the relationship between climate change and solid waste, see the What Is
Integrated Solid Waste Management? Fact sheet). Solid waste should be managed
through a number of activities—waste prevention, recycling, composting, controlled
burning, or landfilling. Using a combination of these activities together in a way that best
protects the community, and the local environment is referred to as integrated solid waste
management (ISWM).
An ISWM program can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and slow the effects of
climate change. This folder and its accompanying fact sheets are designed for
government officials, non-governmental organizations, and others involved in planning
and communicating the benefits of ISWM programs. The fact sheets will introduce you to
important issues you will need to address in planning a successful ISWM program. These
fact sheets also assist you in planning an ISWM program by providing guidelines for
recycling and composting, waste collection and transport, and waste disposal (landfilling
and combustion).

1.3. DEFINITIONS
Some of the definitions needed to be provided before going in depth to the subject matter
are given below.

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 Emphasis
- Reducing waste volume at source
- Recycling materials and

- Recovering thermal energy

1.5. Impacts of waste/ solid/

Most of our waste impose serious threats to the natural environment, the economy, and
our society. Natural services embrace the provision of natural resources such as minerals
and energy, and the absorption of waste residuals from economic activities. Waste
discharges or pollution flows give rise to environmental and economic problems in two
ways. First, waste contains hazardous materials that directly affect the functioning of the
natural environment in its life support and economic provisions. Secondly, the natural
environment has a limited assimilative capacity to absorb waste residuals. Exceeding this
capacity threatens the stability and resilience of ecosystems. Sometimes these effects are
irreversible. Water pollution from mercury for example may have relatively small and
proportional effects at low pollution levels, but at higher levels, the impact response may
jump to greater magnitudes. In this case, mercury pollution irreversible changes the
functioning of the ecosystem and hence reduces its assimilative capacity as well.

Waste also threatens economic development. Economic activities take place within the
natural environment and draw upon its services. As a consequence, waste does not only
affect the environment, but it also influences the economy. An example at the global level
of the interdependency of environment and economy and environmental processes
affected by economic activities is the problem of climate change.
More directly, waste is a negative economic side effect because waste is actually lost
materials value. Figure 1.2 shows a simplified materials value curve. Economic
processes, like transformation processes in chemical plants and manufacturing facilities
add a certain value to raw materials until the phase when a product is created and bought
by a consumer. After a certain time, these products are replaced, because they show signs
of wear or just because new products satisfy consumer needs better. Hence, waste

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 residuals are materials with an economic value lower or equal to zero, which makes it
cheaper to discard than to use. In addition, waste is a (socio) economic issue because of
its nuisance and involved treatment costs.

Economic
capital

Time
Figure 1.2 Value curve of materials
Waste is not only a problem of today, but it may also cause problems in the future. The
environmental and societal impacts of waste residuals are:
1. the environmental impact potential of materials,
2. the spatial scale of the impact,
3. the severity of the hazards,
4. the degree of exposure
5. the quantity of materials used and
6. the remediation and reversibility time.

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The last aspect implicates a time factor and indicates it takes a certain period before the
environmental damage is restored. For some materials (dependent on low or high
pollution levels), this takes shorter or longer and the effects may be irreversible. The
delaying mechanism is especially virtuous for accumulating pollutants. For example,
even when GHG emissions would be entirely abandoned today, we will still bear the
effects of earlier emissions over the coming decades.
Also, the fact that solid waste is stored in human controlled landfills does not mean there
are no threats to future generations.
• First, because there is always a risk involved in the behavior of the waste
materials or storage facilities. A typical example is the leachate behavior of heavy
metals from landfills.
• Secondly, maintaining, and operating landfills in the long run entails additional
costs. Future generations need to bear these costs while they have not enjoyed the
benefits of the products being disposed.
Waste management is aimed at the reduction of these impacts.

Who is responsible?
Waste originates from a variety of sources. For instance, the heterogeneous composition
of municipal solid waste (MSW) at the disposal site reveals already a large variety of
generator types. It is produced by several sources in the community, such as individuals,
households but also from commercial and institutional sources. Municipal solid waste is a
major class of waste that we discuss in this course. It contains discarded paper, food
scraps, yard waste, litter and sometimes demolition debris.

The classification of waste types shows municipal wastes are highly heterogeneous in
their composition It indicates the complexity of waste management, but a clear
classification will help environmental managers finding adequate solutions.

Involvement of Stakeholders
Along the lifecycle of products or processes, waste is generated at the end of the chain.
However, waste residuals are also disposed of at the extraction, production and use phase.

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A major output of waste associated with electronic goods is caused by energy
consumption. Mining of metals, processing of oil products and use of consumer
electronics require a lot of energy. Energy, particularly from fossil fuels cause a
significant flow of GHG emissions. Also, many production processes generate by-
products that sometimes are regarded as waste and thus are disposed. The generation of
waste along the entire lifecycle clarifies the involvement of many stakeholders in waste
production. Even for a single product, like a computer monitor, we can distinguish a wide
range of industries, companies and other stakeholders that are linked to each other
regarding the issue of waste. The effectiveness of management to reduce and control
waste generated is therefore largely determined by an active participation of consumers
as well as stakeholders earlier in the chain.

Figure 1.3 Waste materials are produced during all stages of a product’s life cycle

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 1.6. Materials Flow in a Technological Society
The figure below indicates how and where solid wastes are generated in technological
society.
Raw Materials

Residual debris

Manufacturing Residual waste material

Secondary
Processing and Manufacturing
recovery

Consumer

Final disposal

Raw materials, products, and recovered materials.

Waste materials

Fig 1.2 - Generalized flow of materials and the generation of solid wastes in society

Solid wastes (debris) are generated at the start of the process, beginning with the mining
of raw materials. Therefore, solid wastes are generated at every step in the process as raw
materials are converted to goods for consumption. It is apparent from the figure that one
of the best ways to reduce the number of solid wastes to be disposed is to reduce the

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consumption of raw materials and to increase the rate of recovery and reuse of wastes.
Reduction in quantity of waste can be made effective through:
1. Reduction in raw materials usage
2. Increasing the useful life of a product
3. Reduction in packaging and marketing of goods

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 1.7. Functional Elements in Solid Waste Management
There are 6 functional elements in the activities associated with the management of solid
wastes from the point of generation to final disposal site. These are:

1. Waste generation
2. On-site handling, storage and processing
3. Collection
4. Transfer and transport
5. Processing and recovery
6. Disposal

Waste
generation

Waste handling, and

separation, storage and
processing at the source

Collection

Transfer and Separation, processing,

transport and transformation of
Solid waste

Disposal

Fig. 1.4 Interrelationships of the functional elements in a solid waste management system
Description of the functional elements of solid waste management system

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 1. Waste generation: those activities in which materials are identified as no longer
being of value and are either thrown away or gathered for disposal.
2. On-site handling, storage, and processing: activities associated with the
handling, storage, and processing of solid wastes at or near the point of
generation.
3. Collection: those activities association with the gathering of solid wastes and the
hauling of wastes to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied.
4. Transfer and transport: Those activities association with
1. The transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport
equipment and
2. The subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distance, to the
disposal site.
5. Processing and recovery: Those techniques equipment and facilities used both to
improve the efficiency of the other functional elements and to recover useable
materials, conversion products, or energy from solid wastes.
6. Disposal: Those activities associated with ultimate disposal of solid wastes

Integrated solid waste management?

➢ Elements of waste management system

A comprehensive municipal solid waste management (MSWM) system includes some or

all of the following activities:
 setting policies.
 developing and enforcing regulations.
 planning and evaluating municipal MSWM activities by system designers, users,
and other stakeholders;
 using waste characterization studies to adjust systems to the types of waste
generated;

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  physically handling waste and recoverable materials, including separation,
collection, composting, incineration, and landfilling;
 marketing recovered materials to brokers or to end-users for industrial,
commercial, or small-scale manufacturing purposes;
 establishing training programs for MSWM workers.
 carrying out public information and education programs;
 identifying financial mechanisms and cost recovery systems.
 establishing prices for services and creating incentives.
 managing public sector administrative and operations units; and
 incorporating private sector businesses, including informal sector collectors,
processors, and entrepreneurs.

➢ What is integrated solid waste management?

Integrated solid waste management is a frame of reference for designing and

implementing new solid waste management systems and for analyzing and optimizing
existing systems. Integrated solid waste management is based on the concept that all
aspects of a waste management system (technical and non-technical) should be analyzed
together, since they are in fact interrelated and developments in one area frequently affect
practices or activities in another area.

Today the disposal of solid wastes should be part of an integrated solid waste
management plan. This means that the methods of collection, processing, resource
recovery and final disposal should mesh with one another to achieve a common objective.
Co-disposal of sewage sludge with refuse for example, could be one part of an integrated
waste management plan. Recycling (Resource recovery and reuse) is playing an ever-
increasing role in these plans, and recycling technology has evolved considerably since
the 1970’s: now, almost every municipal SWM plan has at least some recycling
component. Despite these advances, there is still a need to protect ground water despite
the fact that there still is a need to dispose of some solid waste in the ground.

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 1.8. Main activities classified under integrated solid waste
management.

1. WASTE PREVENTION: - Waste prevention—often called source reduction—

means reducing waste by not producing it. Examples of waste prevention would
include purchasing durable, long-lasting goods and seeking products and
packaging that are as free of toxic substances as possible. It can be as simple as
switching from disposable to reusable products, or as complex as redesigning a
product to use fewer raw materials or to last longer. Because waste prevention
actually avoids waste generation, it is the preferred waste management activity.
Overall, waste prevention conserves resource, protects the environment, and
prevents the formation of greenhouse gases.
2. RECYCLING: - Recycling makes use of materials that otherwise would become
waste by turning them into valuable resources. Recycling helps reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, in part, by diverting waste from landfills. In some
countries, a great deal of recycling occurs before the waste reaches the landfill.
Scrap dealers buy directly from households and businesses, waste pickers or
scavengers collect materials from waste bins, and waste collectors separate
materials that can be sold as they load their trucks. Governments can build on
these practices by providing support to organize and improve recycling efforts.
3. COMPOSTING: - Another form of recycling is composting—the controlled
aerobic biological decomposition of organic matter, such as food scraps and plant
matter, into humus, a soil-like material. Compost acts as a natural fertilizer by
providing nutrients to the soil, increasing beneficial soil organisms, and
suppressing certain plant diseases, thereby reducing the need for chemical
fertilizers and pesticides in landscaping and agricultural activities. Organic
materials often comprise a large portion of the solid waste stream, particularly in
communities that rely heavily on tourism. Composting can be particularly helpful
to communities managing their waste and thus reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.

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 4. COMBUSTION: - Combustion is the controlled burning of waste in a designated
facility to reduce its volume and, in some cases, to generate electricity.
Combustion is an ISWM option for wastes that cannot be recycled or composted
and is sometimes selected by communities where landfill space is limited. While
the combustion process can generate toxic air emissions, these can be controlled
by installing control equipment such as acid gas scrubbers and fabric filters in
combustors. Combustion of solid waste can help reduce amount of waste going to
landfills. It also can reduce reliance on coal, one of the fossil fuels that produces
greenhouse gases when burned.
5. LANDFILLING: - Uncontrolled dumping of waste can contaminate groundwater
and soil, attract disease carrying rats and insects, and even cause fires. Properly
designed, constructed, and managed landfills provide a safe alternative to
uncontrolled dumping. For example, to protect groundwater from the liquid that
collects in landfills (leachate), a properly designed landfill has an earthen or
synthetic liner. As waste decomposes, it emits methane, a greenhouse gas that can
also cause fires. To prevent fires, a properly designed landfill should have a way
to vent, burn, or collect methane. Landfill operators can also recover this
methane—thereby reducing emissions—and generate electricity from the
captured gas.

➢ Importance of integrated approach for solid waste Management

An integrated approach is an important element of sound practice because:

➢ Certain problems can be more easily resolved in combination with other aspects of
the waste system than on their own. Also, development of new or improved waste
handling in one can disrupt existing activities in another area unless changes are
handled in a coordinated manner.
➢ Integration allows for capacity or resources to be optimized and, thus, fully utilized;
there are frequently economies of scale for equipment or management infrastructure
that can be reached only when all of the waste in a region is managed as part of a
single system.

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 ➢ An integrated approach allows for participation of public, private, and informal
sector participants, in roles appropriate for each.
➢ Some waste management practices are more costly than others, and integrated
approaches facilitate the identification and selection of low-cost solutions. Some
waste management activities cannot bear any charges, some will always be net
expenses, while others may produce an income. An integrated system can result in
a range of practices that complement each other in this regard.
➢ Failure to have an integrated system may mean that the revenue-producing
activities are “skimmed off” and treated as profitable, while activities related to
maintaining public health and safety fail to secure adequate funding and are
operated at low or insufficient levels.

Methods for integrated solid waste management

Planners can work toward integrated systems in a number of ways.

➢ The first task is to consider all aspects of the formal part of the waste system
within one framework and to produce a plan based on the objectives of the entire
system. One of the foundations of the framework for modern, integrated solid
waste management systems is the solid waste management hierarchy, which
specifies the precedence that should be given to key waste management activities
that affect waste generation, treatment, and disposal. The hierarchy is discussed in
more detail in the following section.
➢ Second, in terms of jurisdictional and staffing issues, is putting all waste-related
functions under the same division or agency, which is an important means of
achieving integration. A third way of facilitating coordination and assessing trade-
offs among all aspects of a waste management system is to create integrated
financial structures that, for example, use disposal fees to finance materials
recovery or public education. More broadly, it is important to assess all MSWM
system costs, as well as identify opportunities for generating revenues.

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 1.9. Waste management hierarchy as a key element of
Integrated solid waste management.

The waste management hierarchy is a widespread element of national and regional policy
and is often considered the most fundamental basis of modern MSWM practice. The
hierarchy ranks waste management operations according to their environmental or energy
benefits. In virtually all countries, the hierarchy is as follow with the first entries having
higher priority than those below them.

1.10. Solid waste management hierarchy

➢ Prevent the production of waste, or reduce the amount generated.

➢ Reduce the toxicity or negative impacts of the waste that is generated.
➢ Reuse in their current forms the materials recovered from the waste stream.
➢ Recycle, compost, or recover materials for use as direct or indirect inputs to new
products.
➢ Recover energy by incineration, anaerobic digestion, or similar processes.
➢ Reduce the volume of waste prior to disposal.
➢ Dispose of residual solid waste in an environmentally sound manner, generally in
landfills.

The purpose of the waste management hierarchy is to make waste management practices
as environmentally sound as possible. The waste management hierarchy has been adopted
in various forms by most industrialized countries. Its principal elements are also included
in international conventions and protocols, particularly those dealing with the
management of toxic or hazardous wastes, and in regional attempts to develop a
coordinated policy on the reuse of various byproducts of waste management processes.

The hierarchy is a useful policy tool for conserving resources, for dealing with landfill
shortages, for minimizing air and water pollution, and for protecting public health and
safety. In many developing countries, some aspects of this hierarchy are already in place,

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since traditional practices revolving around waste prevention reuse, and recycling are
prevalent. At the same time, it should be recognized that all waste management practices
have costs, as well as benefits. This means that the hierarchy cannot be followed rigidly
since, in particular situations, the cost of a prescribed activity may exceed the benefits,
when all financial, social, and environmental considerations are taken into account.

1.11. Solid Waste Management Planning

Objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
➢ Discuss the important consideration in the planning process.
➢ Describe what constitutes waste management plans and programs.
➢ Explain the general methodology for planning and the preparation of the planning
reports.
➢ Examine the nature of the decision-making process in Solid Waste Management.

? What is planning in Solid Waste Management?

?
?
Planning in SWM may be defined as the process by which community needs regarding
waste management are measured evaluated and workable alternatives are developed for
presentation to decision markers. Important features include:
• The planning process applies engineering principles to the needs, capabilities and
goals or the community.
• Planning in SWM integrates Technical, Environmental, Economic, Social and
political factors.

1.11.1. Important Considerations in Planning

To understand the nature of the planning process, it is important to consider:
1.11.1.1. The framework for planning activities
▪ Is it undertaken in response to community need as indicated in the community
problem solving cycle?

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 ▪ Is the plan prepared because the state or federal government mandates it?

Community
Need

Decisions
and political Problem
activity recognition
and definition

Planning
Activity

Fig 1.5- The community problem solving cycle.

1.11.1.2. Planning Time Periods

Basically, there are two levels of planning in SWM.
1. Short term planning-which extends from 1-2 years.
2. Long term planning-when the planning is for more than 5-7 years.
The problem with short term planning is that it may not match with payback periods for
equipment and facilities (payback periods often run 20 years or mort for some equipment
and facilities). In situations where uncertainties are high and long-term payback periods
are required, the best approach is to develop multiple analyses, based on estimates of both
average and least optimistic conditions. This will give a decision maker to better
understand the risks involved.

1.11.1.3. Planning Levels and their Characteristics

Planning activities for ISWM can be associated with 3 jurisdictional planning levels
namely:
1. Local
2. Sub regional or regional.

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 3. State/Federal
The characteristics of these 3 levels can be summarized in the Table below as:

Table 1.1 Planning levels and their characteristics

Planning levels Agencies involved Characteristics
Local Cities Normally a single agency conducts the
Country planning study to solve a localized problem
Special districts
Sub regional or Cities Several communities join together to form
Regional Countries an efficient planning and operational
activity
State and Cities Several cities, countries, and states cam
Federal Countries form a planning unit. Typically, the
States concern will be with issues such as
materials use form origin in the natural
environment through processing for reuse
and the disposal of unusable residues.
Planning efforts often results in
demonstration projects.

1.11.1.4. Planning for Emerging Concepts and Technologies

Many of the recent technological advancement are for waste diversion and are as yet too
new to have been proved in full-scale installations. Thus, decision makers are often faced
with a choice of whether to use long established and well-proved equipment and
techniques, which may or may not be the optimum for present and future conditions, or to
use new and unproved technology, which may or may not work as expected. In the
broadest sense, all planning is based on predictions of future conditions. Developing
concepts and technologies for integrated SWM are based on new ideas derived from the
public’s awareness of resources, economics, and the quality of the environment. Typical
developing concepts include:

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 ▪ Reuse of food containers
▪ Limiting of product packaging containers
▪ Control and standardization of materials used in packaging.
▪ Development of low energy demanding products
1.11.2. Programs and Plans
▪ Both represent blueprint for achieving SWM objectives.
▪ Fundamental difference is in scope of activities involved.
Programs- All the activities associated with the solution of a problem within a functional
element of an ISWM system.
Typical program areas of concern within a functional element may involve:
▪ Operation budget
▪ Financing
▪ Rate structures
▪ Staffing requirements
▪ Contracts
▪ Equipment procurement, replacement, and maintenance
Plans-are developed to define objectives and policies.
▪ A plan encompasses one or more functional elements.
▪ Most plans are made up of many programs.
▪ Plans should indicate more than one program or set of programs that can be
used to solve a given problem (alternative)
Often preliminary plan is developed in which two or more alternatives involving several
programs are presented to decision makers.
- The final plan adopted is composed of programs taken form on or more original
alternatives
1.11.3. Planning Study Methodology
The following step-by-step planning procedure is recommended.

Step 1: Problem Definition and Specification

Obtain a clear problem statement and corresponding specification from the people
responsible for making decision.

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Step 2: Inventory and Data Accumulation
All subsequent recommendations for action will be based on the findings of this step.

Step 3: Evaluation and Alternative Development

This step involves the detailed evaluation and analysis of the data accumulated in step 2.
In developing alternatives, it is especially important that all functional elements be
coordinated to ensure an integrated system from onsite storage through processing and
final disposal. By evaluating the coordinated programs, the planner is able to recommend
viable alternatives.

Step 4: Program and Plan Selection

Selection of preferred set of programs to from the plan:
The program can be selected from a single alternative, or they can be selected from
various alternatives. Decision makers will make final selection.

Step 5: Development of Implementation Schedule (s)

Lack of well-defined implementation schedule leads to failure of SWM planning.

1.11.4. The Decision Process

The planning process is an important part of the decision-making process; thus, the
relationship of the planner and the decision maker is normally quite close during plan
development.
Requirement for decision-making:
▪ Sound planning (fundamental)
▪ Understanding community goals
Important Decision Events:
The following 4 decision events are considered essential in completing SWM actions.
1. Adoption of a SWM plan including specific programs
2. Adoption of an appropriate implementation schedule
3. Selection of an agency or agencies to administer the plan and operate the system.
4. Selection of staff and funding sources and means.
In all solid waste management system or programs the central or focal points are the six

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Functional elements namely:
• Generation of Solid waste
• Onsite handling and storage
• Collection
• Transfer and transport
• Processing and Materials recovery
• Disposal
Successful management planning at all stages of the functional elements should consider
the following provisions.
▪ Financing the management system
▪ Operational plans that are tested and changing according to need.
▪ The availability of functional equipment and proper management
▪ Proper reporting, accounting, budgeting
▪ Follow local or government ordinances and guidelines.
▪ Having proper public communication and awareness programs.

1. Financing
In order to run a successful solid waste management program there must be a financial
source. The ways of financing solid waste management program include:
▪ Property taxation: This is a way of collecting money from individual dwellers
in the locality. The collected tax money could be used to improve the solid waste
collection and improvement of sanitation collection for that locality.
▪ Government budget: Local government, regional or federal governments may
have to subsidize solid waste management programs if the local residents are
somehow unable to support the program. Ideally, it should be the responsibility
of individual citizens to finance sanitation programs.
▪ Service from individuals: sometimes individuals who can not contribute money
in the form of tax or monthly payment levied on them they give free services at
specified time and condition.

2. Operation

27
 This is dependent on the magnitude of the problem and the organizational structure.
Some cities may need an elaborate operational system, separated, or organized by
zones and specialties and some small communities may have small but adequate
operations. Depending on the status of the community, there must be a productive,
simple and satisfactory operational system for the community. Bigger operational
plans are not as successful as well mange med but small operation operational plans.

3. Equipment Management
This includes upkeep and maintenance of equipment used in the operation of the solid
waste program. Equipment in solid waste programs is exposed to corrosives, dirt, and
other hazards which warrant effective and timely maintenance. Management includes
equipment replacement and use assessment.

4. Personnel
No solid-waste management will be successful unless the planning includes the selection
training, and supervision of its personnel.

5. Reporting, Cost Accounting and Budgeting

It is very important to plan and incorporate ways of reporting solid waste for all
functional elements. How much was generated during one day in the last one week/ how
much was collected and transported/ how much was recovered/ reused and how much
was disposed/

Periodic cost accounting will also give enough information to the management to see if
the operational system is worth following or not. This helps to identify:
▪ Which area need modification?
▪ Which areas need to be strengthened?

6. Ordinance and Guidelines

28
All functional elements should be based on some laws or ordinances or guidelines for a
successful solid waste management program. Any ordinance should include provisions
dealing with:

▪ Definitions
▪ Responsibilities of the administration
▪ On- site storage
▪ Collection
▪ Transportation
▪ Processing
▪ Disposal
▪ Special problems arising (land holding, pollution, etc)
▪ Financing solid waste management
▪ Violations and penalties (individuals, institutions etc.)

7. Public Communication
This is important, as it will help create:
▪ To establish good relationship between the employees and the public
▪ To make the public aware of the activities of the solid waste management
agencies of office

To accomplish the above and for a successful solid waste management system there must
be an organizational structure. The advantage of having proper organizational structure is
to identify the relationships and responsibilities or the individuals charged with
accomplishing the stated objectives or goals.

29
CHAPTER TWO

2. Generation of Solid Wastes

2.1. Sources of Solid Wastes
The primary source of solid waste is the production of commodities and byproducts from
solid materials. Everything that is produced is eventually discarded. A secondary source
of solid waste is the natural cycle of plant growth and decay, which is responsible for the
portion of the waste stream referred to as yard waste or vegetative waste. The amount a
product contributes to the waste stream is proportional to two principal factors: the
number of items produced and the size of each item. The number of items produced, in
turn, is proportional to the useful life of the product and the number of items in use at any
one time. Newspapers are the largest contributor to MSW because they are larger than
most other items in MSW, they are used in large numbers, and they have a useful life of
only one day. In contrast, pocketknives make up a negligible portion of MSW because
relatively few people use them, they are small, and they are typically used for years
before being discarded. MSW is characterized by products that are relatively small, are
produced in large numbers, and have short useful lives. Bulky waste is dominated by
products that are large but are produced in relatively small numbers and have relatively
long useful lives. Therefore, a given mass of MSW represents more discreet acts of
discard than the same mass of bulky waste. For this reason, more data are required to
characterize bulky waste to within a given level of statistical confidence than are required
to characterize MSW. Most MSW is generated by the routine activities of everyday life
rather than by special or unusual activities or events. On the other hand, activities that
deviate from routine, such as trying different food or a new recreational activity, generate
waste at a higher rate than routine activities. Routinely purchased items tend to be used
fully, while unusual items tend to be discarded without use or after only partial use. In
contrast to MSW, most bulky waste is generated by relatively infrequent events, such as
the discard of a sofa or refrigerator, the replacement of a roof, the demolition.

The sources of solid wastes vary according to the socio economic and technological level
of a society. A small rural community in Ethiopia may have known types of waste from

30
known sources while a metropolitan city like Addis Ababa will have many sources. The
following are well-identified sources of Solid wastes.
1. Residential Wastes
Food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textile, leather, yard wastes, wood, glass,
tin cans, aluminum, other metals, ashes, street leaves, special wastes (including
bulky items, consumer electronics, white goods, yard wastes collected separately),
household hazardous waste.
2. Commercial Wastes
Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, special wastes,
hazardous wastes, etc

3. Municipal Wastes
Street sweepings, dead animals, other carcasses, cardboard, animal wastes
4. Industrial Wastes
Food wastes, construction or demolition wastes, fire residues (ashes)
5. Open Areas
Human wastes, Rubbish, Paper products, Rugs
6. Treatment Plants
Treatment wastes, drums, sludge, chemical wastes
7. Agricultural Wastes
Spoiled food wastes, crop residues, drums, hazardous wastes

2.2. Types of Municipal Solid Wastes

The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is used to generally describe most of the non-
hazardous solid waste from a city, town or village that require routine or periodic
collection and transport to a processing or disposal site. Sources of MSW include private
homes, commercial establishments and institutions (for example schools) as well as
industrial facilities. However, MSW doesn’t include industrial process wastes,
construction debris, sewage sludge, mining wastes or agricultural wastes. Municipal solid
waste is composed of refuse and trash. Refuse includes garbage and rubbish. Garbage

31
contains putrescilbe or highly decomposable food waste such as vegetable and meat
scraps. Rubbish contains mostly dry non putrescible material such as glass, rubber, metal
cans and slowly decomposable or combustible material such as paper, textile, or wood
objects. Actually, less than 10% of refuse is garbage; most of which is rubbish. Trash
includes bulky waste materials that generally require special handling and is therefore not
collected on a routine basis. Bulky waste is frequently referred to as C&D (construction
and demolition) waste. The majority of bulky waste generated in a given area is likely to
be C&D waste. In areas where regular trash collection crews take anything put out, the
majority of bulky waste arriving separately at disposal facilities is C&D waste. In areas
where the regular collection crews are less accommodating, however, substantial
quantities of other types of bulky waste, such as furniture and appliances, arrive at
disposal facilities in separate loads. An old couch, mattress, television, or refrigerator and
even large, uprooted tree stump are examples of trash items.

2.3. Physical Composition, Chemical Properties and

Biological Properties of Municipal Solid Wastes

Purposes of Solid Waste Characterization

The general purpose of solid waste characterization is to promote sound management of
solid waste. Specifically, characterization can determine the following: The size,
capacity, and design of facilities to manage the waste. The potential for recycling or
composting portions of the waste stream. The effectiveness of waste reduction programs,
recycling programs, or bans on the disposal of certain materials. Potential sources of
environmental pollution in the waste. In practice, the immediate purpose of most waste
characterization studies, including many extensive studies, is to comply with specific
regulatory mandates and to provide information for use by vendors in preparing bids to
design, construct, and operate solid waste management facilities.

The purposes of a waste characterization program determine the design of it. If all waste
is to be landfilled, the characterization program should focus on the quantity of waste, its
density, and its potential for compaction. The composition of the waste and its chemical

32
characteristics are relatively unimportant. If all waste is to be incinerated, the critical
parameters are quantity, heat value, and the percentage of combustible material in the
waste. If recycling and composting are planned or underway, a composition study can
identify the materials targeted for recovery, estimate their abundance in the waste, and
monitor compliance with source separation requirements.

Composition of municipal solid waste

Composition is a term used to describe the individual component that make up solid
waste stream and their relative distribution, usually based on percent by weight.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) is commonly known as trash or garbage. It comprises
everyday items, such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles,
food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, batteries, and other consumer-related product
forms. The composition of MSW depends on a number of factors such as the lifestyles of
the population, their relative standards of living, general consumer patterns, and the level
of technological advancement of a particular country.
Municipal waste management systems that rely exclusively on landfills have little need to
characterize the types and quantities of material disposed, unless the waste streams
comprise significant quantities of hazardous wastes.
A full knowledge of the composition of the wastes is an essential element in:
1) The selection of the type of storage and transport most appropriate to a given situation,
2) The determination of the potential for resource recovery,
3) The choice of a suitable method of disposal, and
4) The determination of the environmental impact exerted by the wastes if they are
improperly managed.

 Municipal SW composition has two principal parameters.

1. Physical composition
2. Chemical composition

2.3.1. Physical Composition

Knowing the physical characteristics of the physical components of MSW is important.

33
 • For the selection and operation of equipment
• For determining feasibility of resource or energy recovery
• For design and analysis of disposal facilities

Physical composition analysis is used to investigate:

A) Individual component study
B) Moisture content
C) Density
A) Individual Component Study
Components typical to MSW are food waste, paper and cardboard, plastics, texture,
Rubber, leather, wood, and grass.
Further activity is necessary to separate then to know the % composition by weight. Such
separation may be different and difficult from country to country, season, economic
condition and development level because of the heterogeneous nature of SW. To obtain a
sample for analysis some statistical procedures must be followed. Sample must be
representative and follow randomization process. Typical composition of MSW is given
below.

34
Table 2.1: Typical composition of municipal solid waste

Component Percent by mass

Range Typical
Food wastes 6-26 14
Paper 15-45 34
Cardboard 3-15 7
Plastics 2-8 5
Textiles 0-4 2
Rubber 0-2 0.5
Leather 0-2 0.5
Garden trimmings 0-20 12
Wood 1-4 2
Miscellaneous organics 0-5 2
Glass 4-16 8
Tin cans 2-8 6
Nonferrous metals 0-1 1
Ferrous metals 1-4 2
Dirt, ashes, brick, etc 0-10 4

Moreover, the distribution of content composition varies among countries having

different economic status. The following table gives the comparison for low-, middle-
and upper-income countries.

35
Table 2.2: Typical distributions of components in residential MSW for low, middles and
upper income countries (excluding recycles materials)
Component Low-income Middle-income Upper-income
countries countries countries
Organic
Food wastes 40-85 20-65 6-30
Paper 1-10 8-30 20-45
Cardboard - - 5-15
Plastics 1-5 2-6 2-8
Textiles 1-5 2-10 2-6
Rubber 1-5 1-4 0.2
Leather - - 0.2
Yard wastes 1-5 1-10- 10-20
Wood - - 1-4
Miscellaneous Organics - - -
Inorganic
Glass 1-10 1-10 4-12
Tin cans - - 2-8
Aluminum 1-5 1-5 0-1
Other metal - - 1-4
Dirt, ash, etc. 1-40 1-30 0-10
Source: Integrated SWM, Tchobanogous, et al (1993)

B) Moisture Contents
The moisture content of solid waste is usually expressed as the mass of moisture per
unit mass of wet or dry material.
It is expressed by the formula:

M. C (%) = (a-b) x100

at where a = initial wt. of sample
b= final wt of sample (after drying

36
 Table 2.3: Typical data on moisture content of MSW
S. No Component % Moisture content
Range Typical
1. Food waste 50-80 70
2. Paper 4-10 6
3. Cardboard 4-8 5
4. Plastics 1-4 2
5. Textiles 6-15 10
6. Rubber 1-4 2
7. Leather 8-12 10
8. Garden trimmings 30-80 60
9. Wood 15-40 20
10. Glass 1-4 2
11. Tin cans 2-4 3
12. Ferrous metal 2-6 3
13. Dirt, ash, bricks 6-12 8
14. MSW 15-40 20
Source: Integrated SWM, Tchobanoglous, et al (1993)

The moisture content of MSW vary depending on

• Composition of the waste
• Season of the year
• Local Humidity
• Weather condition such as rain
Procedures for determining the moisture content of MSW.
1. Set up computation table which will have % by wt of each component and
moisture content.
2. Determine the dry weight of SW component using the following relationship.
Dry weight= (100 - moisture content (%) as delivered) x typical % by weight.
To obtain the dry mass, the solid waste material is dried in an oven at 77 0C (1700F) for
24 h. This temperature and time are used to dehydrate the material completely and to
limit the vaporization of volatile materials.

37
3. Determine the moisture content of MSW sample using equation:
Moist. Content % = (a-b) x 100
a
Table 2.4: Data on the moisture content and dry wt computation table
S.No. Component Moisture Typical Dry wt, kg
Content, % % by wt
1. Food waste 70 15 4.50
2. Paper 6 40 37.60
3. Cardboard 5 4 3.80
4. Plastics 2 3 2.94
5. Textile 10 2 1.80
6. Rubber 2 0.5 0.49
7. Leather 10 0.5 0.45
8. Garden terming 60 12 4.80
9. Wood 20 2 1.60
10. Glass 2 8 7.84
11. Tin cans 3 6 5.82
12. Ferrous metals 3 2 1.94
13. Dirt, ash bricks 8 4 3.68
14. Non-ferrous met. 2 1 0.98
15. Total 100 78.1

M.C= (100-78) 100 = 21.9 %

100
The above experiment has been done in California for 5 years. This data (21.9%) may not
be true for Ethiopia. It may be higher because we don’t have kitchen grinders like the
Californians.

38
Exercise 1:
Estimate the moisture content of a solid-waste sample with the following composition:

Component Percent by
mass
Food wastes 15
Paper 45
Cardboard 10
Plastics 10
Garden trimmings 10
Wood 5
Tin cans 5

Solution

1. Set up a computation table to determine the dry mass of the solid-waste sample
using the data given in Table 2.4

Component Percent by mass Moisture content Dry mass kg*

%
Food waste 15 70 4.5
Paper 45 6 42.3
Cardboard 10 5 9.5
Plastics 10 2 9.8
Garden trimmings 10 60 4.0
Wood 5 20 4.0
Tin cans 5 3 4.9
79.0

* Based on 100-kg sample of waste.

39
 2. Determine the moisture content using the given equation and the data from step 1.
Moisture content= (100-79.0) 100= 21.0%
100
Note that the composition of the solid-waste sample used in this example will be used in
all of the examples in this chapter. By using the same composition throughout, the
interrelationship of the various parameters can be established more clearly.

C. Density
Typical densities for various wastes as found in containers are reported by source in
Table 2.5. Since the densities of solid waste vary markedly with geographical location,
season of the year and length of storage great care must be used in selecting typical
values.
Table 2.5: Typical densities for solid waste components and mixtures
Component * Density, kg/m3
Range Typical
Food wastes 120-480 290
Paper 30-130 85
Cardboard 30-80 50
Plastics 30-130 65
Textile 30-100 65
Rubber 90-200 130
Leather 90-260 160
Garden trimmings 60-225 105
Wood 120-320 240
Misc.organics 90-360 240
Glass 160-480 165
Tin cans 45-160 90
Nonferrous metals 60-240 160
Ferrous metals 120-1200 320
Dirt, ashes, brick, etc. 320-960 480
MSW uncompacted 90-180 130

40
 MSW compacted. 180-450 300
(In compactor truck)
In landfill 350-550 475
(Compacted normally)
In landfill (well 600-750 600
compacted)
* Components is on an as–discarded basis.
MSW as delivered in compaction vehicles have been found to vary from 178 – 415
kg/m3. A typical value is 297 kg/m3.
Exercise 2: Estimate the as–discarded density of a solid waste sample with
composition given on the above table.
Solution
1. Set up a computation table to determine the as discarded volume of the solid waste
sample using the data on Table 2.5.
Component Percent by mass Typical density, Volume*
Kg/m3 m3
Food waste 15 290 0.52
Paper 45 85 5.29
Cardboard 10 50 2.0
Plastics 10 65 1.54
Garden trimmings 10 105 0.95
Wood 5 240 0.21
Tin cans 5 90 0.56
11.07
* Based on a 1000 kg sample of waste.
2. Compute the density of a waste sample using the data from step 1.

Density = 1000kg/11.07m3 = 90.33kg/m3

41
Sampling MSW to Estimate Composition
As in all statistical exercises based on sampling, the acquisition of samples is a critical
step in estimating the composition of MSW. The principal considerations in collecting
samples are the following: Each pound of waste in the waste stream to be characterized
must have an equal opportunity to be represented in the final results. The greater the
number of samples, the more precise the results. The greater the variation between
samples, the more samples must be sorted to achieve a given level of precision. The
greater the time spent collecting the samples, the less time is available to sort the
samples. The more the waste is handled prior to sorting, the more difficult and less
precise the sorting.
A fundamental question is the time period(s) over which to collect the samples. One-
week periods are generally used because most human activity and most refuse collection
schedules repeat on a weekly basis. Sampling during a week in each season of the year is
preferable. Spring sampling is particularly important because generation of yard waste,
the most variable waste category, is generally least in the winter and greatest in the
spring.
Another fundamental question is whether to collect the samples at the places where the
waste is generated or at the solid waste facilities where the waste is taken. Sampling at
solid waste facilities is generally preferred. Collecting samples at the points of generation
may be necessary under the following circumstances, however: The primary objective is
to characterize the waste generated by certain sources, such as specific types of
businesses. The identity of the facilities to which the waste is taken is not known or
cannot be predicted with confidence for any given week.
Generally, to assess the total mix of waste components such as those listed in Table 2.1,
the load -count and mass –volume methods of analysis are recommended.
The following technique is recommended where it is desired to assess the individual
components within a waste category:
1. Unload a truckload of wastes in a controlled area away from other operations.

42
 2. Quarter the waste load
3. Select one of the quarters and quarter that quarter.
4. Select one of the quartered quarters and separate all of the individual components
of the waste into pre-selected components such as those listed in table 2.1.
5. Place the separated components in a container of known volume and measure the
volume and mass of each component. The separated components should be
compacted tightly to simulate the conditions in the storage containers from which
they were collected.
6. Determine the percentage distribution of each component by mass and the as-
discarded density (similar to the one in table 2 –5).
N.B
• Typically, from 100 –200 kg (200-400 lb) of waste should be sorted to
obtain a representative sample.
• To obtain a more representative distribution of components, samples
should be collected during each season of the year.

2.3.2. Chemical Properties

We need to know 4 important properties of solid waste if we want to use them as fuel.
These are:
1. Proximate Analysis
The elements of proximate composition are moisture, ash, volatile matter, and fixed
carbon. The moisture content of solid waste is defined as the material lost during one
hour at 105°C. Ash is the residue remaining after combustion. Together, moisture and ash
represent the noncombustible fraction of the waste. Volatile matter is the material driven
off as gas or vapor when waste is subjected to a temperature of approximately 950°C for
7 min but is prevented from burning because oxygen is excluded. Volatile matter should
not be confused with volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs are a small component
of typical solid waste. In proximate analysis, any VOCs present tend to be included in the
result for moisture. Conceptually, fixed carbon is the combustible material remaining

43
after the volatile matter is driven off. Fixed carbon represents the portion of combustible
waste that must be burned in the solid state rather than as gas or vapor.

2. Fusing Point of Ash

The fusing point of ash is defined as that temperature at which the ash resulting
from the burning of wastes will form a solid (clinker) by fusion and
agglomeration.
4. Heating Value (Energy value)

2.3.3. Biological properties of MSW (excluding

plastics, rubber, and leather Components)
The organic fraction of most MSW can be classified as:
1. Water soluble constituents such as sugars, starches, amino acids, and various
organic acids
2. Hemicelluloses- a condensation product of 5-6-carbon sugar.
3. Cellulose- a condensation product of six-carbon sugar glucose
4. Fats, oils, and waxes that are esters of alcohols and long chain fatty acids.
5. Lignin, lignocelluloses and proteins
-Lignin is a polymeric material containing aromatic rings with methoxyl
Group (-OCH3)
-Its chemical nature is not still clearly known
-Present in some paper products such as news and fiberboard.

Biodegradability of Organic Waste Components

Volatile solids content determined by ignition at 550 0C is often used in the measure of
biodegradability of the organic fraction of MSW. However, the use of Volatile solids in
describing the biodegradability of the organic content, for example Newsprint could be
misleading, as some of the organic constituents of MSW are highly volatile but low in
biodegradability).
Alternative - Use of the lignin content of a waste to estimate the biodegradable fraction:
Use the following relationships.

44
 BF = 0.83 - 0.28LC
Where:
BF = Biodegradable fraction expressed as a volatile solid’s basis
0.83 = Empirical constant
0.02 = Empirical constant
LC = Lignin content of the Volatile solids expressed as a % of dry weight

Table 2.6: Biodegradability of selected organic wastes based on lignin content.

Component VS % of TS LC % of VS BF
Food wastes 7-15 0.4 0.82
Paper
Newsprint 94.0 21.9 0.22
Office paper 96.4 0.4 0.82
Cardboard 94.0 12.9 0.47
Yard wastes 50-90 4.1 0.72

Fly breeding.
Fly breeding is an important consideration mainly in summer (hot climates). Fly breeding
is dependent on onsite storage time. The life history of the common house fly from egg to
adult can be described as follows:
Eggs develop- 8-12hrs.
1st stage of larval period 20 days
2nd stage of larval period 24hrs
Pupal stage 4-5 days
Total 9-11 days

45
 2.3.4. Solid Waste Generation and Factors Affecting
Generation Rates

Fluctuations in Solid Waste Quantities

Weakness in the economy generally reduces the quantity of solid waste generated. This
reduction is particularly true for commercial and industrial MSW and construction and
demolition debris. Data quantifying the effect of economic downturns on solid waste
quantity are not readily available. The generation of solid waste is usually greater in
warm weather than in cold weather. Waste generation is relatively low in the winter but
rises with temperature in the spring. The surge of waste generation in the spring is caused
both by increased human activity, including spring cleaning, and renewed plant growth
and associated yard waste. Waste generation typically declines somewhat after June but
remains above average until mid to late fall.

Solid Waste Generation

Since waste generation rates are changing so rapidly, it would be meaningless to give
site-specific data. How ever, whenever local data is lacking, for Ethiopia a generation rate
of 0.2-0.3 kg/c/d can be considered. Additional data is presented on the following Tables.

Table 2.7: Typical per capita SW generation rates (U.S)

Source Unit rate Kg/c/d
Range Typical
Municipal * 0.75-2.50 1.6
Industrial 0.4-1.60 0.9
Demolition 0.05-0.4 0.3
Other municipal 0.05-0.3 0.2
3.0
* Includes residential and commercial

46
Table 2.8: Typical commercial and Industrial unit waste generation rates
Source Unit Range
Office buildings Kg/employee/d 0.5-1.1
Restaurants Kg/customer/d 0.2-0.8
Canned and frozen foods Tones /ton of raw prod. 0.04-0.06
Printing and publishing Tones /ton of raw paper 0.08-0.10
Automotive Tones /vehicle prod. 0.6-0.8
Petroleum refining Tones /employee/d 0.04-0.05
Rubber Tones /ton of rubber 0.01-0.3

Factors Affecting Generation Rates

Geographic Location
This is related to the different climates that can influence both the amount generated
and collection operation.

Season of the Year

Seasons like wet seasons and dry seasons affect generation. During the rainy season
there will be much vegetation such as weeds, and trimmings.

Frequency of Collection
A reliable and frequent collection service will encourage generation in a sense that
cleaning, trimming, etc will be frequent by individuals. If there is no regular
collection, people tend to lax in collecting wastes (cleaning, cutting etc), rather they
wait for the specified collection day to collect and bring what is available at that
particular period in time.

Characteristics of Population
The economical and educational status of a population is an important factor in the
generation of wastes. Affluent society produces more waste than poor
neighborhoods. Educated and sanitation conscious people pay more attention to
cleanliness and therefore produce more waste.

Extent of salvage and recycling

47
 If there is a salvaging or recycling exercises or programs in the locality the amount of
disposable waste will be minimized basically because a portion of the generated
waste is no more discarded but used as raw material.

Legislation
The existence of local, state, and national regulation concerning the use and disposal
of specific materials affect generation of solid waste.

Public Attitude

In general terms solid waste generation and disposal programs are affected by human
behavior and attitude. As indicated in ‘4’ above affluence, poverty, illiteracy, or
education affect attitudes of people also. A positive attitude by the population being
served is very important to have a successful solid waste management program.

2.3.5. Methods Used to Estimate Waste Quantities

Methods Used to Estimate Waste Quantities

Waste quantities are usually estimated on the basis of data gathered by conducting a
waste characterization study, using previous waste generation data or some combination
of the two approaches.

Methods commonly employed are:

1. Load count analysis
2. Weight volume analysis
3. Materials balance analysis
4.
Load Count Analysis
In this method, the number of individual loads and the corresponding waste
characteristics (types of wastes, estimated volume) are noted over a specified time
period.
- Record weight if scales are available.
- Use field data or published data to determine the unit generation rates.

48
Example
Estimate the unit Solid Waste generation rate for a residential area by using the following
data. The observation location is a local transfer station that receives all the wastes
collected for disposal. The observation period was one week.
Total number of households = 1200
Number of persons per household = 3.5
Number of compactor truck loads = 9
Average size of compactor trucks = 15.3 m3
Number of flatbed loads = 7
Average flatbed volume = 1.53 m3
Number of loads from individual residents’ private cars and trucks = 20
Estimated private vehicle volume = 0.3 m3

Solution
1.1. Set up a computation Table.
Item Number Average volume Specific wt. Total wt.
of loads (m3) kg/m3) (kg)
Compactor truck 9 15.3 296.7 40855.6
Flat board truck 7 1.53 133.5 1429.8
Individual/private vehicles 20 0.3 89.0 534.0
Total 42819.40

1.2. Determine the unit waste generation rate.

42819.40kg / wk
Unit rate =
(1200Hhx3.5 persons / Hh) x( No.days / wk
= 1.5 kg/c/d

49
Weight Volume Analysis
Both volume and weight can be used for the measurements of SW quantities.
▪ Unfortunately, the use of volume as a measure of quantity is misleading as the
quantity is different for lose and compacted piles.
▪ Accordingly, if volume measurements are to be used:
- Specify the degree of compaction
- Specify the weight of waste under that storage condition
▪ Otherwise, weight is the only accurate basis for records.
▪ Weight records are necessary in the transport of SW.
▪ Volume and weight are equally important with respect to the capacity of landfills.
Mass Balance Analysis
We can have a good degree of reliability to determine wastes by performing detailed
materials balance analysis.
Moreover, the materials balance analysis will be required to obtain data needed to verify
compliance with state mandated recycling program.

Procedures to carry out mass balance analysis.

1) Draw a system boundary around a unit to be studied.

Outflow
Combustion
Gases
Ashes

Material inflow Stored materials (raw

materials, Products,
Solid wastes) Outflow (materials)

Out flow (products)

Out flow
(Solid waste,
Solids in WW)

50
 2) Identify all the activities that come or occur within the boundary and affect the
generation of wastes.
3) Identify the rate of waste generation associated with each of these activities.
4) Using appropriate mathematical relationship, determine the quantity of wastes
generated, collected and stored.

The mathematical mass balance can be formulated as:

Rate of Rate of generation
Accumulation of Rate of flow of Rate of flow of of waste material
Material within the = material into the - material out of the + within the System
boundary System boundary System boundary System boundary

In a simplified statement:

Accumulation = Inflow – Outflow + Generation

Mathematical representation
dM
=  M in −  M out + rw
dt
Where
dM/dt = rate of change of the weight of material stored (accumulated) within the
study unit, lb/d
Min = Sum of all the material flowing into study unit, lb/d
Mout = Sum of all of the materials flowing out of the study unit, lb/d
rw = rate of waste generation, lb/d
t = time, d
Example
Materials-balance analysis

51
A cannery receives on a given day 12 tons of raw produce, 5 tons of cans, 0.5 tons of
cartons, and 0.3 tons of miscellaneous materials. Of the 12 tons of raw produce, 10 tons
become processed product, 1.2 tons end up as produce waste, which is fed to cattle, and
the remainder is discarded with the wastewater from the plant. Four tons of the cans are
recycled. The cartons are used for packaging the canned product, except for 5 percent that
are damaged and subsequently separated for recycling. Of the miscellaneous materials,
25 percent is stored internally for future use; 50 percent becomes wastepaper, of which
35 percent is separated for recycling with the remainder being discarded as mixed waste;
and 25 percent becomes a mixture of solid waste materials. Assume the materials
separated for recycling and disposal is collected daily. Prepare a materials balance for the
cannery on this day and a materials flow diagram accounting for all of the materials. Also
determine the amount of waste per ton of product.

Solution
1. On the given day, the cannery receives.
12 tons of raw produce
5 tons of cans
0.5 tons of cartons
0.3 tons of miscellaneous materials

2. As a result of internal activity

(a) 10 tons of product is produced, І.2 tons of produce waste are generated, and the
remainder of the produce is discharged with the wastewater.
(b) 4 tons of cans are stored, and the remainder is used, of which 3 percent are damaged
(c) 0.5 tons of cartons are used of which 3 percent are damaged
(d) 25 percent of the miscellaneous materials are stored; 50 percent becomes paper waste,
of which 35 percent is separated and recycled, with the remainder disposed of as mixed

52
solid waste; the remaining 25 percent of the miscellaneous materials are disposed of as
mixed waste.
3. Determine the required quantities
(a) Wastes generated from raw produce
i solid waste fed to cattle = 1.2 ton (1089 kg)
ii. Waste produce discharged with wastewater = (12-10-1.2) ton
=0.8 ton (726 g)
(b) Cans
i damaged and recycled = (0.03) (5-4)ton = 0.03 ton (27kg)
ii Used for production of product = (І-0.03) ton = 0.97 ton (880kg)
(c) Cartons
i Damaged and recycled = (0.03) (0.5 ton) =0.015 ton (14 kg)
ii Cartons used in product = (0.5-0.015) ton = 0.485 ton (440 kg)
(d) Miscellaneous material
I. Amount stored = (0.25) (0.3 ton) = 0.075 ton (68 kg)
ii. Paper separated and recycled = (0.50) (0.35) (0.3 ton)
= 0.053 ton (48 kg)
iii. Mixed waste = (0.3-0.075)-(0.053) ton = 0.172 ton (156kg)
(e) Total weight of product = (10+0.97 + 0.485) ton = 11.455 ton (10,392kg)
(f) Total material stored = (4 +0.075) ton = 4.075 ton (3696 kg)

4. Prepare a materials balance and flow diagram for the cannery for the day in
question
(a) The appropriate mater

53
CHAPTER THREE

3. Handling of Solid Wastes

Onsite Handling Methods and Onsite Storage of Solid Wastes

3.1. Handling of Solid Wastes

Handling of solid wastes includes activities such as storage, and processing (sorting,
reusing) of solid waste at the source (residence, factory, industry, agriculture etc.) before
it is collected. On-site handling means the activities associated with the handling of solid
waste until they are placed in the containers used for their storage before collection. On-
site handling methods and principles involve public attitude, individual behavior, culture,
and beliefs, which ultimately affect public health.
On-site processing may take place at any time before, during, or after storage.
3.1.1. On-site Handling Methods
Residential
For easy categorization residential houses will be classified into three:
• Single family (individual family) detached: This could be a villa, a thatched
house but it is not attached to any residence.
• Single family attached: This belongs to the chain of houses seen in Ethiopia
where the family is separated from another family-left and right by walls.
• Multifamily (slum areas): This is where many families (greater than one) are
staying together in the same house.
Each tenant or residents are responsible to collect their waste. But usually, it is common
practice to see people throw their waste:
➢ outside the compound or inside their compound
➢ nearby dump
➢ municipal containers, or
➢ In water body.
All of these practices except for 3rd bullet are malpractices, which may result in a lot of
public health problems.

55
In a well-developed solid waste management (collection programs), and systems:
• Waste will be picked up by municipal workers or porters. In well-organized
apartment complex's maintenance personnel are responsible for solid waste
abatement.
• Wastes may be taken by tenants to the specified area such as the basement
and deposit it so that collectors will take it from there.
• Some tenants or house owners may have garbage grinders where waste matter
will be grinded or liquefied to be washed down the sewers,
• Wastes may be put in bags and sent through chutes attached to high-rise
buildings.
Commercial
Typically, an organized solid waste collection program will have large dustbins with
wheels and cover near by commercial establishments and offices. When they are filled,
they will be taken away by the collection crew or dumped in large storage containers
outside the buildings placed in stationary compactors.

Commercial establishments in almost all cities in Ethiopia except Addis Ababa have no
large containers but small ones such as an ordinary barrel. This is basically because we
do not have organized collection program or legislation that requires safe collection
procedures.

3.1.2. On-site Storage

For individual homes, industries, and other commercial centers storage of solid waste in
the most proper manner is the beginning of disposal or proper management. Since
neglected waste or improper dump are sources of nuisances, fly breeding, smells or
hazards so are wastes that are not properly stored in the generation areas. There are four
factors considered when practicing onsite storage of Solid waste.
• The type of container to be used.
• The location where the container is to be kept.
• Public health and aesthetic consideration
• The collection method, time, and condition

56
Containers
Type and capacity of containers will be determined to a large extent by:
• The characteristic of the solid waste to be collected.
• The collection frequency
• The space available for the placement of the containers
With this regard the best container considered will be:
• Small with a capacity range of 75-150 liters
• All containers should have covers.
• All containers are preferred to have two handles on both side of the container.
• Preferred to be of plastic nature to avoid noise, and corrosion.
• Preferred to have roller so that it could very easily be taken to the collection
vehicle.
When regular collection program is guaranteed temporary and disposable type of
containers such as paper bags plastic bags, are commonly used. The principal problems in
such temporary containers are:
• When placed outside the house cats or stray dogs or rats may tear it
• Wet wastes may make it soggy and eventually disintegrate especially during
loading.
• Plastics stretch and break if heavy waste such as broken glass or metal is kept
in them.
Although individual containers are used in semiprivate or small one story houses the
most common practice in well to do countries is to use one or more large containers for a
group of apartments. Typically, containers are kept in enclosed areas with easy access to
a nearby street.
For some high-rise apartment:
• Chutes are provided so that each floor throws the waste in and then transferred
to a container attached to the chute.
• In apartments where there are no chute wastes are stored in containers. The
most common means of storage used for waste storage includes: -

57
 1. Large open-top containers
2. Enclosed storage containers or disposable bags
3. Containers equipped with compactors.
Container Location
Between collection, containers used in detached individual dwellings usually are placed.
• At the side or rear of the house
• In alley where ally collection is used
• Some common location specifically designed for the purpose

The location of containers at commercial and industrial facilities depends on both the
location of available space and service access conditions. The containers are usually
owned by the commercial or industrial owners; therefore, the location and type of
containers must be worked out jointly between the building owners and the public
service.
3.2. Onsite Processing of Solid Wastes
The main objectives of on-site processing of solid waste are:
• Reducing the volume of generated waste
• Alter the physical form
• Recover usable materials from the mixed solid wastes
Several methods are used to perform on-site processing of solid waste. The type to use
depends on the economy and organization of the program itself. The choices are as
follows:
Grinding the Waste
This is a form of reduction accomplished by some sort of mill (hammer mill). All
types of waste may not be subjected to grinding, but most could be grinded. Waste
such as metals, tins etc may have to be separated. Home grinders are used primarily
for wastes from the preparation, cooking, and serving of foods. Grinders render the
material that passes through them suitable for transport through sewers. When used
for garbage it will not have significant volume reduction. Dry, organic, and grindable
materials may be reduced in size considerably. Advantage of this is that it will

58
 increase collection time period between collections pick-ups because wastes that may
readily decay are not stored.

Sorting the Waste

This will assist grinding mentioned above. The types that could be used (recovered)
for different purposes will be sorted and separated to be disposed or used as they are
or as raw materials for a manufacturing process. This is an operation where
newspaper, metals, cans, glasses are sorted and separated.

Shredding
This is also a form of reducing the volume of waste. Like grinding wastes that may
not be shredded may have to be separated from the waste stream.

Composting
This is conversion of a waste material into a useful material. A composted waste
could be used for plant nutrient and soil conditioning especially for farmers or home
gardening. This may not be accomplished from waste as delivered but need sorting
the types that could be decomposed such as the organic types of wastes. Home
composting as a means of recycling was once popular in developed countries. It is an
effective way of reducing the volume and altering the physical composition of solid
waste while at the same time producing a useful product.

Incineration
This is the same as burning of combustible materials in fire place or burning rubbish in
the backyard. Some types of wastes will be selected or sorted from the mixed solid
wastes to be incinerated. Incineration is a form of volume reduction. It does not
necessarily mean that it is final. Ashes and other residues will remain to be disposed in
sanitary landfill or other disposal methods.

Compaction
This is a form of size reduction in the form of balling. Such operation reduces original
volumes of paper, cardboard, to about 70 %.

59
On-site processing may be an expensive activity. In places where labor or purchasing
machinery is expensive onsite processing will not be practical. There are therefore,
factors that must be considered when planning on-site processing. These factors are:
• Capabilities in terms of finance or technology
• Reliability of technology, market, the program itself
• Service
• Safety of operation
• Ease of operation
• Efficiency of the whole program
• Environmental effects
• Health hazards to workers and the environment
• Aesthetic values for the processing sites
• Economics.
The best place to separate waste materials for reuse and recycling is at the source of
generation. Homeowners should be aware of separation of Nero paper, and cardboard,
bottles, yard wastes, aluminum cans, ferrous materials and especially hazardous wastes.
Waste processing is used to reduce the volume, recover usable materials, and alter the
physical form of the solid wastes.
 The most common on-site processing operations used are:
• Food waste grinding and release to sewer system
• Component separation

60
CHAPTER FOUR

4. COLLECTION OF SOLID WASTES

The generation of residential, commercial and industrial waste is a diffuse process that
takes place in every home, every apartment building, and every industrial and
commercial facility as well as in the streets, parks, offices, institutions, and vacant lots of
every community.

As the generation pattern is more widespread and the total quantity and complexity
increases the logistics of transportation problem associated with collection becomes more
complex. Collection program demands the following more than any thing else:

• Special vehicles for different types of wastes (logs, garbage, special wastes)
• Experienced people to mange and administer.
• More specialized machineries or simple hand tools and manpower
• Monetary fund to be used for fuel, salary, maintenance

Collection is the most expensive compared with other operation and management
procedures. In the USA for example, of the money spent for the collection and
transportation and disposal of solid waste, approximately 60-80 % was spent on
collection. This shows that if the collection system or operation is improved there will be
a significant saving in the overall cost.

In view of the importance of collection, there are five areas to consider. These are:
• Understanding the types of collection services and adopt what is appropriate
and practical.
• The types of collection system, equipment and labor requirement.
• An analysis of collection system including component relationship.
• General methodology involved in setting up collection routes.

61
 • Advanced techniques of analysis that can be used to evaluate collection
operation.

4.1. Collection Services

This includes:
• Gathering or picking up solid waste from various sources. This will vary with
the characteristics of the facilities, activities, locations where wastes are
generated, and ways and means used for the onsite storage.
• Taking the collected waste to location (dumps, sanitary landfills, transfer
station) where it is to be emptied.
• Unloading of the collection vehicle
Collection service is given to residential, commercial and industrial areas. Residential
services, anywhere in the world varies as it depends on the type of dwelling (low rise,
detached, attached, high rise apartment etc.) Residential services approach are also
different for different communities simply because the program should be laid with
participation with the community. There are four types of collection services namely:

1. Curb- In this system the homeowner is responsible for placing the containers to be
emptied at the curb (roadside) on collection day and for returning the empty containers
back to his house.
2. Alleys- This is collection of waste from the alleyways beside houses. Who will take
the containers to the collection vehicles could be arranged between the owner of the
house and the collection crew (the organization).
3. Set-out-The owner of the house is responsible for returning the containers after
emptying. But the container when full is brought or set out at collection site by the crew.
There is what is called set out- set back service where crews are doing every thing.
4. Backyard carry service-Collection crew that goes with the collection vehicle are
responsible for bringing out stored solid waste from the dwelling units.
The method of loading the waste on to the vehicles is usually accomplished in many
different ways. This also depends on the economy, organization and technological level
of the society. Nevertheless, the methods used are:

62
 • Direct lifting and carrying the containers
• Rolling loaded containers on their rims or rollers
• Use of small lifts for rolling the containers
• Use of large container into which waste from small containers are emptied and
finally lifted by mechanical means.
Table: 4.1 Comparison of Residential collection services
Curb Alley Set out Back yard
1.Requires homeowners’ cooperation
- Carry container yes optional no no
- Carry empty container yes optional yes no
2. Require scheduled service for yes no yes no
homeowner cooperation.
3. Spillage and litter problem high high high low
4. Containers visible yes no yes no
5. Attractive to scavengers yes highest no no
6. Prone to upsets yes yes yes no
7. Average crew required 1-3 1-3 1-5 3-5
8. Crew time low low medium high
9. Crew injury rate low low medium high
10. Cost of crew and time low low medium medium

4.2. Types of Collection Systems

Solid waste collection systems may be classified from several points of view. These are:
1. Mode of operation
2. Equipment use
3. Type of waste collected

63
Mode of operation
From the operation point of view there are two modes known that could also be adopted
for our use. These are:

- Hauled container system, which is a system where the containers used for storage of
wastes are hauled to the disposal site, emptied and returned
- Stationary container system where the containers used for the storage of waste
remains at the point of generation, except for occasional short trip to the collection
vehicle.

Equipment used
Some of the equipments used are containers, machineries, hand tools etc. Containers for
hauled systems or operation have various sizes and shapes. Basically, since the system is
used to haul wastes from sources where the route of generation is high large containers
are provided. Hauled container system requires only one truck, and one driver, to
accomplish the collection cycle. But each container picked up must be returned back
requiring a round trip travel. Therefore, when using this system:

• Container size and utilization are of great economic advantages

• Compressing waste to haul long distance has good advantage.

64
Fig. 4.1 Vehicles used in Solid Waste Management.

65
Type of waste collected.
The collection of solid waste is not a single process. There are at least five different
phases. Namely:
Phase one; generated waste in the premises (house, industry etc) to dust bin
Phase two: from temporary storage (dust bin) to collection track
Phase three: truck moves from house to house or from one collection center to
another collection center
Phase four: collected waste to disposal site or transfer station
Phase five: waste sorted for resource recovery or other management.

The individual homeowner must transfer whatever he considered waste to the refuse bin
which may be located inside or outside the house. The owner or collection crew moves
the waste to the collection truck. The truck must collect waste from many homes in the
most efficient and economical way possible. Collected waste may be taken to a transfer
station where large volume will be collected and transported using bigger transport means
(train, large compactor truck, chains of tractor wagons) or the waste will be sorted for
possible resource recovery or recycling program. Finally, what is supposed to be disposed
will be taken to a disposal site.

4.3. Layout of Route

The most practical phase and the most researched solid waste collection system is the
system or movement of the track from house to house. The following steps have to be
followed in order to lay a reasonable and economical collection route.
1. Preparation of location maps showing pertinent data and information
concerning the waste generation sources
2. Data analysis and as required preparation of information summary tables
3. Preliminary lay out of routes by trial and error

Step 1. On a large map of the commercial industrial or housing area, the following data
should be plotted for each solid waste pick up point.
• Location

66
 • Number of containers
• Collection frequency
• Quantity of wastes to be collected at each pick up

Step 2. First summarize the number of pick up location, where each of which receives the
same collection frequency of a collection program each day.

Example:
Table 4.2 Summary data on a typical area
Collection No. of pick Total No. of containers emptied per day
Per week up points picks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1x2 Mon Tue Wed Thur Frid
1 10 10 2 2 2 2 2
2 3 6 0 3 0 3 0
3 3 9 3 0 3 0 3
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 4 20 4 4 4 4 4
Total 30 45 9 9 9 9 9

Step 3. Starting from the dispatch station or from where vehicles are parked, lay out
collection routs for each day so that they begin and end near the dispatch station.
A typical rout for any one of the days could be as shown below.

S
Start F

Finish

67
Start
Fin

Fig. 4.2 - Typical route layout

Step 4. When preliminary routes are laid out the average distance to be traveled between
containers should be computed. If the routes are unbalanced, they should be reorganized
so that each route covers approximately the same distance. In general, a number of
routes must be tried before the final ones are selected. Even then routing is a dynamic
process where there will be time to re route even after final selection is done.

In order to be economical and time saving the selection of a route for movement of the
track is very critical. Haphazard routing can result in substantial cost increment to the
community or organization. The routing of collection vehicle within its assigned
collection zone is called MICRO-ROUTING. Large scale routing to the disposal site
and the establishment of the individual route boundaries is called MACROROUTING.

Micro-routing is concerned on how to route a collection vehicle through a series of one-

or two-way streets so that the total distance traveled is minimized or minimize dead
heading, or traveling without picking refuse. Routing collection vehicle is a very difficult
problem. “In 1736 the brilliant mathmatician Leonard Evler was challenged when
asked to design a route for a parade across the seven bridges of a city in Eastern

68
Prussia such that the parade would not cross the same bridge twice but would end at
the starting point. It was found to be difficult to do it outright”. The same problem is
always challenging for micro routing of solid waste collection vehicles. It may be
possible after many trials and accumulated experience.

The method of HEURISTIC (common sense) routing that is practiced by solid waste
management workers has wide application. This method has the following set of rules
which some are purely common sense.

√ Routes should not overlap but should be compact and not fragmented.
√ The starting point should be as close to the vehicle garage as possible.
√ Heavily traveled street should be avoided during rush hour.
√ One-way street that can not be traversed in one line should be looped from the upper
end of the street.
√ Dead end streets should be collected when on the right side of the street.
√ On hills, collection should proceed downhill so that the track can coast even when
full. It will be difficult for a full track to start and climb up hill.
√ Clockwise turns around blocks should be used whenever possible.
√ Long, straight paths should be routed before looping clockwise.
√ For certain block patterns, standard paths (as shown in Fig 4.1) should be used.
√ U-turn can be avoided by never leaving one two-way street as the one access and exit
to the node.
Source : P.A Vesilind et al pp78

4.4. Analysis of Collection System

To establish labor and vehicle requirements for the various collection systems and
methods, the unit time required to perform each task must be determined. By separating
the collection activities into operations, it is possible to:
• Develop design data and relationship that can be used universally

69
 • Evaluate both the variables associated with collection activities and the
variables related to, or controlled by, the particular locations.

Before the relationships for collection systems can be modeled effectively the component
task must be explained. On the basis of previous or known activities involved in the
collection of solid waste there are four-unit operations that need to be defined. These unit
operations are:
1. Pick-up
2. Haul
3. At-site
4. Off-route/site

70
 4.4.1. Pick up
1.1 As related to HAULED CONTAINER SYSTEM operated in the CONVENTIONAL
MODE pick up refers to the:
• Time spent driving to the next container after an empty container has been deposited
* The time spent picking up the loaded container
* The time required re-depositing the container.

Container location

Pick up loaded Drive to next cont. (dbc)

Container

Truck from
Dispatch To dispatch
Station (t2)
(t1)

Deposit empty
Container Haul,
(h)

Transfer, processing or
dispatch station

Fig. 4.3 Hauled container system in the conventional mode

1.2 Pick-up as related to the EXCHANGE CONTAINER MODE it refers to the:

71
 • Time required to pick-up a loaded container and to deposit a container at the next
location after its content have been emptied.
Container location

From
Dispatch station

Loaded cont.

Empty cont

Truck with
empty container
Transfer, Disposal or
Processing site

Fig. 4.4 Hauled container system in the exchange container mode

Start
Daily work

Loaded vehicle to
Disposal, processing or
transfer station
Return to dispatch
Station
Fig. 4.5 - Stationary container system

72
1.3 Pick-up for STATIONARY CONTAINER SYSTEM refers to:

The time spent loading the collection vehicle beginning with the stopping of the vehicle prior to
loading the content of the first container and ending when the content of the last container to be
emptied have been loaded.

Specific task in the loading operation in all the above situation depends:
• Type of collection vehicle
• Collection methods used.

4.4.2. Haul
Hauling solid waste represents the time required to reach the disposal site starting after a
container whose contents are to be emptied has been loaded on the truck, plus the time spent
after leaving the disposal site until the truck arrives at the location where the empty container is
to be deposited. However, it does not include time spent at disposal.

FOR STATIONARY CONTAINER SYSTEM haul refers to:

The time required reaching the disposal site starting after the last container on the route has been
emptied, or the collection vehicle is filled, plus the time after leaving the disposal site until the
truck arrives at the location the first container to be emptied on the next collection route.

4.4.3. At Site
This refers to the time spent at the disposal site and includes the time spent waiting to load as
well as the time spent unloading.

73
 4.4.4. Off-Route

This include the time spent on activities that are non productive from the point of view of the
overall collection system or operation. Many of the activities associated with off-route time are
either NECESSARY OR UNNECESSARY.

a. NECESARY time is:

• Time spent checking in and out in the morning and at the end of the day
• Time lost due to unavoidable congestion
• Time spent on equipment repair (tire, engine etc)
b. UNNECESSARY time include:
• Time spent for lunch in excess of the time allowed
• Time spent on an unauthorized break
• Time spent with friend etc

4.5. Mathematical Analysis:

Solid waste collection needs a lot of thinking and statistical and mathematical data to base the
program. The following formulae are examples.

1. Haul container system

The time required per trip, which also corresponds to the time required per container, is equal to
the sum of the pick up, at site and haul times and given by the following equation:

Thcs = (Phcs + s + a + bx) (4.1.1)

Where Thcs = Time per trip for hauled - container system, h/trip
Phcs = Pick up time per trip for hauled - container system, h/trip
s = At site time /trip, h/trip
b = Empirical haul constant, h/km
x = round trip haul distance, km/trip
The pick up time per trip Phcs is equal to:

74
 Phcs = Pc + Uc + dbc (4.1.2.)

Where: Phcs = Pick up time per trip, h/trip

Pc = time required to pick up loaded container, h/trip
Uc = time required to unload empty container, h/trip
dbc = average time spent driving between container locations, h/trip

Table 4.3 Typical values for haul constant coefficients a and b in

eqns. 4.1.1., 4.1.2, 4.1.3 and 4.1.4 is:

Speed limit a b
Km.h mi.h h. trip h.km h.mi
88 55 0.016 0.011 0.018
72 45 0.022 0.014 0.022
56 35 0.034 0.018 0.029
40 35 0.050 0.025 0.040

The number of trips that can be made per vehicle per day with a hauled container system
including a factor to account for off – route activities is determined using eqn.4.1.3

Nd = [(1-W) H - (t1 + t2)] / (Phcs + s + a + bx) 4.1.3

Nd = [(1-W) H - (t1 + t2)]/Thcs 4.1.4

Where: Nd = Number of trips per day, trip. d

W = off route factor, expressed as a fraction
H = Length of workday, hr. d
t1 = time from garage to first container location, h
t2 = time from last container location to garage, h

75
In deriving equation 4.1.3 it is assumed that off route activities can occur any time. Data that can
be used in the solution of Eqns. 4.1.2 and 4.1.3 for various types of hauled container systems are
given in the tables 4.3 and 4.4.

Table 4.4 Typical data for computing equipment and labor requirements for hauled and
stationary container systems.

Collection Pick up loaded Empty contents At site

Vehicle Loading Compact container and of loaded time, s
method ion ratio, deposit empty cntainer, h/trip
r container, h. h/container**
trip*
Hauled container
systems
Tilt frame Mechanical - 0.40 0.123
Tilt frame Mechanical 2.0-4.0 0.40 0.133
Stationary container
systems
Compactor Mechanical 2.0- 4.0 0.050 0.10
Compactor Manual 2.0- 4.0 0.10

* Pc + Uc
** Uc
The off-route factor in eqn. 4.1.3 varies from 0.10-0.25; a factor of 0.15 is representative for
most operations.

A) Analyzing a hauled container collection system

Solid waste from a new industrial park is to be collected in large containers (drop boxes), some
of which will be used in conjunction with stationary compactors. Based on traffic studies at
similar parks, it is estimated that the average time to drive from the garage to the first container
(t1) and from the last container (t2) to the garage each day will be 15 and 20 min. respectively. If

76
the average time required to drive between containers is 6 min. and the one-way distance to the
disposal site is 25km (speed limit: 88km/h), determine the number of containers that can be
emptied per day based on an 8 hr workday.

Solution
І. Determine the pick up time per trip using
Phcs = Pc + Uc + dbc
Use: Pc + Uc 0.4h/trip
dbc = 0.1h/trip
Phcs = (0.4 +0.1) h/trip
= 0.5h/trip
2. Determine the time per trip using:
Thcs = (Phcs + s + a + bx)
Use: Phcs = 0.5h/trip (from step І)
s= 0.133 (see table)
a= 0.016 (see table)
b= 0.011 (see table)
Thc = [0.5 + 0.133 +0.016 +0.011(50)] h/trip
= І.20h/trip.
3. Determine the number of trips that can be made per day using

Nd = [(1-W) H - (t1 + t2)]/ (Phcs + s + a + bx)

Use: W = 0.15 (assumed)

H = 8 (given)
tІ = 0.25h (given)
t2 = 0.33h (given)
Nd = [(1-0.15) 8 – 0.25 +0.33)]/ І.20h/trip
= (6.8-0.58) / І.20
= 5.18 trips/d
Nd actual = 5 trips /d

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4. Determine the actual length of the workday.
5 trips = (І-0.15) H – 0.58 / І.2
H = [(5 X І.2) + 0.58] / 0.85
= 7.74h (essentially 8h)

COMMENT
It it is assumed that no off-route activities occur during times tІ and t2, then theoretically 5.26
trips /d could be made. Again, only 5 trips /d would be made in an actual operation. If, however,
the number of trips per day that could be made were 6.8 for example, it may be cost effective to
pay the driver for the overtime and make 6 trips /d.

B) Analyzing a Stationary-Container collection System

For systems using mechanically self-loading compactors, the time per trip is:
Tscs = (Pscs + s + a + bx) (4.2.1)
Where Tscs = time per trip for stationary-container systems, h/trip
Pscs = Pick up time per trip for stationary-container systems, h/trip
The pick up time for the stationary-container system is given by:
Pscs = Ctuc + (np – 1) (dbc) (4.2.2)
Where Pscs = Pick up time per trip for stationary-container systems, h/trip
Ct = number of containers emptied per trip, container/systems, h/trip
Uc = average unloading time per container for stationary-container systems,
h/container
np = number of container pickup locations per trip, locations/trip
dbc = average time spent driving between container locations, h/location
(Determined locally)

The term np – 1 account for the fact that the number of times the collection vehicle will have to
be driven between container locations is equal to the number of containers less 1.

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The number of containers that can be emptied per collection trip is related directly to the volume
of the collection vehicle and the compaction ratio that can be achieved. This number is given by:
Ct = vr /cf (4.2.3)
Where Ct = number of containers emptied per trip, container/trip
v = volume of collection vehicle, m3/trip
r = compaction ratio
c = container volume, m3/container
f = weighted container utilization factor
The number or trips required per day is given by:
Nd =Vd /vr (4.2.4)
Where Nd = number of collection trips required per day, trips/d
Vd = daily waste generation rate, m3/d
Where an integer number of trips are to be made each day, the proper combination of trips per
day and the size of the vehicle can be determined by using the following equation in conjunction
with an economic analysis:
H = [(tІ + t2) + Nd (Pscs + s + a + bx)] / (І-W

Application 4.2
Assignment (5%)
Solid wastes from commercial area are to be collected using a stationary container collection
system having 4 m3 containers. Determine the appropriate truck capacity for the following
conditions:
A. Container size = 4m3
B. Container utililization factor = 0.75
C. Average number of containers at each location = 2
D. Collection vehicle compaction ratio = 2.5
E. Container unloading time = 0.1h/container
F. One way haul distance = 30km
G. Average drive time between container location 0.1h
H. Speed limit = 88km/h
I. Time from garage to first container location = 0.33h

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J. Time from container location to garage = 0.25h
K. Number of trips to disposal site per day =2
L. Length of workday = 8h

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CHAPTER FIVE

5. SEPARATION, PROCESSING, RECOVERY AND

TRANSFORMATION OF SOLID WASTES

5.1. Separation
Materials commonly separated from MSW for recycling are Aluminum, paper, plastics, glass,
ferrous metal, yard waste, and construction and demolition wastes.

Waste materials that have been source separated must be collected or gathered together before
they can be recycled. The principal methods used for collection include:
▪ Curbside collection using specially designed vehicles
▪ Delivery by homeowners to drop-off and buy back centers

Options for the separation of waste materials

Separation is a necessary operation in the recovery of re-usable and recyclable materials from
MSW.
Separation can be accomplished at:
1. Source generation – Manual
- Additional separation and processing required before reuse
2. At MRF’s /TF’s – A centralized facility for the separation, cleaning, packaging and
shipping of large volume material recovered from MSW

Unit operations used for separation and processing of waste

▪ Size reduction – Shredding
- Grinding
- Milling
It is a unit operation in which as collected waste are mechanically reduced in size

Objectives

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Obtain a final product that is reasonably uniform and considerably reduced in size. (Note that
size reduction doesn’t necessarily result in volume reduction).

Equipment
Shredders, glass crushers, wood grinders

▪ Screening
A unit operation used to separate mixture of materials of different sizes into two or more size
fractions by using one or more screening surfaces. Principal application of screening devices in
processing of MSW includes:
1. Removal of oversized materials
2. “ “ undersized “
3. Separation of waste into light combustible and heavy none combustibles.
4. Recovery of paper, plastics, and other light materials from glass and metal.
5. Separation of glass, grit, and sand from combustible materials
6. Separation of rock and other oversized debris from soil excavated at construction sites.
7. Removal of over sized materials from combustion ash.
Equipment
Vibrating screens
Rotary screens
Disc screens

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 Fig. --- Typical screening devices used in SWM.

▪ Density separation (Air classifiers)

It is a unit operation used to separate light material such as paper, and plastic from heavier
material such as ferrous metal, based on the weight difference of the material in an air stream
with sufficient velocity
▪ Magnetic separation
Magnetic separation is a unit operation whereby ferrous metals are separated from other waste
materials by utilizing their magnetic property
It is used to recover ferrous metals from source separated, commingled and shredded MSW.
▪ Densification (Compacting)
This unit operation increases the density of waste materials so that they can be stored and
transformed more efficiently and as means of preparing densified refuse derived fuels (dRDF).
Several technologies are available for the densification of solid waste and recovered materials
including baling, cubing and pelleting.

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 5.2. Processing and recovery

Typical Materials Recovery Facilities for Source-Separated Wastes

To illustrate the many different types of MRFs that have been developed to process source-
separated materials, two different types of MRFs are considered.
(1) a MRF designed to process source-separated wastes and
(2) a MRF designed to process garden trimmings and wood wastes.
These two examples illustrated the general features of MRFs used in conjunction with source
separated wastes.

MRF for Source-Separated Wastes.

The materials to be processed are mixed newspaper and cardboard, mixed plastic and glass, and
aluminum and tin cans. In addition, the facility also serves as a buy-back center. A specially
designed vehicle is used for the collection of the separated wastes. The processing of the
separated waste materials is as follows.

І. Paper and cardboard.

Mixed paper and cardboard are unloaded onto the tipping floor. There, cardboard and non
recyclable paper items are removed. The mixed paper is then loaded on to a floor conveyor with
a front-end loader. The floor conveyor discharges to an inclined conveyor, that inturrn discharges
into a horizontal conveyor, which transports the mixed paper past workers who remove any
remaining cardboard from the mixed paper. The paper remaining on the belt is discharged into a
conveyor located below the picking platform that is used to feed the baler. Once the paper has
been baled, the cardboard is baled. The baler is also used to bale the Aluminum and tin cans and
the separated plastic materials.

II. Aluminum and tin cans.

The commingled aluminum and tin cans are discharged into a hoppered bin, which discharges to
a conveyor belt. The conveyor transports the commingled

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Fig. --- Layout of processing and recovery for some materials at MRF’s

cans past an overhead magnet separator where tin cans are removed. The endless belt continues
past a pulley magnet separator where any tin cans not removed with the overhead magnet are
taken out. The aluminum and tin, collected separately, are baled for shipment to markets.

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III. Plastic and glass.
The commingled plastic and glass are also discharged into a hoppered bin, which discharges to a
conveyor belt. The material is transported to a sorting area, where the plastic and clear glass is
separated manually from the other materials. The remaining glass is then sent to a glass crusher.
The wastes are then discharged to vibrating screen where the broken glass trailers to be
transported to the purchaser. Any residual materials are collected at the end of the vibrating
screen. The residual materials are disposed of in a landfill. The commingled plastic is then
separated further by visual inspection or according to the type (PETE and HDPE) using the
imprinted codes adopted by the plastics industry.

IV. Buy-back center.

MRF’s can also be designed to serves as a buy-back center for aluminum cans, plastic, glass,
and newsprint. Operationally, homeowners drive up to the electronic scale located within the
facility. Materials brought in are unloaded and weighed, and the homeowner is given a printout
listing the weights of the materials he or she has brought in. The homeowner is paid immediately
on the basis of the weight printout.

5.2.1. Planning and Design Process for MRFs

The planning and design of MRFs involve three basic steps: (1) feasibility analysis, (2)
preliminary design, and (3) final design. These planning and design steps are common to all
major public works projects such as landfills or wastewater treatment plants. In some cases, the
feasibility analysis has already been accomplished as part of the integrated waste management
planning process.

І. Feasibility Analysis. The purpose of the feasibility analysis is to decide whether the MRF
should be built. The feasibility study should provide the decision makers with clear
recommendations on the technical and economic merits of the planned MRF. A clear explanation
of the role of the MRF in achieving landfill waste diversion and recycling goals is a key element
of this section.

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II. Conceptual design. What type of MRF should be built, which materials will be processed
now and, in the future, and what the design capacity of the MRF should be are discussed. Plan
views and renderings of what the final MRF might look like are often included in this section.

III. Economics. Capital and operating costs are presented and discussed. Estimates of revenues
available to finance the MRF (sales of recyclables, tipping fees, subsidies) are presented. A
sensitivity analysis of the effects of fluctuating prices for recyclables and the impacts of changes
in the composition of the waste should be included.

IV. Ownership and operation. An analysis of how the MRF should be owned and operated is
presented. Typical options to be considered include public ownership, private ownership, or
public ownership with contract operation.

V. Procurement. The approach to be used in the design and construction of the MRF is variable
It may be one of the following.
(1) The traditional architect engineer design and contractor construct process.
(2) The turnkey contracting process in which design and construction are performed by a single
firm; and
(3) A full-service contract in which a single contractor designs, constructs, and operates the
MRF.

5.2.2. Issues in the implementation and operation of MRFs

The principal engineering issues associated with the implementation of MRFs are related to (1)
siting, (2) environmental emissions, (3) public health and safety. And (4) economics. The
importance of these issues cannot be over-emphasized, and special attention must be devoted to
their resolution before proceeding with final plans for any proposed facility.

Table --- Health and safety issues in design and operation of MRFs
Component Safety issue

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Mechanical High-speed rotating a reciprocating parts
Exposed drive shafts and belts
High-intensity noise
Broken glass, sharp metal objects
Explosive hazards
Electrical Exposed wiring, switches, and controls
Ground faults
Architectural Ladders, stairways, and railings
Vehicle routing and visibility
Ergonomics if handpick conveyor belts
Lighting
Ventilation and air conditioning
Drainage
Operational Housekeeping practices
Safety training
Safety and first aid equipment
Hazardous materials Hazardous wastes from households and small-equanimity
generators
Biohazards such as blood products and pathogenic organisms
Personal safety Puncture proof, impermeable gloves; safety shoes, uniforms
equipment aye protection, noise protection

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 5.3. Waste transformation

1. Waste transformation through COMBUSTION

Purpose
 Volume and weight reduction for disposal
 Recover conversion products and energy
The organic fraction of MSW can be transformed through a variety of chemical and biological
processes

The most commonly used chemical transformation process is combustion

Combustion can reduce the original volume of the combustible fraction of MSW by 85-95%.
Weight reduction is 75%

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Fig. 4.1 A typical combustion plant
Process description
 The operation begins with the unloading of SW from collection trucks (1) into storage
pit (2).
 Overhead crane (3) is used to load waste into the feed (charging chute) (4) which
directs the waste to the furnace (5)
 Provision of air (Either under fire or over fire)
 Gases and particles rise into the combustion chamber (7) and burn at temperature of
1800 0F.
 Heat recovery and conversion to electricity
Air pollution control equipment included.
- Ammonia injection for NOx control (10)
- Dry scrubber for SO2 and acid gas control (11)
- Bag house (fabric filter) for particulate removal (12)
- An induced draft fan to secure adequate air flows
 End products are hot combustion gases and ash
 Cleaned gases are led through the stack dispersed to the atmosphere
 Ash and unburned material form the grates fall into a residual hopper
 Fly ash from scrubber and baghouse is mixed with the furnace ash and conveyed to
ash treatment facilities.
Combustion products
- Principal elements of SW – C H O N S
- Gaseous products derived from combustion of MSW, CO2, Water, flue gas,
Nitrogen, SO2
Types of Combustors
- Mass fired combustors (unseparated, commingled SW)
- Refuse derived fuel (RDF)
Issues in the implementation of Combustion facilities

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 - Sitting – can be near residential areas when designed properly
- Air emission
- Disposal of residues
- Liquid emissions
- Economics

2. Waste transformation through COMPOSTING

Composting is controlled decomposition, the natural breakdown process of organic
residues. Composting transforms raw organic waste materials into biologically stable,
humic substances that make excellent soil amendments. Compost is easier to handle than
manure and other raw organic materials, stores well and is odor-free.

Uses and markets for compost

As landfills reach their capacity and ban acceptance of organic wastes, Composting is an
increasingly viable means of organic waste management. Composting animal manures
can also be a solution to manure management on the farm. Most importantly, the final
product is a valuable soil resource. Compost can replace materials like peat and topsoil
as seed starters, container mixes, soil amendments, mulches and natural fertilizers in
commercial greenhouse production, farms, landscaping, turf and land remediation.

Table 1. Compost Markets and Use

Market Compost Use
Agronomic Soil amendment
Horticultural Seed starter, soil amendment, mulch, container mix, natural fertilizer
Urban/suburban Soil amendment, mulch
Landscaping
Turf Seed starter, soil amendment topsoil, natural fertilizer, mulch
Forestry Seed starter, soil amendment, topsoil, mulch
Land reclamation Soil amendment, mulch
Bioremediation
Land fill cover

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The Composting Process
Composting occurs through the activity of microorganisms naturally found in soils.
Under natural conditions, earth worms, nematodes and soil insects such as mites,
sowbugs, springtails, ants, and beetles do most of the initial mechanical breakdown of
organic materials into smaller particles. Under controlled conditions, composters break
down large particles through grinding or chopping. Once optimal physical conditions are
established, soil bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and protozoa colonize the organic material
and initiate the composting process. These mesosphilic organisms function best at warm
temperatures (50-1130F).

Figure 1. The composting process. Adapted from Rynk, 1992.

The active phase of composting

As temperatures in the compost pile increase, thermophiles (microorganisms that
function at temperatures above 1130F) take over. The temperature in the compost pile
typically increases rapidly to 130-1500F with in 24-72 hours of pile formation, which is
maintained for several weeks. This is called the active phase of composting)

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In the active “thermophilic” phase, temperatures are high enough to kill pathogens and
weed seeds and to break down phytotoxic compounds (organic compounds toxic to
plants) Common pathogens killed in this phase are Escherichia coli staphylococcus
aureus, Bacillus subtillus, and Clostridium Botulinium. During this phase, oxygen must
be replenished through passive or forced aeration, or turning the compost pile.

The curing phase

As the active composting phase subsides, temperatures gradually decline to around
1000F. The mesophilic microorganisms recolonize the pile, and the compost enters the
curing phase. The rate of oxygen consumption declines to the point where compost can
be stockpiled without turning. During curing, organic materials continue to decompose
and are converted to biologically. Stable humic substances---the mature or finished
compost. Curing is a critical and often neglected stage of composting. A long curing
phase is needed if the compost is unfinished or immature. This can happen if the pile has
received too little oxygen or too little or too much moisture. Immature composts can
contain high levels of organic acids, high C: N ratios, extreme pH values or high salt
contents, all of which can damage or kill plants if the compost is amended to container
mixes or the soil.

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Figure 2. Temperature changes in an average compost pile.

There is no clearly defined time for curing. Common practices in commercial composting
operations range from one to four months. Homeowner compost piles can cure for as
long as six to twelve months.

When is the compost finished?

There is no fixed time to produce finished compost. Duration depends on feedstocks,
composting method used and management. It can take as little as three months and as
long as two years. Compost is considered finished when the raw feedstocks are no longer
actively decomposing and are biologically and chemically stable. Some practioners refer
to finished compost as stable, referring to the state of biological activity. Maturity is
usually defined as the degree of humification (conversion of organic compounds to humic
substances which are most resistant to microbial breakdown). It is easier to measure
compost stability than maturity, so most composters measure temperature or compost
respiration (oxygen consumption). When the temperature at the center of the pile returns
to near-ambient levels and oxygen concentrations in the middle of the pile remain greater

94
than 10-15% for several days, compost is considered stable or finished. These
measurements should be taken when the compost pile has at least 50% moisture content
by weight.

Stability of compost can be tested by re-wetting the materials and observing if it heats up
again.
Most aerobic composting systems include a period of active composting generally from
21 to 60 days, and a period of curing generally from 6-24 months.

Problems with composting

The problems mostly cited for the failure of composting include
▪ High operation and management costs
▪ High transportation costs
▪ Poor quality product as a result of poor pre-sorting (presence of plastic and
glass
▪ Poor understanding of the composting process
▪ Competition from the chemical fertilizer-the concentration of key nutrients
such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are too low
▪ Unreliable collection systems.

Guidelines for sound composting practices

▪ The waste steam must be compost able
▪ Mechanical preprocessing of mixed solid waste dos does not work well
enough in most cases
▪ Manual pre- processing of mixed waste works on a small to medium scale for
the highly compost able waste stream in developing countries.
▪ Economic factors related to landfills, markets, and materials recovery must
support composting
▪ Separation and composting techniques and scale must be appropriate for the
input stream
General sitting consideration

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 ▪ Accessibility
▪ Availability of a buffer area between the site and nearby land users
▪ Appropriate soil for absorption or collection of leachates
▪ The possibility of placing the compost in a building, in cases where there is a
need to control climate or a greater need to buffer the surrounding
environment.

Aerobic vs anaerobic composting

Aerobic composting
▪ It is the most efficient form of decomposition and produces finished compost in
the shortest time.
There are four requirements for composting
1. Oxygen
2. Organisms, mainly bacteria
3. C:N ratio
4. Moisture content (40-60%)
Table --- Optimal conditions for rapid, aerobic composting (adapted from Rynk, 1992)
Condition Acceptable Ideal
C:N ratio of combined 20: І-40:1 25 - 35:1
feedstocks
Moisture content 40-65% 45 -60% by wt.
Available oxygen >5% >10 % or more
concentration
Feedstock particle size <І inch Variable
Bulk density 1000 lbs. / cu. yd. 1000 lbs. / cu. yd.
pH 5.5 – 9.0 6.5 – 8.0
Temperature 110 – 150 0F 130 – 140 0F
(43 – 66 0C) (54 – 60 0C)

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The supply of carbon (C) relative to Nitrogen (N) is an important quality of the compost
feedstock. It is defined as C:N ratio. The ideal starting range is C: N 25:1 – 35:1. As a
general rule, if the C:N ratio is greater than 20:1 microbes will use all the N for their own
metabolic needs. If the C:N ratio is lower than 20:1, they have surplus nitrogen and it can
be lost to the atmosphere as ammonia gas and cause odor problems.

Table: The C:N ratio of various materials

Type of feed stock C:N ratio
High carbon content
Corn stalks 60:1
Foliage 40-80:1
Dry leaves and weeds 90:1
Mixed MSW 50-60:1
Saw dust 500:1
High Nitrogen content
Cow manure 18:1
Food scrape 15:1
Grass dipping 12-20:1
Humus 10:1
Fresh leaves 30-40:1
None legume vegetable scraps 12:1
Source: US EPA, 1994
Green materials usually have lower C:N ratio than woody materials or dead leaves.
Animal wastes are more nitrogen rich than plant wastes. The complexity of the carbon
compounds also affects the rate at which organic wastes are broken down. The ease with
which compounds degrade generally follows the order:
Carbohydrates > Hemicellulose > Cellulose = Chitin > Lignin.
Fruits and vegetable wastes are easily degraded because they contain mostly simple
carbohudrates (sugars and starches). In contrast, leaves, stems, nutshells, bark and trees
decompose more slowly because they contain cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.

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End products of aerobic decomposition
▪ Steam, CO2 and Humus

Anaerobic composting
▪ Can consume a higher proportion of Nitrogen and lower proportion of Carbon
▪ It can also operate at higher moisture content
▪ End products are methane gas and decomposed OM
Operation
1. Composting works best with small particle sizes. Hence size reduction and
shredding are mandatory
2. Water must be added in many temperate climates while in rainy climates the
material requires drying. Frequent aeration, covering or the addition of paper or
woody materials to reduce moisture content.
3. Composting of wastewater, sludge and human fecal matter:
• Are high nitrogen materials
• Are high in moisture, sometimes actually liquid
• Composting can only work if they are combined with carbon sources
such as wood or paper and bulking agents such as chipped wood or
rubber, which are dry and maintain air spaces in the compost pile
4. To compost manure and animal wastes
• Manure are high in nitrogen and hence bedding materials which are
carbon source are required. So, manure bedded on straw, wood plant
wastes or paper are easy to compost.
• Most manure composting begins with a hot aerobic phase, which is
followed by slow vermicompost (worm culture) phase.
•

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Windrow composting
Windrow is the general term for an elongated pile of stacked raw materials. Piles need to
be small (3-6’) and porous enough for air to pass through them over a long period of
time.
A turned windrow is one that is mechanically turned using bucket loader, manure
spreader or windrow turner. Turning the windrow remixes the materials, allowing all raw
materials to be colonized by microorganisms in the warmer, more active internal part of
the compost pile. Oxygen is reintroduced, heat, water vapor and gases escape. The most
important part of turning the pile is the reestablishment of porosity and the ability of air
to get into the pile.

Passively aerated windrow systems (PAWS)

PAWS include perforated popes placed at the base of each windrow to promote
convective airflow throughout the pile. The key to this system is the thorough premixing
of feed stocks before placing on the perforated pipes. Also, windrows need to be
insulated with finished compost to ensure thermophilic temperatures reach the outer edge
of the windrow.

Forced aerated static piles

Forced aerated static piles are similar to PAWS piles, but blowers are installed at the ends
of perforated pipes or air ducts. Air flows can be adjusted by changing the frequency and
duration of the blower. Usually, blowers are set to turn on when the compost reaches a
maximum temperature (e.g.,150 0F)

Enclosed composting
Enclosed, or in—vessel, composting is mainly for the commercial compost producer who
needs more environmental control during the composting process. Some large-scale
composting operations use completely enclosed, in vessel-equipment to achieve
maximum control of temperature, oxygen and moisture. Some farms have also
successfully used the smaller, less expensive bin equipment. Equipment ranges from a

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simple enclosed bin, an agitated bin or reactor, to an entire building devoted to
composting

Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is worm composting; in which red worms transform decaying organic
matter into worm castings. The castings contain high concentrations of readily available
nutrients for plants. Vermicomposting doesn’t achieve high (thermophilic) temperature in
windrow and aerated static pile composting because the worms can’t survive the high
temperature.
However, research has shown that both pathogens and weed sees can be destroyed in
vermicomposting. Vermicomposting is usually done in containers and can be done
indoors and outdoors, allowing year-round composting. The two types of worms best
suited to worm composting are the red worms: Eisenia foetida (commonly known as red
wiggler, brandling, or manure worm) and Lumbricus rubellus, they are often found in the
liter layers of forests, manure piles and backyard compost heaps.

Environmental impacts of composting

Environmental benefits
• Return of nutrients to the soil
• Reduction of use of artificial fertilizers
• Replacement of landfill cover material-compost doesn’t need to be land filled.

Negative impacts
The negative impacts are attributed to either the technical approach used or to the
composition of the waste stream (especially when it is poorly aerated)
• Release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere
• Methane
• CO2
• VOC’s

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• Bacteria and fungi
• Formation of unpleasant odor
• Leachate production –High BOD load to surface water
▪ Release of heavy metals

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CHAPTER SIX

6. DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES

DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES
After all efforts on making use of SW either by recovery, reuse or recycling, something
must be done with the SW that are residual and of no further use. There are two
alternatives.
1. Disposal on or in the earths surface
2. Disposal under the sea or above the atmosphere
The most common method in use today is disposal on land. Based on experience, and
research done of different methods of disposal land disposal in the form of sanitary
landfill has proved to be the most economical and acceptable method thus far. Sanitary
landfill is an operation in which the waste to be disposed of are spread, compacted and
covered with a layer of soil at the end of each day’s operation. At the completion of the
disposal site a layer of 60cm or two feet of earth cover would be applied and compacted.
Open dumping as distinguished from sanitary land fill is still used in many parts of the
world more in our country. The planning analysis and design of modern land disposal
involves the application of a variety of scientific engineering and economic principles.

6.1. Advantages and disadvantages of SLF

Advantages
1. Economical if land is available
2. Initial investment is low when compared with other options
3. It is a complete disposal method compared to incineration and composting
4. It can receive all kinds of SW
5. It is flexible
6. Sub marginal land may be reclaimed for many uses
Disadvantages
1. In highly populated area suitable land may not found
2. Proper sanitary landfill standard must be adhered
3. If sited near to residential areas, it may provoke public opposition

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 4. It may need periodic maintenance
5. Special design and construction must be utilized and special equipment must be
purchased
6. Gases produced might be nuisance

6.2. Site selection for a SLF

Factors that must be considered in evaluating potential SW disposal site includes
1. Available land area
2. Impact of processing and resource recovery
3. Haul distance
4. Soil condition and topography
5. Geographic and hydrologic conditions
6. Surface water hydrology
7. Local environmental conditions
8. Potential ultimate use after completion
9. Local climatic conditions
Final selection of the disposal site is usually based on:
1. The results of the preliminary survey
2. The results of Engineering design
3. The results of const analysis
4. The results of Environmental Impact Assessment

І. Land availability
In selecting potential land for disposal site it is important to ensure that sufficient land
area is available. Although there is no fixed rule, it is desirable and cost effective to have
sufficient area to last for at least one year. For shorter periods the disposal operations
become considerably high especially with respect to:
▪ Site preparation
▪ Provision of auxiliary facilities
▪ Completion of final cover

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Estimation of required landfill area
Estimate the landfill area needed to handle one year’s MSW for a town of 100,000
people. Use the following data for computation.
1.1 Average discard = 50 mill tons of MSW per year
1.2 Density of SW in landfill = 600kg /m3
1.3 Cell lift (depth) = 3m
1.4 Assume that 20% of the cell lift is soil used for cover
Solution
First find the volume
Then find 80% of the volume
Finally find the area by dividing by the cell depth
Though this is the actual requirement additional land is required for
 Site preparation
 Access roads
 Utility access
Typically, the allowance varies from 20-40%

2. Impacts of resource recovery

In the initial assessment of potential disposal sites, it is important to project the
potentials of resource recovery or the extent of processing activities that are likely
to occur in the future and determine the impact on the quantity and conditions of
residual materials to be disposed of.
3. Soil conditions and topography
Because it is necessary to provide cover materials for each day’s land fill and a
final layer of cover after filling is completed, data must be obtained on the amount
of and characteristics of the soil in the area. Test boring has to be done whether
soil is available on site for off site to characterize the material adequacy.
4. Climate
In many locations, access to the site will be affected by weather conditions. If
cover materials have to be stock piled, roads may need to be paved. Wind and

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 wind directions must be considered to avoid blowing or flying papers and other
light weight SW.

5. Surface water hydrology

The local surface hydrology of the area is important in establishing existing
natural drainage and runoff characteristics that must be considered. Other
conditions of flooding must also be identified.

6. Local environmental conditions

It is possible to site landfill area in close proximity to both residential and
industrial development. Extremely good care must be taken in their operation if
they are to be environmentally acceptable with respect to noise, odor, dust,
vectors and flying papers and plastics control.

7. Ultimate Uses
Once the landfill is completed, a sizeable area of land becomes available for other
purposes. The ultimate use of the site affects the design if structures are to be built
on it. Footing location must be established and allowance made for them.

6.3. Land filling methods and operations

Various operation methods have been developed on the basis of work experience. The
methods used to fill dry areas are different from those used to fill wet areas. To use the
landfill area effectively, a plan of operation for the placement of SW must be prepared.
There are two methods.
1. Conventional methods for dry areas
2. Conventional methods for wet areas
Conventional methods for dry areas are principally classified as:
o Area method
o Trench method
o Depression method
1. Area method

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This is used when the terrain is unsuitable for excavating trenches in which to place SW.
Operationally, the waste is unloaded and sprayed in long narrow strips on the surface of
the land in a series of layers that vary in depth from 40-80cm. Each layer is compacted in
the filling progress within the course of the day until the thickness of the compacted
waste reach a ht varying from І.8 to 3 mts. The filling operation is often started by
building an earthen levy against which wastes are placed in thin layers and compacted.
The width over which the wastes are compacted varies from ц.4- 6m. depending on the
terrain. A completed lift including the cover material is called a cell. The length of
unloading area used each day should be such that the final layer of the fill is reached at
the end of the day.

2. The trench method

The trench method is ideally suited to areas where an ideal depth if cover material is
available at the site where the H2O table is not near the surface. SW are placed in
trenches varying from 30-120mts in length 90cm to 180cm in depth and 4.5 – 7.5 mts in
width. To start the process a portion of the trench is dug, and the dirt stack piled to form
an embankment behind the first trench. Wastes are then placed in the trench spread into
thin layers (18-24 inches) and compacted. The operation continues until the desired ht is
reached. The length of the trench used each day should be such that the final ht of fill is
reached at the end of each day work

3. The depression method

At locations where natural or artificial depressions exist it is often possible to use them
effectively on land filling operations. Canyons, dry burrows, pits and quarries have all
been used for the purpose. If a canyon floor is reasonably flat, the first fill may be carried
out using the trench method. Wastes are usually deposited on the canyon floor and from
there are pushed up against canyon face at a slop of 2 to І.
Pit and quarry landfill sites are almost always lower than the surrounding terrain and so
control of surface drainage is often the critical factor. Pit, quarry or canyons are filled
with multiple lifts and the method of operation is essentially the same. A key to
successful use of this is the availability of cover material

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Conventional methods for wet areas
Swamps, marshes, tidal areas, ponds, pits, generally are typical wet areas that have been
used as LF areas. Because of the problem associated with contamination of local ground
waters, the development of odor, and structural stability, the design of LF in such areas
requires careful and special attention.
Recently in USA because of concern over the possibility of GW contamination by both
leachate and gases and the development of odor, direct filling of the wet sites has to be
drained and the bottom sealed with clay or other appropriate sealant.

Fig. ---The Secure landfill

6.4. Reactions in SLF

To plan and design SLF effectively, it is important to understand what takes place within
a landfill after filling has been completed. . SW placed in a SLF undergoes a number of
simultaneous biological physical and chemical changes. Among the more important are:
 Biological decay of OM (both aerobic and anaerobic)

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  Chemical oxidation of waste material
 Escape of gases from the fill
 Movement of liquids caused by differential heads
 Dissolving and leaching of organic and inorganic materials by water and
leachate moving through the fill
 Movement of dissolved materials by concentration gradients and osmosis
 Uneven settlement caused by consolidation of materials into voids

Gases in Landfills
Gases found in landfill include Air, NH3, CO2, CO, H, H2S, CH4, N, O2.
CO2 and CH4 are the principal gases produced from anaerobic decomposition of the
organic SW. The diagram below provides techniques of abstracting and controlling
landfill gases.

Decomposition in landfill
The rate of decomposition and stabilization of landfill depends on such factors as:

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 ▪ Composition of the waste
▪ Degree of compaction
▪ Amount of moisture present
▪ Presence / Absence of inhibiting materials
▪ The rate of water movement
▪ Temperature under which the LF is operated

The organic material present in SW can be divided into three major classifications
1. Those that contain cellulose or derivatives of cellulose
2. Those that do not contain cellulose
3. Plastics, Rubber, Leather
Cellulose is a major constituent of organic wastes such as paper, rugs, string, straw, and
plant tissues. With the exception of plastics, the principal non cellulose organics are
proteins, carbohydrates and fats. With these wastes, the principal end products often-
anaerobic decomposition are:
1. Partially stabilized organic material
2. Intermediate volatile organic acids
3. Various gases (CO2, Methane, Nitrogen, Hydrogen)
Under normal conditions the rate of decomposition as measured by gas production
reaches a peak within 2 years and then slowly goes down continuing for periods up to 25
years in some cases.

The decomposition of landfills can be thought of as a four-stage process.

1. Aerobic phase: when wastes are placed in a landfill there is enough entrained
Oxygen to allow aerobic decomposition to take place for the first few days.
Oxygen levels drop, and at the end of this phase anaerobic conditions begin.
2. Acid Phase: During this phase anaerobic conditions prevail and a two-step
process begins.
First, hydrolyzing-fermentative organisms produce enzymes that break down
complex organics such as cellulose and starch into simple products which can be
fermented into hydrogen, carbon dioxide, fatty acids and alcohols.

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 In the second step, those products are converted by bacteria, called acetones into
simpler organic acids, typified by acetic acid (CH3COOH). As these acids form,
the pH of the leachate drops, which can allow heavy metals to be solubilized.
The CO2 concentration in the waste rises and small amounts of hydrogen gas (H2)
are produced.

3. Methanogenesis, unsteady: Another group of microorganisms, called methane

formers or methanogens convert the organic acids into CH4 and CO2. The pH
begins to return toward more neutral conditions and the release of heavy metals
into leachate declines.

Figure ---- Decomposition and landfill gas production

4. Methanogenesis steady: The duration of each phase depends on the availability

of moisture and nutrients, but typically on the order of a year or so after a landfill

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 cell is completed the generation rate of CH4 and CO2 settles down into neatly
equal percentages, which is the characteristic of phase IV. After many years, per
haps several decades, the decomposition process and the rate of production of
methane decline significantly.

Under the assumption that CO2, CH 4, and NH 3, are the principal gases liberated
during decomposition, an equation that describes the complete decomposition of
organic materials under anaerobic conditions is given by the following:

Ca Hb Oc Nd + nH2O mCH4 + sCO2 + dNH3

Where:
n= (4a-b-2c +3d)/4
m= (4a +b -2c-3d)/8
s=(4a-b+2c+3d)/8

Estimating the methane potential of discards

It is important to consider the following facts to calculate the methane potential of a
solid waste.

Niessen (1977) has developed estimates for elemental analysis (ultimate analysis) as
follows.
Element C H O N Other Total
Dry 44.17 5.91 42.50 0.73 6.69 100%
mass%

▪ 67.3% of typical as delivered MSW discard is paper, Yard trimmings, food

wastes, textiles and wood which are decomposable
▪ Of all these decomposable wastes 32.3% is moisture
▪ The HHV of methane is 890kj /mole

Q.1 Find the chemical formula for C.H.O.N portion of the decomposables

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Q.2 Find the energy content of methane that would be generated per kg of discards

Solution

67.3
І. Amount of decomposables = 1000g X = 673g.
100
32.2% is moisture
Hence dry mass = (І-0.323) x 673 = 456.1g/ kg
Using this data and referring Niessens percentage table, calculate the mass of each
element as follows

Element At.wt %dry mass Mass (g)

C 12 44.17 0.4417 x 456.1 = 201.50
H І 5.91 0.0591 x 456.1 = 27.0
O 16 42.50 0.4250 x 456.1 = 193.90
N 14 0.73 0.0073 x 456.1 = 3.34

Ca Hb Oc Nd = 425.7g/mole
Now use atomic weights of individual elements to write the molecular formula
C = 12g/ mole x a mole = 201.50g
201.5
 a= = 16.8 mole
12

Similarly
H = 1g /mole x b mole = 27.0g b = 27.0mole
O = 16g /mole x c mole = 193.90g c = 12.1mole
N = 14g /mole x d mole = 3.34g d = 0.24mole
So, the chemical formula is
C16.6 H27.0 O12.1 NO.24

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We can now write the chemical equation that describes the complete decomposition of
this material
Ca Hb Oc Nd + nH2O mCH4 + sCO2 + dNH3
Where
n = (4a-b-2c+3d) / 4
= (4 x 16.8 -27.0-2 x 12.1 + 3 x 0.24) /4
n = 4.17
m =8.65
s = 8.14
So complete decomposition can be described by:
C16.6 H27.0 O12.1 NO.24 + 4.17H2O 8.65CH4 + 8.14CO2 + 0.24NH3

So, notice that:

1. Landfill gas is about half methane (51%) and half CO2 (48%)
2. One mole of dried discard yields 8.65 mole of methane
3. At 890kj/ mole HHV of CH4 released equals 8.65 mole x 890kj /mole = 7698kj

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