EM 4

GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION
SYSTEM

9/4/2025
MA. ANELI A. AUGUIS, M.Sc.
1
 GEOSPATIAL DATA TYPES AND
FORMATS

LECTURE 3 Vector and Raster Data Types

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 Geospatial data can be represented in two primary forms:
vector and raster
Understanding these data types is fundamental to using GIS effectively, as
each type has its strengths and is suited for different kinds of analysis and
representation.

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3. Data
• refer to a spatially referenced dataset, typically
composed of two types - geometric data and
attribute data
• There are also two kinds of data structures -
vector and raster

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• geometric represents the spatial
component of a geographic feature (e.g,
shape and position)
• are two or three-dimensional coordinates
that define the spatial distribution of
points, lines, and areas

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 • attribute describes the properties of a
feature (e.g color, size, information)
• descriptive information about the
spatial data

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 vector graphics
are comprised of

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vertices and
paths
Vector Data

• There are three basic

symbol types - points,
lines and polygons 7
 - Vector data is represented
using points, lines, and polygons
to define features on the Earth's

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surface.
• Each vector feature can have
associated attribute data that provides
Vector Data

information about the feature. This data

type is well-suited for representing
discrete features with definite
boundaries and is commonly used in
applications requiring precision, such as
mapping roads, property boundaries,
and forest stands.
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 Points: Point is a discrete location on the surface of the planet,
represented by an x-y coordinate pair. Each point on the map is
created by latitude and longitude coordinates and is stored as an
individual record in a file. No linear or area dimensions but simply
define the location of a physical feature.
Locations of individual trees, wildlife sightings, or sampling points in a forest.

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Each point can have attributes like species type, height, and health status.

Lines: Line (or arc) data is used to represent linear features having
one dimension and, therefore can only be used to measure length
from the starting to ending point.
Roads, rivers, or trails within a forest. Lines can represent pathways, water
flow, or even migration routes of animals.

Polygons: Has two dimensions that can be used to measure the

area and perimeter of a geographic feature. It is used to represent
areas such as the boundary of a city (on a large-scale map), lake,
forest, country, etc.
Vector
Data

Boundaries of forest areas, protected zones, or land use categories.

Polygons are used to delineate areas for specific management practices or
conservation efforts. 10
 made up of pixels (also
referred to as grid cells)

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usually regularly spaced and
square

look pixelated because each

Raster

pixel has its own value or

Data

class
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 Raster data is represented as a grid
of cells or pixels, each with a
specific value that represents
information such as temperature,

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elevation, or land cover type.
Raster Data

Raster data is ideal for representing

continuous data and analyzing
environmental variables that
change across a landscape, like
temperature gradients, elevation, or
satellite images.
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• Raster models are useful for storing data that varies
continuously

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Types of Rasters
• Continuous rasters are grid cells with gradually changing data
(e.g. digital elevation model or DEM, temperature)
• Discrete rasters have distinct themes or categories (e.g. land
cover)

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 Satellite Imagery: Images from satellites are stored
as raster data, with each pixel representing a specific
area on the ground and containing information like
vegetation cover, moisture content, or thermal

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properties.
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs): These are raster
datasets that represent the elevation of the land
surface, useful for terrain analysis, watershed
Raster Data

mapping, and modeling forest growth.

Land Cover Maps: Classifying different types of land

use (e.g., forest, agricultural land, urban areas) into
raster format for analysis of land use changes over
time.
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What are the advantages of using
vector models?
• graphical output is generally more
aesthetically pleasing
• gives higher geographic accuracy because
data isn’t dependent on grid size
• topology rules can help data integrity
• network analysis and proximity operations

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What are the disadvantages of using
vector?
• Continuous data is poorly stored and
displayed as vectors
• Any feature edits require updates on
topology
• With a lot of features, vector
manipulation algorithms are
complex

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What are the advantages of using
raster?
• raster grid format is the data model for
satellite data and other remote sensing
data
• raster positions are simple
• Each cell position can be inferred with
cell size and a bottom-left coordinate
• Data analysis is usually quick and easy to
perform
• Quantitative analysis is intuitive

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What are the disadvantages of using
raster?
• cell size contributes to graphic quality; hence, it can have a
pixelated look and feel
• linear features and paths are difficult to display
• cannot create network datasets or perform topology rules
• As resolution increases, the grid size decreases and comes
at a cost for speed of processing and data storage

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 Shapefile (.shp)
Vector GIS Formats KML/KMZ (.kml/.kmz):

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GDB (File Geodatabase):

MDB (Personal Geodatabase):

Layer (LYR):

OpenStreetMap (OSM):
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Vector GIS Formats
1. SHP (Shapefile)
• The most common geospatial file type in all commercial and
open-source GIS software.
• becomes the industry standard
• Three mandatory files - SHP is the feature geometry, SHX is the
shape index position, and DBF is the attribute data
• optional but are not necessary - PRJ is the projection system,
XML is the associated metadata, SBN is the spatial index for
optimizing queries, and SBX helps with loading times

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Vector GIS Formats
2. KMZ/KML (Keyhole Markup Language)
• is an XML-based format and is primarily used for Google Earth
• KML was developed by Keyhole Inc, which was later acquired
by Google in 2004
• KMZ (KML-Zipped) is a compressed version of the file
• the longitude and latitude components (decimal degrees) are
defined by the World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84)

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Vector GIS Formats
3. GDB (File Geodatabase)
• ESRI created it to be a container for storing multiple attribute
tables, vector, and raster datasets
• offers structural and performance advantages
• has 1TB of file storage
• Within a geodatabase, shapefiles are referred to as feature
classes

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Vector GIS Formats
4. MDB (Personal Geodatabase)
• manages multiple attribute tables, vectors and raster datasets
• is a Microsoft Access-based personal GDB
• has 2GB file storage

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Vector GIS Formats
5. LYR (Layer)
• are used for displaying a set of symbology in a map
• it doesn’t contain the geographic data itself, it simply specifies
how data will be displayed
• can represent polygons, polylines, points or raster datasets

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Vector GIS Formats
6. OSM (OpenStreetMap)
• is the largest crowdsourced GIS data project on Earth
• OSM is an XML-based file format, and the more efficient,
smaller PBF (Protocolbuffer Binary Format) is an alternative to
the XML-based format
• data interoperability in QGIS can load native OSM files

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Raster GIS Formats
ESRI Grid

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GeoTIFF (Geographic Tagged Image
File Format)

JPEG 2000 Joint Photographic

Experts Group

ASCII (American Standard Code for

Information Interchange)
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Raster GIS Formats
1. ESRI Grid
• best option if you wanted to add attribute data to a raster file
• However, you can only add attributes to integer grids
• attributes are stored in a value attribute table (VAT)
- one record for each unique value in the grid,
and the count representing the number of cells
• two types of ESRI grid - integer and floating point grids

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Raster GIS Formats
2. GeoTIFF (Geographic Tagged Image File Format)
• has become an industry image standard file for GIS and
satellite remote sensing applications
• can be accompanied by other files
TFW is the world file that is required to give your raster
geolocation.
XML is your metadata,
AUX stores projections and other information

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Raster GIS Formats
3. JPEG 2000 (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
• typically have a JP2 file extension and can give an option for
lossy or lossless compression
• is an optimal choice for background imagery because of lossy
compression
• can achieve a compression ratio of 20:1

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• Lossless compression retains raster values
during compression and file size is also reduced
(e.g. LZ77).

• Lossy compression reduces file size by

permanently eliminating certain information
especially redundant information (e.g. JPEG).

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Raster GIS Formats
4. ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange)
• uses a set of numbers between 0 and
255 for information storage and
processing
• ASCII text files store GIS data in a
delimited format - this could be a
comma, space or tab delimited format

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Multi-Temporal GIS Formats
2. GRIB (GRIdded Binary or General
Regularly distributed) Information in Binary form)
• commonly used in meteorology to store historical and
forecast weather data
• has advantages of self-description, flexibility, and expandability
• GRIB is standardized by the World Meteorological
Organization’s Commission and has been in operation since
1985

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Multi-Temporal GIS Formats
3. HDF (Hierarchical Data Format)
• designed by the National Center for Supercomputing
Applications (NCSA) to manage extremely large and complex
scientific data
• a versatile data model with no limit on the size of data objects in
the collection
• ArcGIS is capable of reading HDF4 and HDF5 data

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Files Associated with a Shapefile
• Mandatory
.shp • Description: This file contains the actual geometry data of the
features (points, lines, or polygons). It defines the spatial
(Shapefile Format) representation of the vector data, such as the vertices of polygons.
Without this file, there is no spatial data to display or analyze.

• Mandatory
.shx • Description: This is an index file that stores the offset of the feature
geometry in the .shp file. It allows the GIS software to quickly locate
(Shape Index Format) and display the individual features from the .shp file, improving
performance when rendering maps or accessing specific records.

• Mandatory
• Description: The .dbf file stores attribute data in a tabular format,
.dbf with each row corresponding to a feature (e.g., a polygon) in the .shp
file. This file contains descriptive data (e.g., forest type, area, tree
(Attribute Data File) species) and allows users to perform queries and analyses based on
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 Files Associated with a Shapefile
.prj • Optional but Highly Recommended
• Description: This file contains information about the coordinate system and
(Projection map projection used by the shapefile. Having a .prj file ensures that the
shapefile aligns correctly with other spatial data sets and is essential for
Format) accurate geographic analysis and map production.

.qix • Optional
• Description: This file is used to speed up spatial queries by creating a spatial
(Quadtree Spatial index. It is particularly useful for large shapefiles with numerous features, as
it optimizes spatial searches, making data display and query operations
Index) more efficient.

.sbn and .sbx • Optional

• Description: These files are additional spatial index files used by certain GIS
(Spatial Index software (like ESRI products) to enhance the performance of spatial queries
and map rendering. They are automatically generated when a shapefile is
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 Files Associated with a Shapefile
• Optional
.xml • Description: This file contains metadata information about the shapefile,
including its creation date, author, description, and other data
(Metadata File) documentation. Metadata is crucial for understanding the source,
accuracy, and context of the data.

. cpg
• Optional
• Description: This file specifies the character encoding used by the .dbf file,
ensuring that special characters and non-English alphabets are displayed
(Code Page File) correctly. It is particularly useful for international datasets.

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Mandatory vs. Optional Files
Mandatory files Optional Files:
• .shp: Contains the geometry • .prj: Highly recommended for coordinate system
of the spatial features. information but not strictly necessary for
• .shx: Provides an index to the shapefile functionality.
geometry. • .qix, .sbn, .sbx: Useful for performance
• .dbf: Stores attribute data optimization in large datasets but not essential
associated with each feature. for basic shapefile use.
• .xml: Provides metadata, helpful for
documentation and data management.
• .cpg: Ensures correct character encoding for
attribute data, especially in multilingual
contexts.
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Practical Considerations
File Management: When sharing or
transferring shapefiles, it is important to Projection Consistency: Always include a
include all mandatory files (.shp, .shx, .prj file to maintain consistency across
.dbf) and any optional files that are different GIS projects. This helps avoid
relevant (.prj for projection information). spatial misalignment when combining
Missing files can lead to errors or data from various sources.
incomplete data representation.

Metadata Documentation: Maintaining a

Data Performance: For large datasets
.xml metadata file is good practice,
with extensive spatial queries, consider
especially for datasets that will be shared
generating spatial index files (.qix, .sbn,
or used in research. It helps ensure data
.sbx) to enhance performance.
quality and reproducibility.

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Sources of Geospatial Data
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 Remotely Sensed Data
•Aerial Photography •Satellite Imagery

The process of capturing images of •Satellite images are photographs or

the Earth's surface from an elevated digital images of the Earth's surface
position, typically using aircraft, captured by sensors aboard satellites
drones, or balloons. orbiting the planet.
Captured from aircraft (airplane) or •Provides large-scale, high-altitude
drones, often used for high-resolution views of the Earth's features.
mapping and topographic analysis. •Provided by satellites like Landsat,
Sentinel, MODIS, and commercial
providers (e.g., Maxar, Planet). Used
for land cover classification,
vegetation analysis, and climate
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 Aerial
Photography

• Captured from airplanes or drones

• Aerial photos provide high-resolution
images useful for detailed mapping and
monitoring. Aerial photography is often
used for forest health assessments,
mapping tree canopy cover, and
identifying individual tree species.
• Example: Drone-based aerial surveys are
used to map tree species composition
and detect signs of pest infestation in a
forest area.
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 Field Surveys

• Ground-based data collection involves

measuring and recording geographic
features directly in the field using tools
like GPS devices, total stations, and
survey instruments. Field surveys provide
accurate, detailed data often used to
validate and calibrate remote sensing
data.
• Example: Foresters conduct field surveys
to collect data on tree species, diameter,
and health status, which is then used to
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 •Total Stations and Theodolites – Used
in land surveying to capture precise
distances and angles.

•LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)

•A remote sensing method that uses light
in the form of a pulsed laser to measure
ranges (variable distances) to the Earth.
•These light pulses—combined with other
data recorded by the airborne system —
generate precise, 3D information about the
shape of the Earth and its surface
characteristics.
•Produces highly accurate elevation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_biFu1dFsU
models, used in forestry, hydrology, and
urban planning.
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GIS Data
•Existing Spatial Databases –
•Manually Digitized Maps –
Organizations such as the U.S.
Historical maps and paper-based
Geological Survey (USGS), National
surveys converted into digital
Aeronautics and Space Administration
format.
(NASA), and the Food and Agriculture
•E.g. Cadastral survey
Organization (FAO) maintain
extensive GIS databases containing
vector and raster data that are
valuable resources for various
application.
•National Mapping and Resource
Information Authority (NAMRIA) -
The central agency for geospatial data
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 Existing Data
Repositories and
Online Databases
• Many organizations and government
agencies provide access to geospatial
data through online platforms.
• E.g., USGS Earth Explorer, NASA’s Earth
Data, and the European Space Agency’s
(ESA) Copernicus Open Access Hub.
• Downloading global land cover data from
the Copernicus Land Monitoring Service
for analyzing forest cover changes across
different regions.
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 Crowdsourced Data
and Volunteered
Geographic
Information (VGI):
• Platforms like OpenStreetMap and other
citizen science initiatives allow
individuals to contribute geographic
data. This data can be valuable for
updating maps and gaining local insights.
• Example: Using crowdsourced data to
map hiking trails within a forest reserve or
to report observations of invasive
species.
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e.g. Natural Earth Data
Natural Earth Data is a free, publicly available cartographic dataset that
provides high-quality vector and raster data for global mapping
applications. It is widely used in GIS, remote sensing, and cartography due to
its ease of use, consistency, and well-organized data structure.
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USGS Earth Explorer
• one of the largest free sources of data
• USGS Earth Explorer is an online platform developed by the United States
Geological Survey (USGS) for searching, viewing, and downloading a wide range of
remote sensing and geospatial datasets. It provides access to satellite imagery,
aerial photography, and elevation data for use in GIS, remote sensing, and
environmental research. 55
• OpenStreetMap is a collaborative, open-source mapping platform
that provides free geographic data worldwide. It is often referred to
as the "Wikipedia of Maps" because it is crowdsourced, meaning
users contribute to updating and refining the map data. OSM is
widely used in GIS, urban planning, disaster management, and
environmental studies.

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• FAO Geonetwork is an open-source geospatial data platform
developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
United Nations. It provides access to a wide range of datasets related
to agriculture, forestry, fisheries, land use, climate, and natural
resources.

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NASA’s Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC)
• One of NASA’s Distributed Active Archive Centers (DAACs), specializing in
integrating remote sensing data with socioeconomic and environmental
information. It is managed by the Center for International Earth Science
Information Network (CIESIN) at Columbia University.
• gridded population of the world

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• UNEP Environmental Data Explorer
• The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Environmental Data
Explorer was the main database for environmental statistics, providing
global datasets on a wide range of environmental topics. However, it has
been discontinued, and UNEP has shifted its focus to newer platforms like
the UNEP Data and Maps portal and the Global Environment Outlook
(GEO) data platform.
• Holds more than 500 variables such as freshwater, climate and health.
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• NASA Earth Observations (NEO) is a freely accessible
platform that provides global satellite imagery and
environmental data for scientific research, education, and
decision-making. It is managed by NASA’s Goddard Space
Flight Center (GSFC).
• 50+ global datasets, mostly climate-related
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• Sentinel is a series of Earth observation satellites developed by the
European Space Agency (ESA) as part of the Copernicus program,
aimed at providing free and open access to global environmental
monitoring data. The Sentinel satellites carry a variety of instruments
to capture high-resolution imagery and data for diverse applications,
including land use, vegetation monitoring, oceanography, and
climate change.
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• Sentinel-1 (Radar Imaging; Radio Detection and Ranging)
• Sentinel-2 (Optical Imaging)
• Sentinel-3 (Ocean and Land Monitoring)
• Sentinel-4 (Air Quality Monitoring)
• Sentinel-5 (Atmospheric Monitoring)
• Sentinel-6 (Global Ocean Monitoring)
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 SPATIAL REFERENCE
SYSTEMS AND MAP
PROJECTIONS

LECTURE 4 Understanding coordinate systems and map projections

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