Chapter 1: Introduction to Chemistry
Definition:
Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, structure, composition, and the changes it
undergoes during chemical reactions.
Branches of Chemistry:
Analytical Chemistry: Identification and quantification of substances.
Physical Chemistry: Studies the physical principles governing chemical systems.
Organic Chemistry: Study of carbon-containing compounds.
Inorganic Chemistry: Study of non-carbon compounds, metals, minerals.
Biochemistry: Chemical processes in living organisms.
Industrial Chemistry: Application of chemical processes in industry.
Key Concepts:
Matter is made up of atoms, the smallest units of elements.
Elements: substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
Compounds: substances composed of two or more elements in fixed ratios.
Mixtures: physical combination of substances; can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Chapter 2: Atomic Structure
Subatomic Particles:
Protons (p⁺): positive charge, in nucleus, mass ≈ 1 amu.
Neutrons (n⁰): neutral, in nucleus, mass ≈ 1 amu.
Electrons (e⁻): negative charge, orbit nucleus, negligible mass.
Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in an atom.
Mass Number (A): Protons + neutrons.
Isotopes: Atoms of same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Electron Configuration:
Electrons occupy orbitals: s, p, d, f.
Aufbau principle: electrons fill lower-energy orbitals first.
Hund’s rule: electrons occupy orbitals singly before pairing.
Pauli exclusion principle: no two electrons can have same four quantum numbers.
Chapter 3: Chemical Bonding
Types of Chemical Bonds:
1. Ionic Bonding: transfer of electrons (e.g., NaCl).
2. Covalent Bonding: sharing of electrons (e.g., H₂O).
3. Metallic Bonding: delocalized electrons in metals.
Polarity:
Polar molecules: unequal sharing of electrons → dipole moment.
Nonpolar molecules: equal sharing, no dipole.
Intermolecular Forces (IMFs):
London Dispersion: weak, temporary dipoles.
Dipole-Dipole: attraction between polar molecules.
Hydrogen Bonding: H attached to N, O, or F, strongly attracted to lone pair.
Chapter 4: Chemical Reactions
Types of Reactions:
Combination: A + B → AB
Decomposition: AB → A + B
Single Replacement: A + BC → AC + B
Double Replacement: AB + CD → AD + CB
Combustion: Hydrocarbon + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
Stoichiometry:
Mole concept: 1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro’s number).
Calculations based on balanced equations: moles, mass, volume of gases (ideal gas law:
PV = nRT).
Energy Changes:
Exothermic: releases heat (ΔH < 0)
Endothermic: absorbs heat (ΔH > 0)
Chapter 5: Thermodynamics
Laws of Thermodynamics:
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed (conservation).
2. Entropy of an isolated system always increases.
3. Absolute zero unattainable.
Enthalpy (ΔH): heat change at constant pressure.
Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG): ΔG = ΔH – TΔS; predicts spontaneity.
Chapter 6: Acid-Base Chemistry
Definitions:
Arrhenius: Acid → H⁺, Base → OH⁻
Brønsted-Lowry: Acid → proton donor, Base → proton acceptor
Lewis: Acid → electron pair acceptor, Base → electron pair donor
pH and pOH:
pH = –log[H⁺]; pOH = –log[OH⁻]
pH + pOH = 14
Buffers:
Solutions that resist pH change.
Made of weak acid + conjugate base or weak base + conjugate acid.
Chapter 7: Organic Chemistry Basics
Hydrocarbons:
Alkanes: CnH2n+2, saturated, single bonds.
Alkenes: CnH2n, unsaturated, double bonds.
Alkynes: CnH2n–2, unsaturated, triple bonds.
Aromatic: benzene rings, resonance stabilized.
Functional Groups:
Alcohols (-OH), Aldehydes (-CHO), Ketones (C=O), Carboxylic Acids (-COOH),
Amines (-NH2), Esters (-COO-).
Reactions:
Substitution, Addition, Elimination, Oxidation, Reduction.
Polymerization: monomers → polymers (e.g., ethylene → polyethylene).
Chapter 8: Laboratory Techniques
Safety:
Always wear goggles, gloves, lab coat.
Handle acids, bases, and solvents carefully.
Key Techniques:
Titration: Determine unknown concentration using a standard solution.
Distillation: Separation of liquids based on boiling points.
Filtration: Separate solids from liquids.
Chromatography: Separate mixture components.
Spectroscopy: Identify chemical compounds (UV-Vis, IR, NMR).
References
1. Zumdahl, S. S., & Zumdahl, S. A. (2020). Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach. 3rd
Edition. Cengage Learning.
2. Brown, T. L., et al. (2018). Chemistry: The Central Science. 14th Edition. Pearson.
3. McMurry, J. (2016). Organic Chemistry. 9th Edition. Cengage Learning.
