Map Class 03

Previous Class Topic

• Covered major parts of Asia and Europe.

• Began an overview of Africa, focusing on key countries and significant geopolitical issues.

Africa: Comprehensive Regional Overview

Northern Africa and the Mediterranean Coast

• Five countries align along the Mediterranean coastline: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and
Egypt (referred to collectively by the mnemonicMETAL).

• Western Sahara is claimed by Morocco but considered independent by some organizations;

multiple international disputes persist regarding its status.

• The African Union (AU) recognizes Western Sahara as independent, while Morocco has
substantial support from Western and EU nations to annex it.

Red Sea and Horn of Africa

• Coastal countries along the Red Sea include Sudan, Egypt, Eritrea, and Djibouti (SEED).

• The Horn of Africa comprises Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Djibouti (also sometimes
remembered asSEED).

• Ethiopia has experienced internal strife, notably involving the Tigray region and other ethnic
groups in the Amhara and Oromia areas.

• Djibouti remains strategically important, hosting military bases of various foreign powers.

Southern and South-Central Africa

• Along the Indian Ocean, from Somalia to South Africa, the mnemonicSKTEMSrefers to
Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, and South Africa; adjacent smaller nations include
Lesotho and Eswatini.

• Namibia and Botswana sit inland above South Africa. Namibia’s Namib Desert and
Botswana’s Kalahari Desert exemplify extremely arid conditions caused by cold ocean
currents (Benguela) and high-pressure belts.

• Namibia is notable for its uranium and diamond deposits. Botswana is also mineral-rich but
contains some of the driest terrain in the Kalahari.

West Africa and Gulf of Guinea

• Countries along and adjacent to the Gulf of Guinea extend from Angola in the south to
Senegal in the northwest.

• Significant sub-regions include:

• Angola: Rich in oil reserves, capital at Luanda.

• Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC): Vast mineral resources (especially cobalt
and copper), enveloped by frequent conflict.
 • Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville): Associated with the Brazzaville Declaration on
Peatland Conservation.

• Gabon: Rich forest cover, part of the equatorial rainforest region.

• Equatorial Guinea: A small coastal state; capital region in Malabo.

• Cameroon: Shares dense rainforest territory, close to Nigeria’s border.

• Nigeria: Africa’s most populous country, known for the Niger River Delta; extensive
conflicts have occurred, plus dam failures.

• Further west lie Benin, Togo, Ghana, Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire), Liberia, Sierra Leone,
Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, and Senegal. Many experience challenges such as poverty, conflict,
and resource management issues.

• The Sahel region comprises Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and Chad at the southern belt of the
Sahara. Desertification is a growing threat, prompting initiatives like theGreat Green Wall.

Landlocked Nations and Regional Conflicts

• South Sudan lies below Sudan and was formed after separation in 2011.

• Burkina Faso sits landlocked among Sahel nations, grappling with security issues stemming
from insurgent violence.

• Mali and Burkina Faso have faced severe internal conflicts, exacerbated by jihadist groups
and coups.

• Sudan’s border with Ethiopia and Eritrea is an ongoing hotspot due to territorial disputes
like Al-Fashaga.

North Africa, the Arab League, and Recent Developments

• The Arab League comprises 22 Arab-speaking nations across North Africa and West Asia.

• Countries in North Africa—particularly the “Maghreb” region of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,

Libya, and Mauritania—are also predominantly Arab League members.

• Sudan, Somalia, Djibouti, and Comoros form part of this bloc in East Africa.

• Recent events:

• Somalia received authorization for renewed peacekeeping missions from the UN

Security Council.

• A “Cairo Call to Action” emerged from the World Urban Forum 2024 in Egypt,
emphasizing sustainable urbanization.

• Zimbabwe introduced a gold-backed currency called theZIG, addressing

hyperinflation.

Assignment-Related Highlights for Africa and Europe

• Snake Island: Located in the Black Sea, previously a focus of contention.

• Basque Independence: Associated with Spain.

 • First Country to Shut Down Coal-Fired Plants: The United Kingdom.

• Headquarters of the African Union: Ethiopia (Addis Ababa).

• Revolution of Smiles/Hirak Movement: This occurred in Algeria.

• Two-Time Nobel Prize Laureate: Marie Curie, originally from Poland.

• Gold-Backed Currency: Zimbabwe’s new initiative.

• Gotland Island tensions: Belongs to Sweden, important in Baltic Sea relations.

The Americas: Discovery, Colonization, and Modern Overview

Historical Context and European Exploration

• Before the 15th century, much of the Western world remained unaware of the Americas.

• The fall of Constantinople prompted explorers—particularly from Spain and Portugal—to

seek alternate routes to Asia.

• Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope). Vasco da Gama
then sailed onward to India.

• Christopher Columbus reached the Caribbean in 1492, mistakenly deeming it a new route to
India. Amerigo Vespucci recognized the landmass as a separate continent, hence “the
Americas.”

North America: Key Nations

Canada

Second-largest country by area, with extensive coastlines on the Pacific, Atlantic, and Arctic Oceans.
The Hudson Bay cuts deeply into its interior, and myriad Arctic islands form its northern extremity.
Capital: Ottawa. Main population centers lie in its southern provinces. Shared border with the USA is
the longest land border in the world.

United States of America

Composed of 50 states, with 48 contiguous states plus Alaska and Hawaii. Capital: Washington, D.C.,
site of significant federal institutions such as the White House and the Pentagon. Wildfires have
frequently impacted parts of California, driven by dry Santa Ana winds and climate factors.

Mexico

Bordered by the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific; holds the Baja California Peninsula, separated from
the mainland by the Gulf of California. Capital: Mexico City, one of the world’s highest major cities,
historically tied to Aztec and Mayan civilizations. Recently elected its first female president, Claudia
(referenced as a noted leadership shift).

Central America and the Caribbean

• Seven mainland countries in Central America: Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras,

Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama.

• Northernmost are Guatemala and Belize, bordering Mexico.

• Panama adjoins Colombia, forming the land link to South America.

 • The Panama Canal connects the Atlantic and Pacific; Nicaragua has also explored canal
plans.

• A sub-region known as the Northern Triangle (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador) faces high
poverty and migration challenges.

• Costa Rica and Panama are sometimes labeled as tax havens.

• Gardi Sugdub: An island of Panama threatened by rising sea levels, prompting relocation
efforts.

Caribbean/Antilles

• The “Greater Antilles” includes Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.

• The “Lesser Antilles” contains numerous smaller islands, including Trinidad and Tobago,
Barbados, and others.

• West Indies: A collective of separate island nations known for forming a single cricket team.

• Trinidad and Tobago: First Caribbean nation to adopt India’s UPI payment system, also
recently declared states of emergency during social unrest.

South America

• Spans from Colombia down to Argentina/Chile at Tierra del Fuego, the southernmost
inhabited region, surrounded by the Pacific (west), Atlantic (east), and Southern Oceans (far
south).

• Brazil: Largest country in the region, capital at Brasília, known for the Amazon Basin, major
resource endowments, and membership in BRICS.

• Guyana Countries: Guyana (British origin), Suriname (Dutch origin), French Guiana (still a
French territory).

• Venezuela: Oil-rich but afflicted by hyperinflation and economic crises. The Essequibo
dispute involves Venezuela’s claim over a resource-rich part of Guyana.

• Colombia: Capital Bogotá. Notable for challenges with narcotics and illegal migration routes
through the Darien Gap (between Colombia and Panama).

• Ecuador: Straddles the Equator; Galapagos Islands are part of its territory, central to
Darwin’s theory of evolution.

• Peru and Chile: Chile’s Atacama Desert is incredibly arid due to the Humboldt Current.

• Bolivia and Paraguay: Both landlocked; Bolivia’s capital La Paz faces economic difficulties.

• Argentina: Derived from “Argentum” (silver). Together with Bolivia and Chile, forms
theLithium Triangle(ABC nations) holding a large share of the world’s lithium.

• Tierra del Fuego is split between Argentina and Chile; a common starting point for
expeditions to Antarctica.

Multilateral Agreements in the Americas

• USMCA: United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement, successor to NAFTA.

 • CARICOM: Caribbean Community of over a dozen small nations, cooperating on trade and
policy.

• MERCOSUR: A regional trade bloc of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and associated
states.

Important Latitudes, Longitudes, and Code Words

Tropic of Capricorn

Passes through parts of South America (Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay), southern Africa (Namibia,
Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar), and Australia.

Equator

Traverses South America (Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil), Central Africa (Gabon, Democratic Republic of
the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia), as well as island nations (Maldives,
Indonesia).

Tropic of Cancer

Cuts across Mexico, the Gulf countries (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Oman, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, Yemen),
parts of North Africa (Mauritania, Mali, Algeria, Niger, Libya, Egypt, Western Sahara), and Asia (India,
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Taiwan, China).

Prime Meridian

Crosses through parts of West Europe (United Kingdom, France, Spain) and North/West Africa
(Algeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, Togo, Ghana).

Oceania: Australia, New Zealand, and Pacific Islands

Australia

Name derived from “Austral” (southern). Mostly desert in the interior, with population concentrated
along coastal cities: Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Perth, Darwin, and Adelaide. TheGreat Barrier
Reeflies off the northeast coast, part of a broader Coral Triangle rich in marine biodiversity,
threatened by warming seas and coral bleaching.

New Zealand

Composed mainly of North and South Islands. Capital Wellington is among the southernmost capitals
globally. Known for Māori culture and the Haka dance. Discussions aroundZealandiapropose it as a
possible submerged continent.

Pacific Island Nations

• Papua New Guinea: Shares the island of New Guinea with Indonesia; Bougainville within
PNG seeks independence.

• Solomon Islands: Site of significant Chinese naval attention; largest coral structure
discovered here.

• New Caledonia: A French overseas territory with recurring referendums on independence.

• Tuvalu, Kiribati, and Marshall Islands: Low-lying nations under threat from rising sea levels.
 • Tonga: Experienced a notable volcanic eruption.

• Nauru: Known for extremely high obesity rates.

Antarctica: The White Continent

Geographic and Climatic Characteristics

• Almost 99% perpetually covered in ice, with averages of 4 km thickness.

• Has remained ice-covered for roughly 30 million years; coldest, windiest, and driest
continent.

• Land area doubles in size during winter as surrounding waters freeze.

Territorial and Research Agreements

• A 1960 treaty designates Antarctica as a scientific preserve, prohibiting military and resource
exploitation.

• Inhospitable conditions prevent permanent settlements beyond seasonal research stations.

• Highest point: Vinson Massif.

• Indian Stations:

• Dakshin Gangotri (first station, now abandoned due to submersion by snow).

• Maitri (established with Russian support).

• Bharati (positioned closer to China’s station).

Arctic Circle and Amplification

• The Arctic has experienced accelerated warming (Arctic amplification) where decreased ice
cover reduces albedo, leading to further warming.

• The Arctic Council consists of eight circumpolar nations (USA, Canada, Denmark via
Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden, and Russia).

• India and China hold observer status.

• Indian research bases at Svalbard include Himadri (on land) and IndARC (undersea).

Topic to be Discussed in the Next Class

• Physical and economic geography of world regions.

• Key global industrial and trade patterns.