WHATI

SSOI
LSCI
ENCE?

I
tisasci
encet
hatdeal
swi
thsoi
lasanat
ural
resour
ceont
hesur
faceoft
heear
th,
the
phy
sical
,chemi
cal
,bi
ologi
calandf
ert
il
it
ypr
oper
ti
esofsoi
li
nrel
ati
ont
othei
r
managementf
orcr
oppr
oduct
ion.
BRANCHESOFSOI
LSCI
ENCE.

1.Soi lfert
il
ity:Nutri
entsupplyingproperti
esofsoi l
.
2.Soi lchemi stry:Chemicalconsti
tuents,chemi calpropert
iesandthechemi calreacti
ons.
3.Soi lphysics: I
nvolvesthestudyofphy sicalproperti
es.
4.Soi lmicrobiology:dealswithmi cr
oor ganisms,itspopul ati
on,cl
assifi
cati
onandi t
srole
i
nt r
ansf or
mat ions.
5.Soi lconser vat
ion:Dealingwi t
hpr otecti
onofsoi lagainstphysicall
ossbyer osi
onor
againstchemi caldet eri
orat
ioni .
e.excessi velossofnut r
ientseithernaturalorar t
ifi
cial
means.
6.Pedol ogy: Deali
ngwi t
hthegenesi s,surveyandcl assi
fi
cat i
on.

DEFI
NITI
ONOFSOI
L

1)Soi
( list
hemor
eorl
essweat
her
edr
ockpar
ti
clecov
eri
ngt
heear
thscr
ustwhi
ch
t
oget
herwi
thai
randwat
ercansuppor
tpl
antl
if
e.

2)Soi
( list
het
opl
ayeroft
heear
thscr
ustcomposedofmi
ner
alpar
ti
cles,
organi
c
mat
ter
,wat
er,
airandl
iv
ingt
hings.

3)Soi
( lisanat
uralbodyconsi
sti
ngofhor
izons[
lay
ers]
thatar
epr
imar
il
ycomposed
ofmi
ner
alswhi
chdi
ff
erf
rom t
hei
rpar
entmat
eri
als;
i
nthei
r
t
ext
ure,
str
uct
ure,
consi
stency
,col
or,
chemi
cal
,
biol
ogi
calandot
her
char
act
eri
sti
cs.

APPROACHESOFSOI
LSTUDY

Pedol
ogi
calAppr
oach:Theor
igi
noft
hesoi
l
,it
scl
assi
fi
cat
ionandi
tsdescr
ipt
ionar
e
exami
nedi
nPedol
ogy
.(f
rom Gr dpedon,meanssoi
eekwor lorear
th)
.Pedol
ogyi
sthe
st
udyofsoi
lasanat
uralbodyanddoesnotf
ocusont
hesoi
l
’si
mmedi
atepr
act
icaluse.
A pedol
ogi
stst
udi
es,exami
nes and cl
assi
fi
es soi
las t
heyoccuri
nthei
rnat
ural
env
ironmentwi
thoutanybi
ast
owar
dsapar
ti
cul
aruse.
Edaphol
ogi
calAppr
oach:
Edaphol
ogy(
from Gr dedaphos,
eekwor meanssoi
lorgr
ound)
i
sthest
udyofsoi
lfr
om t
hest
andpoi
ntofhi
gherpl
ant
s.Edaphol
ogi
stsconsi
dert
he
v
ari
ouspr
oper
ti
esofsoi
li
nrel
ati
ont
opl
antpr
oduct
ion.Theyar
epr
act
ical
andhav
ethe
pr
oduct
ionoff
oodandf
ibr
east
hei
rul
ti
mat
egoal
.Theymustdet
ermi
net
her
easonsf
or
v
ari
ati
oni
nthepr
oduct
ivi
tyofsoi
l
sandf
indmeansf
ori
mpr
ovement
.

FUNCTI
ONSOFSOI
L

- I
tisahomef
orgr
owi
ngpl
ant
sandhenceabasef
orf
armi
ng.

- Sour
ceofnut
ri
ent
sforpl
antgr
owt
handdev
elopment
.

- I
tisamedi
um t
hroughwhi
chpl
ant
sabsor
bwat
er.

- I
tpr
ovi
desshel
tert
osoi
lor
gani
sms.

- Bui
l
dingoff
arm st
ruct
ures.

ORI
GINOFSOI
L

Soilor
iginat
esf r
om rocks,mi
neral
s,decomposedpl antandanimal mat
eri
als.Ar ocki
s
anaggr egat
eofmi neral
sandformst heessenti
alpartoftheeart
h’ssol
idcr
ust .Rocks
comei nv ar
iousfor
msandhencet hedif
ferentr
ateofdisi
ntegrat
ion.Amineral i
san
i
norganicsubstancethatishomogenous, haveadefini
tecompositi
onandphy sical
proper
tiessuchasshape, col
oretc.Therearedif
fer
entmi ner
alssuchas;

Pri
mar yminer
als–t
hesear
emi
ner
alst
hatar
efoundpr
imar
il
yint
hepar
entr
ockse.
g.
quart
z,Mica.

Secondar
ymineral
s–theearemi
neral
sthatar
efor
medf
rom mat
eri
alst
hatar
e
rel
easedf
rom weat
her
inge.
g.Oxi
des,Cl
ays.

TYPEOFROCKS
(A)I
gneousr
ocks

Thesear
erockst
hatar
efor
medf
rom t
hesol
i
dif
icat
ionofmol
tenmagmawi
thi
nor
out
sidet
heear
th’
scr
ustandt
hecommonexampl
esofi
gneousr
ocksar
eGr
ani
te,
basal
t.Theser
ocksar
ecomposedofpr
imar
ymi
ner
alsl
i
keQuar
tz,
Fel
dspar
,Bi
oti
te.
Gr
ani
tesar
emadeupmai
nlyofquar
tzwhi
chi
sapr
imar
ymi
ner
al,
arel
i
ghti
ncol
ourand
ar
enoteasi
l
yweat
her
ed.Basal
tsont
heot
herhandar
emadeupmai
nlyoft
hedar
k
col
our
edI
ronandMagnesi
um cont
aini
ngmi
ner
als(
pri
mar
y)e.
g.Hor
nbl
ende,
Biot
it
e
andar
eeasi
l
yweat
her
ed. B)Sedi
( ment
aryr
ocks

Thesear
erockst
hathav
ebeenf
ormedf
rom t
hecont
inueddeposi
ti
onandcement
ati
on
ofpr
oduct
sofweat
her
ingi
.e.r
ockf
ragment
sandmi
ner
als.Quar
tzsandweat
her
ed
f
rom Gr
ani
teanddeposi
tedatt
hebot
tom ofr
iverbodi
eswi
l
lbecomecement
edwi
th
t
imeandf
orm at
ypeofr
ockknownassandst
one.Cl
aypar
ti
clest
hatar
edeposi
tedi
n
r
iverbedsandcement
edwi
tht
imer
esul
tsi
nthef
ormat
ionofr
ocksknownasShal
e.
Ot
herexampl
esofsedi
ment
aryr
ocki
ncl
udesLi
mest
onemadef
rom Cal
cit
e(CaCO3)
,
Dol
omi
temadef
rom Dol
omi
te[
CaMg(
CO3)
2]andCongl
omer
ates(
usual
l
ysmal
lst
ones
wi
thv
ary
ingmi
ner
alcomposi
ti
on)
madef
rom v
ari
ousdi
ff
erentmi
ner
alpar
ti
cles.
C)Me
( t
amor
phi
crocks

Thesear
erockst
hatar
efor
medf
rom t
hemet
amor
phi
sm orchangei
nfor
m ofal
ready
exi
sti
ngr
ocks,
thesecanbeei
therI
gneousorSedi
ment
aryr
ocks.I
gneousand
Sedi
ment
aryr
ockssubj
ect
edt
ohi
ght
emper
atur
esandpr
essur
eunder
goeschangei
n
f
ormr
esul
ti
ngi
nmet
amor
phi
crocks.Sedi
ment
aryr
ocksl
i
kesandst
onewhensubj
ect
ed
t
ohi
ght
emper
atur
eandpr
essur
eresul
tsi
nmet
amor
phi
crocksknownasQuar
tzi
te,
whi
l
eShal
eresul
tsi
nthef
ormat
ionofamet
amor
phi
crockknownasSl
ateand
Li
mest
oner
esul
tsi
nthef
ormat
ionofMar
ble.I
gneousr
ockswhensubj
ect
edt
ohi
gh
t
emper
atur
esandpr
essur
eresul
tsi
nthef
ormat
ionofGnei
ssandSchi
st.

SOI
LFORMATI
ON

Soi
l
sar
efor
medf
rom r
ockst
hrought
hei
nter
medi
atest
ageoff
ormat
ionofRegol
it
h
whi
chi
sther
esul
tantofweat
her
ing.Twopr
ocessesi
nvol
vedi
nthef
ormat
ionofsoi
l
ar
e;

(
i)For
mat
ionofr
egol
i
thbybr
eaki
ngdown(
weat
her
ing)oft
hebedr
ock.

(
ii
)Theaddi
ti
onofor
gani
cmat
tert
hrough’t
hedecomposi
ti
onofpl
antandani
mal
t
issues,andr
eor
gani
zat
ionoft
hesecomponent
sbysoi
lfor
mingpr
ocesses
t
ofor
m soi
l
.

WEATHERI
NG
A pr
ocessofdi
sint
egr
ati
on and decomposi
ti
on ofr
ocksand mi
ner
alswhi
ch ar
e
br
oughtaboutbyphy
sicalagent
sandchemi
calpr
ocesses,l
eadi
ngt
othef
ormat
ionof
Regol
i
th(unconsol
i
dat
edr
esi
duesoft
heweat
her
ingr
ockont
heear
th’
ssur
faceor
abov
ethesol
i
drocks)
.

TYPESOFWEATHERI
NG

(
1)Phy
sicalweat
her
ing:t
he r
ocks ar
e di
sint
egr
ated and ar
e br
oken down t
o
compar
ati
vel
ysmal
l
erpi
eces,
wit
houtpr
oduci
nganynewsubst
ances.

Agent
sofPhy
sicalWeat
her
ing

(
a)Phy
sicalcondi
ti
onofr
ocks:Theper
meabi
l
ityofr
ocksi
sthemosti
mpor
tant

si
ngl
efact
or.Coar
set
ext
ured(
por
ous)sandst
oneweat
hermor
ereadi
l
ythana

f
inet
ext
ured(
almostsol
i
d)basal
t.Unconsol
i
dat
edv
olcani
cashweat
herqui
ckl
y

ascompar
edt
ounconsol
i
dat
edcoar
sedeposi
tssuchasgr
avel
s.

(
b)Act
ionofTemper
atur
e:Thev
ari
ati
onsi
ntemper
atur
eexer
tgr
eati
nfl
uenceon

t
hedi
sint
egr
ati
onofr
ocksandcausest
hesur
facel
ayert
opeelof
ffr
om t
he

par
entmass and t
he r
ock ul
ti
mat
ely di
sint
egr
ates.Thi
s pr
ocess i
s cal
l
ed

Exf
oli
ati
on

(
c) Act
ionofWat
er:Wat
eract
sasadi
sint
egr
ati
ng,t
ranspor
ti
nganddeposi
ti
ng

agent
. Mov
ingwat
erhast
hegr
eatcut
ti
ngandcar
ryi
ngf
orce. I
tfor
msgul
l
iesand

r
avi
nesandcar
ri
eswi
tht
hesuspendedsoi
lmat
eri
alofv
ari
abl
esi
zes.I
ncol
dregi
ons,

t
hewat
eri
nthecr
acksandcr
evi
cesf
reezesi
ntoi
ceandt
hev
olumei
ncr
easest
oone

t
ent
h.Ast
hef
reezi
ngst
art
sfr
om t
het
opt
her
eisnopossi
bil
i
tyofi
tsupwar
dexpansi
on.

Hence,t
hei
ncr
easei
nvol
umecr
eat
esenor
mousoutwar
dpr
essur
ewhi
chbr
eakst
he

r
ocksapar
t.I
ncol
dregi
ons,whensnow f
all
s,i
taccumul
atesandchangei
ntoani
ce

sheet
. Thesebi
ggl
aci
ersst
artmov
ingowi
ngt
othechangei
ntemper
atur
eand/
or
gr
adi
ent
.Onmov
ing,
theseexer
ttr
emendouspr
essur
eov
ert
her
ockonwhi
cht
heypass

andcar
ryt
hel
oosemat
eri
als.Thesemat
eri
alsgetdeposi
tedonr
eachi
ngt
hewar
mer

r
egi
ons,
wher
eit
smov
ementst
opswi
tht
hemel
ti
ngofi
ce.

(
d)Act
ionofwi
nd:

Wi
ndhasaner
osi
veandt
ranspor
ti
ngef
fect
.Of
tenwhent
hewi
ndi
sladenwi
thf
ine

mat
eri
alv
iz.
,fi
nesand,si
l
torcl
aypar
ti
cles,i
thasaser
iousabr
asi
veef
fectandt
he

sandl
adenwi
ndsi
tcht
her
ocksandul
ti
mat
elybr
eaksdownunderi
tsf
orce.The

dustst
orm mayt
ranspor
ttonsofmat
eri
alf
rom onepl
acet
oanot
her
.Theshi
ft
ingof

soi
lcauses ser
ious wi
nd er
osi
on pr
obl
em and mayr
endercul
ti
vat
ed l
and as

degr
aded.

e)At
( mospher
icel
ect
ri
calphenomenon

I
tisani
mpor
tantf
act
orcausi
ngbr
eakdowndur
ingr
ainyseasonandl
i
ght
ningbr
eaks
upr
ocksandorwi
denscr
acks

(
2)Chemi
calWeat
her
ing

Decomposi
ti
on ofr
ocks and mi
ner
als byv
ari
ous chemi
calpr
ocesses. Chemi
cal
weat
her
ingt
akespl
acemai
nlyatt
hesur
faceofr
ocksandmi
ner
alswi
thdi
sappear
ance
ofcer
tai
nmi
ner
alsandt
hef
ormat
ionofsecondar
ypr
oduct
s(new mat
eri
als)
.Thi
sis
cal
l
edchemi
calt
ransf
ormat
ion.Chemi
calweat
her
ingbecomesmor
eef
fect
iveast
he
sur
facear
eaoft
her
ocki
ncr
eases.Ther
efor
ethesmal
l
ert
hef
ragment
s,t
hegr
eat
ert
he
sur
facear
eaperuni
tvol
umeav
ail
abl
eforr
eact
ion.Theef
fect
ivenessofchemi
cal
weat
her
ingi
scl
osel
yrel
atedt
othemi
ner
alcomposi
ti
onofr
ocks.(
e.g)quar
tzr
esponds
f
arsl
owl
ytot
hechemi
cal
att
ackt
hanol
i
vineorpy
roxene.

Agent
sofChemi
calWeat
her
ing

(
a)Hy
drat
ion:Chemi
calcombi
nat
ionofwat
ermol
ecul
eswi
thapar
ti
cul
arsubst
ance
ormi
ner
all
eadi
ngt
oachangei
nst
ruct
ure.
 Soi
lfor
mingmi
ner
alsi
nrocksdonotcont
ainanywat
erandt
heyundergo
hy
drat
ionwhenexposedt
ohumi
dcondi
ti
ons.Uponhy
drat
iont
her
eisswel
l
ing
andi
ncr
easei
nvol
umeofmi
ner
als.Themi
ner
alsl
ooset
hei
rlust
erandbecome
sof
t.I
tis one oft
he mostcommon pr
ocesses i
n nat
ure and wor
ks wi
th
secondar
ymi
ner
als,such as al
umi
num oxi
de and i
ron oxi
de mi
ner
als and
gy
psum.(
e.g.
)

i
) 2Fe2O3+3HOH………2Fe2O3.
3H2O

(
hyd.I
ronoxi
de)

i
i)AlO +3HOH……….Al
2 3
O.
2 3
3H2O

(
Hyd.al
umi
num Oxi
de)

(
b)Hy
drol
ysi
s:Mosti
mpor
tantpr
ocessi
nchemi
calweat
her
ing.I
tisduet
othe
+ -
di
ssoci
ati
onofH2Oi
ntoH andOH i
onswhi
chchemi
cal
l
ycombi
newi
thmi
ner
als

and br
ing aboutchanges,such as exchange,decomposi
ti
on ofcr
yst
all
i
ne
st
ruct
ureandf
ormat
ionofnew compounds.Wat
eract
sasaweakaci
don
si
l
icat
emi
ner
als.

(
c)Sol
uti
on:Somesubst
ancespr
esenti
nther
ocksar
edi
rect
lysol
ubl
einwat
er.The
sol
ubl
esubst
ancesar
eremov
edbyt
hecont
inuousact
ionofwat
erandt
her
ockno
l
ongerr
emai
nssol
i
dandf
orm hol
es,r
il
lsorr
oughsur
faceandul
ti
mat
elyf
all
sint
o
pi
ecesordecomposes.Theact
ioni
sconsi
der
abl
yincr
easedwhent
hewat
eri
saci
dif
ied
byt
hedi
ssol
uti
onofor
gani
candi
nor
gani
caci
ds.(
e.g)hal
i
tes,
NaCl
+,
-
NaCl + H2O…….
. Na Cl H2O (
dissol
ved i
ons wi
th wat
er)

(
d)Car
bonat
ion:Car
bondi
oxi
dewhendi
ssol
vedi
nwat
eri
tfor
mscar
boni
caci
d.

2H2O +CO2 .
..
..
..
..
.H2CO3 .
Thi
scar
boni
caci
dat
tacksmanyr
ocksandmi
ner
alsand

br
ingst
hem i
ntosol
uti
on.Thecar
bonat
edwat
erhasanet
chi
ngef
fectuponsome
r
ocks,especi
all
yli
mest
one.Ther
emov
alofcementt
hathol
dssandpar
ti
clest
oget
her
l
eadst
othei
rdi
sint
egr
ati
on.

(
e)Oxi
dat
ion:Thepr
ocessofaddi
ti
onandcombi
nat
ionofoxy
gent
omi
ner
als.The
absor
pti
oni
susual
l
yfr
om O2di
ssol
vedi
nsoi
lwat
erandt
hatpr
esenti
nat
mospher
e.

Theoxi
dat
ioni
smor
eact
ivei
nthepr
esenceofmoi
stur
eandr
esul
tsi
nhy
drat
ed
oxi
des.
(e.
g)mi
ner
alscont
aini
ngFeandMg.

4FeO(Fer
rousoxi
de)+O2…….
.2Fe2O3(Fer
ri
coxi
de)

(
f)Reduct
ion:Thepr
ocessofr
emov
alofoxy
genort
her
ever
seofoxi
dat
ion.Undert
he
condi
ti
onsofexcesswat
erorwat
erl
oggedcondi
ti
on(
lessornooxy
gen)
,reduct
ion
t
akespl
ace.

2Fe2O3(Haemat
it
e)-O2 …….
.4FeO(Fer
rousoxi
de)-
reducedf
orm

(
3)Bi
ologi
calWeat
her
ing

Thi
sis wher
eli
vi
ng agent
s ar
eresponsi
blef
or bot
h decomposi
ti
on and
di
sint
egr
ati
onofr
ocksandmi
ner
als.

Agent
sofBi
ologi
calWeat
her
ing

(
a)ManandAni
mal
s:

-Theact
ionofmani
ndi
sint
egr
ati
onofr
ocksi
swel
lknownashecut
srockst
obui
l
d
dams,channel
sandconst
ructr
oadsandbui
l
dings.Al
ltheseact
ivi
ti
esr
esul
tin
i
ncr
easi
ngt
hesur
facear
eaoft
her
ocksf
orat
tackofchemi
calagent
sand
accel
erat
ethepr
ocessofr
ockdecomposi
ti
on.

-Al
argenumberofani
mal
s,bi
rds,i
nsect
sandwor
ms,byt
hei
ract
ivi
ti
est
heymake
hol
esi
nthem andt
husai
dforweat
her
ing.

(
b)Hi
gherPl
ant
sandRoot
s:

Ther
oot
soft
reesandot
herpl
ant
spenet
rat
eint
othej
oint
sandcr
evi
cesoft
her
ocks.

Ast
hey gr
ow,
theyexer
tagr
eatdi
srupt
ivef
orceandt
hehar
drockmaybr
eakapar
t.
 (
c)Mi
cro-or
gani
sms:

I
near
lyst
agesofmi
ner
aldecomposi
ti
onandsoi
lfor
mat
ion,t
hel
owerf
ormsof
pl
ant
s and ani
mal
sli
ke,mosses,bact
eri
a and f
ungiand act
inomy
cet
es pl
ay an
i
mpor
tantr
ole.Theyext
ractnut
ri
ent
sfr
om t
her
ockandNf
rom ai
randl
i
vewi
thasmal
l
quant
it
yofwat
er.I
nduecour
seoft
ime,t
hesoi
ldev
elopsundert
hecl
ust
eroft
hese
mi
cro-
organi
sms.Theseor
gani
smsar
ecl
osel
yassoci
atedwi
tht
hedecayofpl
antand
ani
malr
emai
nsandt
husl
i
ber
atenut
ri
ent
sfort
heuseofnextgener
ati
onpl
ant
sand
al
sopr
oducesCO2andor
gani
ccompoundswhi
chai
dinmi
ner
aldecomposi
ti
on.

COMPOSI
TIONOFSOI
L

At
ypi
cal
soi
lwi
l
lbecomposedmai
nlyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngcomponent
s:

1. Soi
lminer
alpar
ti
cles
2. Soi
lor
ganicmatt
er
3. Soi
lwater
4. Soi
lai
r

SOI
LMI
NERALPARTI
CLE

Soi
lmi
ner
alpar
ti
clesr
efert
othei
nor
gani
ccomponentoft
hesoi
lthati
snor
mal
l
y
composedofr
ockf
ragment
sandmi
ner
alsofv
ari
ouski
nds.Bot
hther
ockf
ragment
s
andmi
ner
alsar
isef
rom t
heweat
her
ingoft
hepar
entr
ock.Ther
ockf
ragment
sar
e
coar
seri
ntext
urewher
east
hemi
ner
alsar
esmal
l
erandi
nsomecasesr
equi
rest
heuse
ofami
croscopet
obeseen.Soi
lmi
ner
alpar
ti
clesar
ethesour
ceofsoi
lnut
ri
ent
sand
t
hecomposi
ti
onoft
hemi
ner
alcomponentoft
hesoi
lwi
l
ldet
ermi
net
hemi
ner
al
const
it
uentofagi
vensoi
l
.

SOI
LWATER

Wat
eri
nthesoi
li
shel
dwi
thi
nthesoi
lpor
espaceswi
thv
ary
ingdegr
eesofst
rengt
h
dependi
ngont
heamountpr
esent
.Toget
herwi
thdi
ssol
vedsal
ts,
soi
lwat
ermakesup
t
hesoi
lsol
uti
on.Thesoi
lsol
uti
oni
simpor
tanti
nthesuppl
yi
ngofnut
ri
ent
stogr
owi
ng
pl
ant
s.

Dependi
ngonhowwat
eri
shel
dint
hesoi
lpor
espaces,
thef
oll
owi
ngt
ypesofsoi
lwat
er
ar
erecogni
zedi
nthesoi
l
:

Hy
groscopi
cwat
er

Thi
sissoi
lwat
ert
hati
shel
dfi
rml
yar
oundt
hesoi
lpar
ti
clesandcannotbeabsor
bedby
pl
ant
sfort
hei
rusebecausei
tisst
rongl
yhel
dont
othesoi
lpar
ti
cles.

Capi
ll
arywat
er

Thi
siswat
ert
hati
shel
dwi
thi
nthesoi
lpor
espaceswi
thar
elat
ivel
ylesspr
essur
e
wi
thi
nthesoi
l.
Thi
sist
het
ypeofwat
ert
hati
sabl
etor
iseupwi
thi
nthesoi
lpor
espaces
(
capi
l
lar
ies) i
sabsor
bedbypl
ant
sforgr
owt
h.

Gr
avi
tat
ionalwat
er;
Whenal
lthesoi
lpor
esar
efi
l
ledupwi
thwat
erandt
hesoi
li
snot
abl
etohol
dal
lthi
swat
er,
theexcesswat
eri
sthendr
ainedof
fwi
tht
hehel
pofgr
avi
tyt
o
t
hedeeperl
ayer
soft
hesoi
lpr
ofi
l
e.Thi
sist
het
ypeofwat
ert
hati
sref
err
edt
oas
gr
avi
tat
ional
wat
erandi
sinmostcasesnotav
ail
abl
etocr
opsexceptf
ordeepr
oot
ed
pl
ant
sorcr
opt
rees.

I
mpor
tanceofsoi
lwat
er

1. I
tact
sasamedi
um f
orsoi
lchemi
cal
react
ions
2. I
tisamedi
um i
nwhi
chsoi
lnut
ri
ent
sar
eabsor
bedbypl
ant
s
3. I
thel
psi
nthecool
i
ngofsoi
l
s

SOI
LAI
R

Soi
lai
risf
oundwi
thi
nthesoi
lpor
espacesandt
her
efor
eit
scont
enti
slar
gel
y
det
ermi
nedbyt
hesoi
lwat
err
elat
ionshi
p.Whent
hesoi
li
sbei
ngf
il
ledi
nbywat
er,
the
wat
erwi
l
lgr
adual
l
ydr
iveoutt
heai
rfr
om t
hepor
espaces,
thi
sbasi
cal
l
ymeanst
hat
t
her
eisal
way
sani
nver
ser
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
heamount
sofwat
erandai
rint
hesoi
l
.
Ther
efor
esoi
lai
ror
dinar
il
yoccupi
est
hel
argesoi
lpor
espacesandast
hesoi
ldr
iesup,
t
heai
ral
sogoesi
ntot
hei
nter
medi
ateandsmal
lpor
espaces

Soi
lai
rdi
ff
ersf
rom at
mospher
icai
rint
hef
oll
owi
ngway
s:

1.Soi
lai
risnotcont
inuousbutoccur
sinpocket
sint
hepor
espaces.
2.Soi
lai
rhashi
ghermoi
stur
econt
entt
hanat
mospher
icai
r
3.TheCO2cont
entofsoi
lwat
eri
shi
ghert
hant
hatofat
mospher
icai
r
4.TheO2cont
entofsoi
lwat
eri
sgener
all
ylowert
hant
hatofat
mospher
icai
r.

I
mpor
tanceofsoi
lai
r

 Thesoi
lai
risneededf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons:
 Respi
rat
ionbysoi
lor
gani
sms
 Respi
rat
ionbypl
antr
oot
s
 Chemi
cal
processeswi
thi
nthesoi
l
 Fordecomposi
ti
on

THESOI
LPROFI
LE
Thi
sist
hev
ert
ical
sect
ionoft
hesoi
lshowi
ngt
hev
ari
ousl
ayer
sfr
om t
hesur
facet
othe
unaf
fect
edpar
entmat
eri
al.Thev
ari
ousl
ayer
sar
eknownashor
izons.Asoi
lpr
ofi
l
e
cont
ainst
hreemai
nhor
izons.Theyar
enamedashor
izonA,
hor
izonBandhor
izonC.
Thesur
facesoi
lort
hatl
ayerofsoi
latt
het
opwhi
chi
sli
abl
etol
eachi
ngandf
rom
whi
chsomesoi
lconst
it
uent
shav
ebeenr
emov
edi
sknownashor
izonAort
he
 hor
izonofel
uvi
ati
on.
Thei
nter
medi
atel
ayeri
nwhi
cht
hemat
eri
alsl
eachedf
rom hor
izonAhav
ebeen
r
e-deposi
tedi
sknownashor
izonBort
hehor
izonofi
ll
uvi
ati
on.
Thepar
entmat
eri
alf
rom whi
cht
hesoi
li
sfor
medi
sknownashor
izonC.

Ahy
pot
het
ical
miner
alsoi
lpr
ofi
l
ewi
l
lincl
udeO,
A,B,
CandRmast
erhor
izonsandal
l
t
hepossi
blesub-
hor
izon
(
i) Ohor
izon-I
tisknownasor
gani
chor
izon.I
tisf
ormedi
ntheupperpar
toft
he
mi
ner
alsoi
l
,domi
nat
edbyf
reshorpar
tl
ydecomposedor
gani
cmat
eri
als.
(
ii
) Ahor
izon-Hor
izonofor
gani
cmat
teraccumul
ati
onadj
acentt
osur
faceandt
hat
hasl
ostcl
ay,
ironandal
umi
num
(
ii
i)Bhor
izon-Hor
izoni
nwhi
cht
hedomi
nantf
eat
uresar
eaccumul
ati
onofcl
ay,i
ron,
al
umi
nium orhumusal
oneori
ncombi
nat
ion.
(
iv) Chor
izon-I
tist
hehor
izonbel
owt
hesol
um (
A+B)
,rel
ati
vel
ylessaf
fect
edbysoi
l
f
ormi
ngpr
ocesses.I
tisout
sidet
hezoneofmaj
orbi
ologi
cal
act
ivi
ty.I
tmaycont
ain
accumul
ati
onofcar
bonat
esorsul
phat
es,
cal
cium andmagnesi
um
(
v) R-Under
lyi
ngconsol
i
dat
edbedr
ockandi
tmayormaynotbel
i
ket
hepar
entr
ock
f
rom whi
cht
hesol
um i
sfor
med.
I
MPORTANCEOFTHESOI LPROFILE
-AStudyofsoilpr
ofi
lei
simport
antbecauseiti
sahist
oricrecor
dofal
lthesoi
lfor
ming
pr
ocesses.
-Itformsthebasisf
orthest
udyinpedagogi
calinv
est
igati
ons.
- Soi
lprof
il
eisthekeyf
orthesoil
classi
fi
cat
ion.
-For
mst
hebasi
sfort
hepr
act
ical
uti
l
ityofsoi
l
s.

SOI
LPHYSI
CALPROPERTI
ES
Soi
lphy
sicalpr
oper
ti
esr
elat
est
oal
lthosesoi
lpr
oper
ti
est
hatcanbeeasi
l
ydet
ermi
ned
ei
therbyseei
ngorbyf
eel
.Thesoi
lphy
sicalpr
oper
ti
esar
eal
soknownasmechani
cal
behav
ior
Whyknowl
edgeofsoi
lphy
sicalpr
oper
ti
esi
simpor
tant
Phy
sicalpr
oper
ti
es (
mechani
calbehav
ior
)ofa soi
lgr
eat
lyi
nfl
uence i
ts use and
behav
iort
owar
dspl
antgr
owt
h.Thepl
antsuppor
t,r
ootpenet
rat
ion,dr
ainage,aer
ati
on,
r
etent
ionofmoi
stur
e,andpl
antnut
ri
ent
sar
eli
nkedwi
tht
hephy
sicalcondi
ti
onoft
he
soi
l
.Phy
sicalpr
oper
ti
esal
soi
nfl
uencet
hechemi
calandbi
ologi
calbehav
iorofsoi
l
.The
phy
sicalpr
oper
ti
esofasoi
ldependont
heamount
,si
ze,shape,ar
rangementand
mi
ner
alcomposi
ti
onofi
tspar
ti
cles.Thesepr
oper
ti
esal
sodependonor
gani
cmat
ter
cont
entandpor
espaces.
I
mpor
tantPhy
sicalPr
oper
ti
esofSoi
l
1.Soi
ltext
ure,2.Soilstr
uct
ure,3.Sur
facear
ea,4.Soi
ldensi
ty,5.
Soi
lpor
osi
ty,6.Soi
l
col
our
,7.Soilconsi
stence

SOI LTEXTURE
Soiltext
urereferstotherelati
veproport
ionsofv ari
oussoilpar
ti
clesinagi
vensoil
.Soil
texturet
hereforerel
atestot hefi
nenessorcoar senessofthesoilandhasastr
ong
i
nf l
uenceont heproperti
esoft hesoil
.Soilt
extureisconsider
edtobeabasicpropert
y
ofthesoilbecauset hesizeofthesoilparti
clesinanygivensoil
cannotbechanged,
thusasandysoi lremainssandyandacl aysoilremainsaclaysoil
.

I
mpor
tanceofsoi
ltext
ure

Thesoi
ltext
ureaf
fect
sthef
oll
owi
ngpr
oper
ti
esoft
hesoi
l
:

1.Soi
lpor
osi
ty
2.Wat
erper
meabi
l
ity
3.Ti
l
labi
l
ity
4.Fer
ti
li
ty
5.Pr
oduct
ivi
ty

Soi
lsepar
ates

Thesear egroupsofv ari

oussoilpart
icl
esofsimilarsi
ze.Soi
lseparat
esareusefuli
n
determi ningthetext
ureofanygi vensoil
.Theanalyti
calpr
ocedurebywhichsoil
parti
clesar eseparatedintovar
iousseparatesiscall
edmechanicalanaly
sis.Accor
ding
totheI nternati
onalSoilSci
enceSociety,
soilseparat
escanbeclassif
iedaccordi
ngto
sizeindi ameterasf ol
lows:

Soi
lsepar
ate Di
amet
er
 Coarsesand 2.
00–0.20
Fi
ne 0.
20–0.02
Si
lt 0.02–0.
002
cl
ay Below0.
002

Soi
ltext
uralcl
ass

Asoi l
textur
alcl
assisthet
ermthati susedtodescr i
bevari
oussoil
classi
ficat
ionswit
h
respecttotheamountsofsand,sil
tandclayparti
clesmakingupasoi l
.Threebroadand
basictext
uralcl
assesarer
ecognizedandt hesearesand,cl
ayandloam, addit
ional
classnameshav ebeenbui
ltupbasedont hesethreebasictext
uralcl
asses.

Det
ermi
nat
ionofasoi
ltext
uralcl
ass
Sands

Thi
sincludesallsoi
lsofwhichthesandseparatesmakeup70%ormor eofthemat er
ial
byweightandt heproper
ti
esofsuchsoilsar
et heref
oresandyi
nnat
ure.Undersand
soi
l
stwot ext
uralcl
assesarerecogni
zedandthesear e:

1. Sand
2. Sandyl
oam
3. Sandycl
ay
4. Sandycl
ayl
oam

Sandsoi
l
sar
esoi
l
sthatar
ecomposedmai
nlyofr
elat
ivel
ylar
gemi
ner
alpar
ti
cles.

Fi
gur
e2:Sandpar
ti
cleswi
thl
argeandi
rr
egul
arshapeswi
thbi
gspacebet
weenpar
ti
cles.

Pr
oper
ti
esofsandsoi
ls

 I
nabi
l
ityt
ohol
dwat
erf
oral
ongt
ime.

 Rapi
dmov
ementofai
randwat
eri
nthesoi
l(gooddr
ainage)
.

 Lar
geandf
ewerpor
espaces.

 Doesnotexpandorcont
ractasar
esul
tofwat
er.

 Poorabi
l
ityt
oat
tractandhol
dnut
ri
ent
sforpl
antgr
owt
h(l
ow cat
ionexchange
capaci
ty)

 Hasnot
endencyt
ocompactwhenwet
 Nopl
ast
ici
tyandnoteasi
l
ymol
dabl
ewhenwet
.
Cl
ays

Thesearesoilst
hathaveatl
east35%claysepar
atesandinmostcasesnotmor
ethan
40%.Claysoil
sare composedpri
mari
lyofsmallplat
eli
ke,f
lat
,di
scshapedandsmall
si
zedparti
cles.

Fi
gur
e1:cl
aypar
ti
clesl
ayf
latandhavesmal
lerpor
espacesbet
weent
hem.

Pr
oper
ti
esofcl
aysoi
ls

 Abi
l
ityt
ohol
dal
argeamountofwat
er

 Sl
owmov
ementofwat
erandai
rint
hesoi
l(poordr
ainage)

 Smal
landnumer
ouspor
espaces.

 Tendencyt
oexpandwhenwetandcr
ackwhendr
y.

 Goodabi
l
ityt
oat
tractandhol
dpl
antnut
ri
ent
s.

 Tendencyt
ocompactunderpr
essur
ewhenwet
.
 Pl
ast
icwhenwetandhi
ghl
ymol
dabl
e.

Insuchsoilsthechar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hecl
aysepar
atear
emor
edomi
nantandt
het
ext
ural
classesunderclay
sare:

1. Cl
ay
2. Sandycl
ay
3. Si
l
tycl
ay
4. Si
l
tycl
ayl
oam
5. Cl
ayl
oam

Si
lt

Sil
tpart
iclesareirregularl
yfr
agment alandfeelsmoothl i
kepowderwhenf el
t.Theyare
microsandpar ti
cleswi thquart
zbeingt hedominantmi neral.Sil
tpart
icl
eshav ean
adheri
ngf il
m ofclayandt heref
orepossessomepl ast
icity,buttoalesserdegreethan
cl
aysepar ates.Thei nf
luenceofsil
tisthatitmakessoil unsatisf
actor
yforproductionof
cropsunlesswhensuppl ementedwi thlar
geamount sofsand, cl
ayandor ganicmat t
er.

Loams

Thesearesoil
sthatcontai
nalmostequalproport
ionsofcl
ay,
siltandsandseparat
es.
Suchsoil
stendtohav ebotht
hegoodpr opert
iesofsandandclaysoil
separat
es.The
text
ural
classesunderloamsare:

1. Loam
2. Si
l
t
3. Si
l
tloam.

Pr
oper
ti
esofl
oam soi
ls

Loam soil
shav
ethef
oll
owi
ngi
mpor
tantpr
oper
ti
eswhi
chmakest
hem goodf
orcr
op
product
ion:

1.Goodbal
ancebet
weenl
argeandsoi
lpor
es
2.Goodwat
ermov
ement
3.Goodai
rmov
ement
4.Goodwat
err
etent
ion
5. Easyr
ootpenet
rat
ion

SOILSTRUCTURE
Theter
m soilstr
uctur
eisusedtodescri
begroupingofsoi
lpar
ti
clesi
ntoaggr
egat
es.
Thesesoil
aggregatesarealsor
efer
redtoassoilpeds.
Soilst
ruct
ureinfl
uencesthefol
l
owingproper
ti
esofsoils:
 1.Watermov ement
2.Heattransf
er
3.Aerati
on
4.Bul
kdensi t
y
5.Porosi
ty

Ty
pesofsoi
lst
ruct
ures

Str
uctur
eless
Thi
sisthetypeofstr
uctur
ethati
scharacter
izedbyloosegrainsofsoi
lpar
ti
clesi
.e.t
he
soi
lpart
icl
esarenotatt
achedtoeachotherandli
elooselye.g.i
nsandsoil
s.

Platel
ike(
Platy
)
Thisisatypeofsoil
struct
ureinwhi chthesoil
aggr egat
esorpedsarearr
angedin
rel
ativ
elythi
nhori
zontalpl
ates.Thisstr
ucturei
sf oundmainl
yinthesurf
acelay
ersof
vir
ginsoil
sbutmaybef oundint hesubsoilhor
izonsaswell.

Pri
smlike
Thisi
sast ructuret
hatischar
acter
izedbyv ert
ical
aggr
egateswhi
chvaryi
nlengt
hwi
th
dif
fer
entsoilsandmayr eachadiamet erof15cm ormore.Thi
sst
ruct
urei
scommonin
subsoi
l hor
izonsinari
dandsemi ar
idr egi
ons.
Therearetwot ypesofpri
sm st
ruct
ur e:

1.Pr
ismat
icst
ruct
ure
Thi
sisastr
uct
urei
nwhicht
het
opsoft
hev
ert
ical
pri
smsar
efl
at.

2.Columnar
Thisi
sastruct
urei
nwhi
cht
het
opsoft
hev
ert
ical
pri
smsar
eroundedi
nst
eadofbei
ng
fl
at.

Bl
ockl
ike
Thisisast r
uctur
einwhichtheori
ginal
aggregat
eshavebeenreducedt
obl ocks,
i
rregularshapedwit
htheirt
hreedi
mensi onswhi
charealmostequali
nsize.

1.Bl
ocky
Thi
sisthest
ruct
urewher
etheedgesoft
hecubesar
eshar
pandt
her
ect
angul
arf
ace
di
sti
nct
.

2.Subangul
ar
Thi
sisthestr
uct
urewher
ethecor
ner
soft
hecubeshav
ebeenr
ounded,
thi
soccur
s
mainl
yinthesubsoi
landi
tresul
tesf
rom t
heef
fectofdr
ainage,
aer
ati
onandr
oot
penet
rat
ion.

I
nfl
uenceofor
gani
cmat
ter

Soi
lorgani
cmat t
eristhemainagencyofgranul
ati
oninsoil
sandthi
siseasi
lynoti
cedi
n
sur
facesoil
sthatarehighi
norgani
cmat t
ercontent
.Theorgani
cmatterbi
nds,l
ight
ens
andexpandssoilpar
ti
clesf
orminggranul
esintheprocess.

SOI
LCONSI
STENCE

Soi
lconsistenceistheterm usedtodescr
ibethecondit
ionofthesoilatv
arious
moist
urelev elswhensubjectedtostr
essandphysicalmani
pulati
ons.Soi
lconsist
ence
i
sconsideredacombi nat
ionofsoilpr
opert
iesdependentonforcesofatt
racti
on
bet
weensoi l par
ti
clesasinfl
uencedbysoilmoist
ure.

Theconsi
stenceoft
hesoi
li
sbasi
cal
l
ydef
inedatt
hreemoi
stur
elev
els:

 Wet

 Moi
st

 Dr
y

Wetsoi
ls

Forwetsoil
sconsist
enceisdescr
ibedint
ermsofst
icki
nessandpl
asti
cit
y.Sti
cki
nessi
s
theabi
l
ityofthesoil
tosti
cktootherobj
ect
sandisi
denti
fi
edbythefol
lowingter
ms:

1.Non-
sti
cky
2.Sl
i
ght
lyst
icky
3.St
icky
4.Ver
yst
icky
Plast
icit
yistheabil
it
yofthesoi
ltobemoldedint
oanyshapeinresponsetostr
essand
tomai ntai
nthatshapewhenstr
essiswi
thdrawn.Thiscanbedonebyformingathi
n
rodbyr oll
i
ngthesoilbet
weenthethumbandtheforefi
nger
.Ter
msusedt odescri
be
plast
icit
yare:

1.Non-
plast
ic
2.Sl
i
ght
lypl
ast
ic
3.Pl
ast
ic
4.Ver
ypl
ast
ic.

Moi
stsoi
ls

Theconsi stenceofmoistsoil
sismosti mportantsi
nceitbestdescr
ibest
hecondit
ion
ofthesoil whentheyareploughedinthefi
eld.Consist
enceofsoilswhentheyaremoist
i
st hegener almeasur
eoft heresi
stancetothesoilt
ocr ushi
ngbetweenthethumband
thefor
efinger .

Theconsi
stenceofmoi
stsoi
lsi
sdescr
ibedusi
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:

1.Loose–nocoher
ent
2.Ver
yfr
iabl
e–coher
entbutv
eryeasi
l
ycr
ushed
3.Fr
iabl
e–easi
l
ycr
ushed
4.Fi
rm –cr
ushedundermoder
atepr
essur
e
5.Ver
yfi
rm –cr
ushesonl
yunderst
rongpr
essur
e
6.Ext
remel
yfi
rm –r
esi
stscr
ushi
ngbet
weent
humbandf
oref
inger
.
Exampl
esofconsi
stenceofsoi
l
sar
e:

Soilclass consi
stence
Coarsesand l
oose
l
oam fri
able
Si
ltloam fri
able
Clay,sil
tycl
ay fi
rm
Si
ltyclayloam Veryfi
rm

Itshouldbenot
edthatsoi
lconsist
enceisinf
luencedbyf
act
orsl
i
ket
ypeofcl
aypr
esent
andt heamountofor
ganicmatterpresent
.
Dr
ysoi
ls

Whendrysoil
sresi
stcrushingorot herphy
sicalmanipulati
on,thedegr
eeoft hi
s
mani
pul
at i
onisrel
atedtotheatt
r acti
onofthesoilpart
iclesforeachother
.Indescr
ibi
ng
t
heconsist
enceofdr ysoi
l
st hefoll
owi ngt
erminol
ogyisused:

1.Loose–nocoher
ent
2.Sof
t–breaksundersl
i
ghtpr
essur
ebet
weent
humbandf
oref
ingert
oapowder
y
mass.
3.Sl
ight
lyhar
d–br
eaksundermoder
atepr
essur
e
4.Har
d–br
eakswi
thdi
ff
icul
tyunderpr
essur
e
5.Veryhar
d–v er
yresi
stancet
opr
essur
e,cannotbebr
okenbet
weent
humband
for
efi
nger.
6.Ext
remel
yhar
d–ext
remer
esi
stantt
opr
essur
e,cannotbebr
okeni
nthehand

SOI
LCOLOUR

Soilcolorprimari
lyref
erstotheappearanceofthesoilasseenbyourey es.The
i
mpor tanceofsoi lcol
oristhati
thel
pst odeter
minethesoilconditi
onsthatmaybe
usefulint hemanagement .Soi
lcol
orgivesanindi
cati
onoft hesoilcondit
ionsthatar
e
thereandal sothemai nchemical
,bi
ological
andphysicalprocessesthatmighthave
takenpl aceinthesoil
.

Agent
sofsoi
lcol
orat
ion

Themai
nagent
sthathel
ptocol
orsoi
l
sar
e:

1. Amountofor
ganicmat
ter
2. I
roncompounds
3. Aerati
on
4. Hydrati
on

SOI
LTEMPERATURE

Soi
ltemperatureref
erstot
heheatener
gyofthesoil
atv ar
iousdept
hsusual
lyat30cm
to40cm asthisiswheremostoft
heplantr
ootsarefound.Soil
temper
atur
eis
i
mpor
tantbecausei
taf
fect
ssev
eral
processeswi
thi
nthesoi
l
.

Exampl
esar
e;

1.Ger
minat
ionofseeds
2.Act
ivi
tyofmi
croor
gani
sms
3.Funct
ionofpl
antr
oot
s
4.Decomposi
ti
on

BULKDENSI
TY

Theter
m bulkdensit
yisusedtoexpressthedr
ysoilweightintermsofthetot
alsoi
l
spaceoccupi
edbybot hthesol
idsandporespacescombi ned.Iti
sdefi
nedasthemass
(orwei
ght)ofaunitvol
umeofdr ysoi
l(Thevol
umeincludesbot hsol
idsandpores)
.

Bul
kdensi
ty(
BD)=mass =g cm3orKg/
= g/ M3

ume cm3
Vol

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingbul
kdensi
ty

Thebulkdensi
tyofanygi
vensoi
li
sdet
ermi
nedbot
hbyt
hequant
it
yoft
hepor
espaces
andthesoli
ds.

Vol
umeofpor
espaces

Soi
l
sthatar
elooseandpor
ouswi
l
lhav
eal
owwei
ghtperuni
tvol
ume(
lowbul
kdensi
ty)
.

Or
gani
cmat
tercont
ent

Soil
shighinor
ganicmatt
erhaveaporousandfl
uff
ycondi
ti
onwhi chl
eadst
oalowbul
k
densit
y.Soi
lsl
owinorgani
cmattercont
entwi
ll
havethei
rpart
icl
espackedt
oget
her
resul
ti
nginahighbul
kdensit
y.

Soi
ldept
h

Thebul
kdensi
ti
esofsurf
acesoi
lsar
eusual
l
ylowerbecauseofl
esscompacti
onand
moreor
gani
cmat t
ercont
entascompar
edtosubsoi
lsthatar
eusual
lymorecompact
andhav
elessorganicmatter.Sur
facesoi
lsofcl
ay,
clayloam andsi
l
tloam mayhave
3
bul
kdensi
ti
esrangingfrom 1.00t
o1.60g/m ascomparedtocompactsubsoil
sthat
3
mayhavebulkdensit
iesashighas2.0g/m.

Soi
lcompact
ion

Soi
lcompacti
onforcessol
i
dmat eri
ali
ntosoilpor
es,t
hisr
educest
hetot
alporespace
andi
ncreasest
hebulkdensit
y,whereaslooseni
ngofthesoi
lmakest
hesoilt
ohav ea
l
otofporesandhenceareducti
oninthebulkdensi
ty.

Soi
lmanagement

Thesy stem ofcropandsoi lmanagementbeingusedonagi vensoili

sli
kelyt
o
i
nfluencet hebulkdensityofthatsoi
lespeci
all
yofthesur f
acelayer
s.Soilmanagement
practi
cesl i
keaddit
ionofmanur estothesoi
ltendstolowertheweightfi
gureofthese
soil
sther ebyloweri
ngt hebulkdensity,
whereasintensiv
eculti
vati
onwilll
eadtohighl
y
pulver
izedsoi l
swithreducedpor espacesandhencei ncr
easedweightsresul
ti
nginhigh
bulkdensi t
ies.

I
mpor
tanceoft
hebul
kdensi
ty

1. Thebulkdensi
tyi
susedtoeval
uat
ewhethert
hesoill
ayersar
etoocompactorwel
l
aer
ated,l
owbulkdensi
ti
esar
eanindi
cat
ionofl
oosefl
uffysoi
l
s.
2. Bul
kdensit
yalsoaff
ectsgr
owthandexpansi
onofr
oot
s,r
ootexpansi
oni
sli
mit
edi
n
mostcasesinsoi
lswit
hahighbul
kdensit
y.

PARTI
CLEDENSI
TY

Theter m part i
cledensi
tyisusedt oexpresssoil weightintermsoft hedensi t
yoft he
part
iclesmaki ngupt hesoil.Iti
sdef i
nedasthemass( orweight)ofaunitv ol
umeofsoi l
3
sol
idsandi sexpr essedinter msofgr amsperuni tcubiccentimeter(g/m) .The
measur ementoft hePar t
icleDensitydoesnoti ncl udethepor espacesandmost
3 3
mineralshav eapar t
icl
edensi tyof2.65g/m (or2650Kg/ m) .Thisfi
gureisal most
constantbecauset heparticledensiti
esofquar tz, si
li
catesandot hercommonmi nerals
ofthesoi lhav edensiti
esclosert othisval
ue,ther eforethestandardv al
ueofpar t
icle
3
densit
yof2. 65g/ m isgener all
yassumedi nallcal cul
ations.Howev erthepar ti
cle
densit
yi sgiv enby :
Par
ti
cledensi
ty(
PD)=wei
ghtofsol
i
ds g

Vol ds m3
umeofsol
i

Thepar ti
cledensi
tyofmineral
soil
swillv
arydependingont
hewei ghtofthesoi
l
part
iclesbutforgener
alcalcul
ati
onstheaver
agear abl
esoi
lsur
facesoilsisal
ways
3
consideredtohaveaparti
cledensit
yofabout2.65g/m.

SOI
LPORESPACES

Theporespaceofasoili
sthatporti
onofthesoi l
occupiedbyairandwater
.The
amountoftheporespacesi
sdet er
minedbyt hearrangementofthesoli
dpart
icl
es.The
por
espaceofthesoili
sexpressedasaper centageofthetot
alsoilvol
ume.

Thef
ormul
aforcal
cul
ati
ngt
he%por
espaceofanygi
vensoi
lcanbeder
ivedasf
oll
ows

%sol
i
dspace= bul
kdensi
ty x 100

Par
ti
cledensi
ty

Si
nce%por
espace+%sol
i
dspace=100

Ther
efor
e:%por
espace=100-%sol
i
dspace

Ther
efor
e:%por
espace=100– bul
kdensi
ty x 100

Par
ti
cledensi
ty

Exampl
esofsoi
ltext
ures,
bul
kdensi
ti
esandt
hei
rpor
espaceper
cent
agesar
eshown
bel
owforcr
oppedsoil
s:

SOILTEXTURE BULKDENSI
TY( M3)
Kg/ PORESPACE%
Gravel
lySand 1870 29.
40
CoarseLoamySand 1680 36.
60
SandyLoam 1510 43.
00
Loam 1340 49.
40
ClayLoam 1260 52.
20
Clay 1180 55.
50

I
mpor
tanceoft
hesoi
lpor
espace

1.Soi
lpor
osi
tyaf
fect
stheaer
ati
onofsoi
l
s
2.Soi
lpor
osi
tyi
nfl
uencest
hedr
ainageofsoi
l
s
3.Soi
lpor
osi
tyi
nfl
uencest
hewat
erhol
dingcapaci
tyofsoi
l
s
4.Soi
lpor
osi
tyaf
fect
sthewor
kabi
l
ityofsoi
l
s

SOI
LFERTI
LITY

Soi lf
ert
il
it
yistheabi l
i
tyofthesoiltosuppl
yessenti
alpl
antnut r
ientsdur
inggrowt h
periodoftheplants,wit
houttoxi
cconcentrat
ionofanynutr
ients.i.
.e.“
thecapacityof
soiltosupplynutri
entinavail
ableformtocrop”.
Allt heproduct i
vesoilsaref ert
il
ebutmanyoft heferti
lesoi lsareunpr oducti
ve,
because theyar e subject
ed to droughtorotherunsatisfactorygrowthf actors or
managementpr acti
ces.

Soilpr
oducti
vi
ty;Soi
lproduct
ivi
tyisabi
l
ityofsoi
ltoproduceapar
ti
cul
arcr
opor
sequenceofcropsunderaspecifi
edmanagementsy stem.

Luxur
yConsumption;Luxuryconsumpti
onisdefi
nedasthenutr
ientconcentr
ati
onrange
i
nwhichaddednut
ri
entwill
notincreasey
iel
dbutcani
ncr
easesnutri
entconcent
rat
ion.

HiddenHunger ;I
tref
erstoasi tuat
ioninwhichacr opneedsmor eofagivennut ri
ent
yethasshownnodef ici
encysympt oms.Thenut r
ientcontentisabovet
hedef i
ciency
symptom zonebutsti
llconsider
ablybel
owt hatneededforoptimum cr
opproducti
on.A
plantwi
thhiddenhungerwill
notgivethetopprofi
tableyi
eld.

Cat
ionexchangecapaci
ty

TheCat ionExchangeCapacity(CEC)oft
hesoi l
isdefinedasthesum ofposit
ive(+)
chargesoft headsorbedcat
ionsofasoilcanataspeci f
icpH,andrefer
stothe
capacityofthesoilt
oexchangecat i
onsbetweent hesoilpar
ti
clesandthesoi
lsolut
ion.
Thecat i
onexchangecapacityiscommonl yexpressedasCent i
molesofposit
ivecharge
perKilogram (Cmol/
Kg).

Cat
ionexchangecapaci
tyandt
heav
ail
abi
li
tyofnut
ri
ent
s

Exchangeablecati
onsar egeneral
lyavai
labletobothhigherplantsaswellas
microorgani
sms.Bycat ionexchange,hydrogenionsfr
om ther oothai
rsandsoil
microorgani
smsr eplacenutr
ientcat
ionsfrom theexchangecompl ex.Thesearet
hen
forcedi
ntothesoilsoluti
on,wheretheycanbet akeninbyt heabsorpti
vesurf
acesof
rootsandsoilmicroorgani
sms.

I
mpor
tanceoft
heCEC
TheCEChel pstoholdplantnutri
ent
s(Cat
ions)agai
nstl
eachingi
nsoilsbyhol
dingt
hem
strongl
ytotheexchangesites.TheCEChelpstomakenutri
entsavai
l
abletopl
ants,
as
theyareeasil
yexchangedbet weent
heexchangesit
esandplantroot
s.

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingt
heCEC

Therear
esever
alf
act
orst
hatev
ent
ual
l
yinf
luencet
heCECofagi
vensoi
l
,someof
thesef
actor
sar
e:

1.Soi
ltext
ure–finet
ext
uredsoi
l
se.
g.cl
ayshav
eahi
gherCECt
hancoar
set
ext
ured
e.
g.sandysoi
l
s.
2.Organicmat ter–soil
swi t
hhighorgani
cmat t
ercontentwil
lhav
eahighCECas
compar edtosoilswit
hal ow or
ganicmatt
ercontent
,thisi
sbecauset
heorgani
c
matterinthesesoil
swil
laddmorenegati
vechar
gedsit
est ot
hesoi
l.
Soi
lpH
SoilpHisthemeasureoftheHydr
ogenandHy dr
oxyli
onconcentrati
onint
hesoil
.The
soilpHismeasuredbyusingt
hepHscalewhichrangesfrom 0to14,atpH7,t
hesoili
s
regardedasbei
ngneutral
meaningthatt
her
eisanequal concent
rati
onofhydr
ogenand
hydroxyli
onsi
nthesoil
.From ph0to6,t
hesoili
sacidi
candf rom pH8to14thesoi
lis
alkal
ine.

SOURCESOFACI
DITY

Anyprocessorreact
ionthatr easesH+i
el nt
hesoil
contri
but
estotheacidi
tyofsoi
ls.
Themosti mpor
tantprocessesandfact
orst
hatcontr
ibut
etotheaci
dif
icat
ionofsoil
s
are:

Pl
antr
ootr
espi
rat
ion

I
nallsoi
lsrespi
rat
ionbyroot
sandothersoi
lorgani
smsproducescar
bondioxi
dethat
r
eactswithwatert
of or
m car
boni
cacid(H2CO3),
thi
sisaweakacidwhichcont
ri
butes
+
Ht othesoil
.

Nut
ri
entabsor
pti
on

Whenpl ant
sabsorbplantnutr
ient
sinthesoilther
ei srel
easeofH+i ntot
hesoi
lto
balanceupthesoil
electr
ical
chargesThereleasedH+cont ri
butessoil
aci
dic
(conti
nuouscroppi
ngcanbeamaj orcauseofmaki ngsoil
sacidic)
.

Decomposi
ti
on
Whenorgani
cmat t
erisbeingdecomposedinthesoil
,thereisreleaseofCO2whichi
n
t
hepresenceofwaterfor
mscar boni
cacid.Decompositi
onofor gani
cmatterof
ten
l
eadstotherel
easeofHumi cacidswhi
chmakest hesoilsaci
dic.

Mi
ner
ali
zat
ion

Duri
ngminer
ali
zat
ionther
eisreleaseofNi
trogenandsul
furwhichar
ethenoxi
diz
edt
o
Nit
ri
caci
dandsulfur
icaci
drespecti
vel
yhencemakingthesoil
sacidi
c.

Aci
drai
n

Duringprecipi
tati
on( rainf
all)atmospheri
cCO2combi neswithrai
nwatertofor
m aweak
carboni
caci dwhi chev entuall
ymakest hesoil
sacidi
c.Thiscanreducethesoi
lpHto
about5.6.industrial
gassesl i
keNitr
ogendioxideandsulf
urdioxi
deresult
sint
he
formati
onofNi t
ri
caci dandSul f
uri
cacidrespecti
vel
ywhenmi xedwithrai
nwater
,thi
s
thenfal
lsasaci dr ai
n.

Par
entmat
eri
al

Soi
lsthatar
ef or
medf rom parentmateri
alst
hatareinherentl
yacidicwi
ll
resul
tinthe
soi
lsbeingacidi
c.Parentmat eri
alsr
ichi
nsulfurel
ement swillr
eleaset
hissul
furdur
ing
weatheri
ng,andthesulfuruponoxidi
zati
onwillf
orm sulf
uricaci
d.

Ef
fect
sofl
owpH(
aci
dicsoi
ls)

Aluminum becomesmoresolubl
eandr eachestoxi
clevel
swhi l
eplantnutr
ient
slike
calci
um becomesunavai
l
abletoplant
s.Benefici
albacter
iabecomei nact
iveand
decompositi
ontoget
herwit
hnitr
ogenfixati
onisreduced,over
allt
herearelowy i
elds.

Essent
ialel
ement
s

A mineralel
ementisconsideredessent
ialt
opl
antgr
owthanddevelopmentifi
tis
i
nvol
v ed i
npl antmetabol
i
cf unct
ionsand t
hepl
antcannotcompl
eteit
sl i
fecycl
e
wi
thouttheelement”
.

Maj
orNut
ri
ent
sorMacr
oel
ement
s

Theplant
/plantsrequi
recompar
ati
vel
ylar
gerquant
it
yofnut
ri
ent
sfort
hem t
ocompl
ete
thel
i
fecycle.Thesenutri
ent
sare;
C,H,O,N,P,K,Ca, MgandS.

Mi
norel
ement
sofMi
cronut
ri
ent
s

Thepl
antsrequir
ecompar at
ivel
ysmal
lorv
eryt
racequant
it
yofnut
ri
ent
sfort
hem t
o
compl
etethel
ifecycl
e.Theseare;
Fe,
Zn,
Cu,
Mn,
B,Mo,
Cl,
Na,
Va,
Si,
CoandNi

Nut
ri
entdef
ici
encysy
mpt
oms

Itcanbecl
assifiedas;
a.Complet
ecr opf ai
l
ureatt
heseedli
ngstage.
b.Sever
estuntingofplant
s.
c.Speci
fi
cleafsy mptomsappear
ingatvaryi
ngti
mesdur
ingt
heseason.

d.Int
ernalabnor
malit
iessuchascl
oggedconduct
iveti
ssues.
e.Delayedabnormalmaturi
ty.
f.Obviousyi
elddi
ff
erences.
g.Poorqualit
yofcropsincl
udi
ngdi
ffer
encei
nprotei
n,oil
orstar
ch.

Funct
ionsofni
tr
ogen

-Ni sanessent ialconst i

tuentofpr oteinsandi spr esenti nmanyot hercompoundsof
greatphy siologi cal impor tancei npl antmet abol i
sm
-Ni sani ntegr al par tofchl orophy ll,whi chispr imar yobserverofl i
ghtener gyneededf or
photosy nthesi s.
-Nal soi mpar t
sv i
gor ousv egetativegr owt handdar kgreencol ort oplants.
-I
tpr oducesear lygr eenanddel ayi nmat ur
ityt opl ant s
-I
tgov ernst heut i
lizati
onofK, Pandot herel ement s
Deficiencyofni trogen
1.Pl antsar est untedandy ell
owi nappear ance.
2.Thel ossofpr oteinNf rom chl oroplast s.Inol derleavespr oducest heyellowi ngor
chlorosis.I tappear sfirstont hel owerl eav es, t
heupperl eavesr emaingr een,
whileundersev ereNdef iciencyl owerl eav eswi lltur
nbr ownanddi e.
3.Thenecr osi sbegi nsatt hel eaft ipandpr ogr essal ongthemi dri
bunt i
lthel eafis
dead.
Incaul if
lower-y oungl eav est ur
npal ey ellowandol dleav esbecomeor ange.
Incof fee-Vei nsbecomesy ellowandnewl eavesar ev er
ysmal l
.
Tomat o-St em becomepur pleandhar d.Fl owerbudsbecomey el
l
owand
fl
owerdr oppi ngr atealsoi ncr eases

ExcessofNi trogen( Toxicityofni t

rogen)
a.Causesexcessv eget ati
vegr owth,
darkgreenl eaves,lodgi
ng,matur
it
yis
delay edwithincr easessuscept i
bil
it
ytopestanddi sease.
b.Incot ton,weakf ibreisresultswhileinri
ce,lodgingiscommon.
c.Lengt heningofcr opdur ationandnar r
owl eaf.
d.Slendershoot ,prof usev egetat
ion,t
hickpeel andskinwi l
lberoughand
l
eat heryinthecaseofci t
rus.
e.ExcessNi ncof f
eepl ant
, i
nterf
ereswiththeKupt akecausingimbal
ance
betweenNandK.
For
msofsoi lni tr
ogen
I
norgani
cformsOr ganicfor msofsoi lN
 +
1.Ammoni
um NH4 Ami
def
orm(
NH2)
- - -
2.Ni
tr
it
eNO2 Pl
antabsor
bsNasbot
hNH4,
NO3.
-
3.Ni
tr
ateNO3

FunctionsofPhosphor us
1.Ithasagr eaterroleinener gyst orageandt ransfer.
2.Iti
saconst it
uentofnucl eicacid, andphosphol i
pids
3.Iti
sessent ialforcelldivi
sionanddev el
opment
4.Pcompoundsactasener gycur rencywithi
npl ants.
5.Itsti
mul atesear lyrootdev el
opmentandgr owt handther
ebyhel
pstoest abl
ish
seedli
ngsqui ckly.
6.Itgi
v esrapi dandv igorousst arttoplants,strengthen’
sst
rawanddecreasesslodgi
ng
tendency .
7.Iti
sessent ialforseedf ormat i
on.
8.Iti
ncr easest heact i
vityofRhi zobiaandincreasest hefor
mati
onofrootnodules.

Def
ici
encysy
mpt
oms

Pismobi leinplantsandwhenadef ici

encyoccursi
tistr
anslocat
edf
rom ol
dert
issues
totheactivemer istematicregions.
1.Itar
restsmet abol i
sm result
inginreduct
ionoftot
alNofpl ant
s.
2.Reducedsugarcont ent.
3.Prematureleaff all
4.Developsnecr oti
car eaont heleafpeti
oleandinthefr
uit
5.Leaveswi l
lshowchar acteri
sticbl
uishgreencol
our.

Funct
ionsofpot
assi
um

1.Essentialforphot osynthesis,developmentofchl orophy

ll
.
2.I
timpr ovesv igoroft heplantst oenablet owithstandadver
seclimati
ccondi
ti
ons.
3.Reducesl odgi ngincer ealcrops.
4.I
tregulatesst omat aopeni ngandcl osing.
5.I
tregulatest hemov ementofi onswi t
hintheplantsandhenceitiscal
ledt
raf
fi
c
poli
cemanoft hepl ant.
6.Acti
vationofenzy mes, enzy mesy nthesis,pept
idebondssynthesi
s.
7.RegulatesH2Oi mbal ancewi thint
hepl ant.

Def
ici
encysy mpt oms
1.Plantbecomesst unt
edingrowthwithshorteni
ngofinternodesandbusyi
n
appearance.
2.Kdef i
ciencyinpl
antsshowreducedrateofphotosynthesis.
3.Chlorosis,
yell
owingofl
eafsandleafscorchincaseoff r
uitstr
ees.
Cr
it
eri
aofessent ial
it
y–Ar nonandstout1939.
a.Thepl antmustbeunabl etogrow normallyorcompleteit
sli
fecy
clei
nthe
absenceoftheelement.
b.Theelementi sspeci
fi
candcannotbereplacedbyother
.
c.Theelementpl ay
sadirectr
olei
nthemet aboli
sm oft
heplant
.
t
h
Unt i
lthemi ddleof19 cent ury,thesci enti
stdidnothav eexper i
mentaltechni que
todistingui shessent ialandnonessent i
alelement s.Wi t
ht hedev el opmentof“ Solution
Culture”t echni quet hesci enti
stest abli
shedt heessent ial
ityofnut rients.
Soilfertil
ityev aluation
Optimum pr oduct iv
ityofanycr oppi ngsy stemsdependsonanadequat esuppl yof
nutri
ent s.Al thoughoneormor enut rientsar ecommonl yappl i
edt omostcr ops,t he
quantityofnut ri
entr emov edint hehar vestedcr opi smuchgr eat erthanthequant it
y
added.
Diagnost ict echni ques,i ncludi
ngi dentifi
cationofdef i
ciencysy mpt omsarehel pf ulin
determi ningspeci fi
cnut r
ientstressandt hequant i
tyofnut r
ientsneededt oel i
mi nate
thestress.
Severalt echni quesar ecommonl yempl oyedt oassesst hef erti
lit
yst atusofasoi l
.
1.Nut r i
entdef ici
encysy mpt omsofapl ant.
2.Anal ysi
soft issuef rom thepl antsgr owingint hesoi l
.
3.Bi ologicalt estsi nwhicht hegr owt hofei therhi gherpl antsorcer t
ainmi cro
organism i susedasmeasur eofsoi lf
erti
li
ty.
4Soi l analysi
s.

SOI
LORGANI
CMATTER

Soilorgani
cmatt
errepr
esentsanaccumul
ati
onofparti
all
ydecayedandsy
nthesi
zed
plantandanimal
resi
dues.Soil
organi
cmatt
erconsi
stsofgeneral
lyt
wogroupsand
theseare:

(
a)Decomposi
ngor
gani
cmat
ter

Thisrefer
stot heori
ginalt
issueandincludestheundecomposedr
ootsandotherpl
ant
part
s,leavesetc.t
hatar ef
oundinthesoi l
.Thesemat er
ial
sar
esti
l
lundergoi
ng
decomposi t
ionandareatt i
mesr ef
erredtoasmanur e.

(
b)Humus

Theterm humusr efer

stotheendproductofdecomposit
ionandthi
smat er
ial
(humus)
i
sresist
antt ofur
therdecomposi
ti
oninthesoil
.Thepropert
iesofhumusarethatiti
s
gel
ati
nous( sti
cks),
resi
stantt
odecompositi
on,bl
acktobrownincolor
,iti
scoll
oidali
n
nat
ure,
hasahi
ghwat
erandnut
ri
entr
etent
ioncapaci
ty.
.