About the Author

Leonard Peter Samillano is a practicing electrical engineer and a faculty member at University of Antique
with a deep passion for both the precision of mathematics and the applied brilliance of engineering.
Holding dual undergraduate degrees in BS Mathematics and BS Electrical Engineering, as well as a
Master of Engineering, he brings a powerful interdisciplinary approach to the study of electromagnetics.

This textbook is lovingly written as a tribute to the bright minds he has encountered in his journey
through the University of Antique, College of Engineering and Architecture.

His goal is to inspire and leave behind a legacy of learning. Rooted in experience, enriched by education,
and written with heart. This is his contribution to the field he loves and the students he believes in.
for Nalnie and Altissia
Topic 1 – INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETICS

Electromagnetics is a specialized field within electrical engineering that focuses on studying

electric and magnetic phenomena. It can be described as the exploration of how electric

charges behave whether they are stationary or in motion and how they interact with one

another through electric and magnetic fields.

Electromagnetics involves several important aspects, including:

- Understanding how electric and magnetic fields are generated and how they behave.

- Analyzing how these fields interact with materials and with each other.

- Interpreting the physical meaning of these interactions and how they affect circuits

and systems.

- Applying this knowledge in technologies such as wireless communication, sensors,

power transmission, and electronics.

In essence, electromagnetics serves as the fundamental physics behind many systems

and devices in electrical engineering. Without it, technologies like transformers, antennas,

MRI machines, and microwave ovens wouldn’t be possible.

Topic 2- SCALARS AND VECTORS

In physics and engineering, quantities are often described using either scalars or vectors,
depending on whether direction matters.

Scalar Quantities

A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude meaning it tells you how much of something there
is, but not which direction it's going.

Examples of Scalars:

Time – e.g., “5 seconds”

Mass – e.g., “70 kilograms”

Temperature – e.g., “37°C”

Distance – e.g., “10 meters”

Speed – e.g., “60 km/h” (no direction stated)

​ If it can be described with just a number and a unit, it’s likely a scalar.

Vector Quantities

A vector has both magnitude and direction. That means it tells you how much and where it's
pointing.

Examples of Vectors:

Velocity – 60 km/h to the north

Displacement – 5 meters to the right

Force – 10 N pushing upward

Electric Field Intensity – 15 V/m to the east

Vectors are often represented with arrows or written in component form.

How to Write Vectors

A vector A in 3D space (Cartesian coordinates) can be written in two ways:

 1.​ As an ordered triple:

A=(Ax,Ay,Az)

This shows the components of the vector along the x (abscissa), y (ordinate), and z (applicate) axes.

2.​ As a combination of unit vectors:

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧𝑎𝑧

Here, 𝑎𝑥, 𝑎𝑦, and 𝑎𝑧 are unit vectors that point in the direction of the x, y, and z axes, respectively.

For example, if A=(3,−2,5), that means the vector goes:

3 units in the x-direction,

2 units backward in the y-direction,

and 5 units up in the z-direction.

Other Coordinate Systems

While the XYZ (Cartesian) system is common, vectors can also be written using other coordinate systems,
such as:

●​ Cylindrical: useful when working with circular or spiral structures 𝐴 = 𝐴ρ𝑎ρ + 𝐴ϕ𝑎ϕ + 𝐴𝑧𝑎𝑧
●​ Spherical: useful for fields that spread in all directions from a point (like gravity or
electromagnetic radiation) 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴θ𝑎θ + 𝐴ϕ𝑎ϕ
Example 2.1

​ Given two vectors 𝐻 = 𝑎𝑥 + 4𝑎𝑦 − 3𝑎𝑧 and 𝐽 = 3𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 − 𝑎𝑧. Find 𝐻𝐽 and its
magnitude

Solution:

To find 𝐻𝐽, we will subtract the components of J to H

𝐻𝐽= (3 − 1)𝑎𝑥 + (− 1 − 4)𝑎𝑦 + (− 1 − 3)𝑎𝑧

𝐻𝐽= 2𝑎𝑥 − 5𝑎𝑦 − 4𝑎𝑧

For the magnitude

2 2 2
|𝐻𝐽| = (2) + (− 5) + (− 4) = 4 + 25 + 16 = 45 𝑜𝑟 6. 7082 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
Example 2.2

​ Given points X(1 ,3, -2), Y(2, 3, 4) and Z(-1, -1, 2). Find 𝑌𝑋, 𝑋𝑌, 𝑌𝑍 and 𝑋𝑍. Also, find the
perimeter of the triangle that points X, Y and Z make.

𝑌𝑋 = (1 − 2)𝑎𝑥 + (3 − 3)𝑎𝑦 + (− 2 − 4)𝑎𝑧 = − 𝑎𝑥 + 0𝑎𝑦 − 6𝑎𝑧 = − 𝑎𝑥 − 6𝑎𝑧

𝑋𝑌 = (2 − 1)𝑎𝑥 + (3 − 3)𝑎𝑦 + (4 − − 2)𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + 6𝑎𝑧

Notice how 𝑌𝑋 is just the negative of 𝑋𝑌? They are opposite directions.

𝑌𝑍= (− 1 − 2)𝑎𝑥 + (− 1 − 3)𝑎𝑦 + (2 − 4)𝑎𝑧 = − 3𝑎𝑥 − 4𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑧

𝑋𝑍= (− 1 − 1)𝑎𝑥 + (− 1 − 3)𝑎𝑦 + (2 − − 2)𝑎𝑧 = − 2𝑎𝑥 − 4𝑎𝑦 + 4𝑎𝑧

For the perimeter, we get the magnitude of 𝑋𝑌, 𝑌𝑍 and 𝑍𝑋

2 2
|𝑋𝑌| = (1) + (6) = 1 + 36 = 37

2 2 2
|𝑌𝑍| = (− 3) + (− 4) + (− 2) = 9 + 16 + 4 = 29

The magnitude of 𝑋𝑍 is same as of 𝑍𝑋

2 2 2
|𝑍𝑋| = (− 2) + (− 4) + (4) = 4 + 16 + 16 = 36 = 6

The perimeter is

P= 37 + 29 + 6 = 17.468 units
Activity 2.1

Instructions: For each physical quantity listed below, write "Scalar" if it has only magnitude, or "Vector" if
it has both magnitude and direction.

1.​ Temperature –
2.​ Time –
3.​ Mass –
4.​ Speed –
5.​ Distance –
6.​ Displacement –
7.​ Velocity –
8.​ Force –
9.​ Acceleration –
10.​30 m/sec, East –
11.​Voltage –
12.​Pressure –
13.​Thrust –
14.​Electric Field –
15.​Momentum –
Activity 2.1

Instructions: Answer what is required.

1. Given two vectors 𝑃 = 2𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑦 and 𝑄 = 2𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑧, find 𝑃𝑄 and its magnitude.

2. Given points A(1,1,−1), B(2,-1,3) and C(1,−1,-2), find the perimeter of the triangle formed by these
points.

3. Two forces 𝐹1 = 3𝑎𝑥 + 4𝑎𝑦 and 𝐹2 =− 𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑦 act on an object. Find the resultant force and its
magnitude.
Topic 3- Cartesian Plane

The Cartesian plane is a flat surface used to graph points, lines, and shapes using numbers. It’s
made up of two number lines:

The x-axis (horizontal line)

The y-axis (vertical line)

These two lines cross each other at a point called the origin, which is written as (0, 0).

How It Works

Move left or right from the origin to find the x-coordinate.

Move up or down to find the y-coordinate.

Each point on the plane is written as an ordered pair (x, y):

x tells how far left or right from the origin.

 y tells how far up or down from the origin.

Example Points:

1.​ (3, 2) → Go 3 units right and 2 units up

2.​ (-4, 1) → Go 4 units left and 1 unit up
3.​ (0, -5) → Stay on the y-axis, go 5 units down
4.​ (-2, -3) → Go 2 units left and 3 units down

The Four Quadrants:

The Cartesian plane is split into 4 quadrants:

Quadrant I: (+, +) → right and up

Quadrant II: (−, +) → left and up

Quadrant III: (−, −) → left and down

Quadrant IV: (+, −) → right and down

Three-Dimensional (3D) Cartesian Plane

In math and science, we often use a 2D plane like a sheet of paper with two axes:

The x-axis (goes left to right)

The y-axis (goes up and down)

But the world isn’t flat, and many real-world problems need a third direction. That’s where the
3D Cartesian plane comes in. In a three-dimensional coordinate system, we add a z-axis, which comes
out perpendicular to the x–y plane.

x-axis → moves left or right

y-axis → moves forward or backward (or up/down in 2D)

z-axis → moves up or down (like height in 3D)

These three axes meet at a point called the origin, written as (0, 0, 0).
Naming a Point in 3D

To describe a point in 3D space, we use three values written as (x, y, z):

x is how far you move left/right

y is how far you move forward/backward

z is how far you move up/down

Example: The point (3, -2, 5) means:

3 units to the right (x),

2 units backward (y),

5 units up (z)

What Are Octants?

Each octant corresponds to a unique combination of positive and negative values for the three axes:

x-axis (left/right),

y-axis (front/back),

z-axis (up/down)

Octant x y z Example point

I + + + (3, 2, 1)

II - + + (−4, 1, 5)

III - - + (−2, −3, 6)

IV + - + (1, −5, 2)

V + + - (2, 3, −1)

VI - + - (−3, 4, −2)

VII - - - (−1, −2, −3)

VIII + - - (5, −4, −1)

Activity 3.1

Instructions: Answer the following questions. Write your answers clearly.

1. What is the coordinate of the origin on a 2D Cartesian plane?

2. In which quadrant is the point (-3, 4) located?

3. If a point is located at (5, -2), which quadrant or axis does it belong to?

4. What is the distance of the point (0, 5) from the x-axis?

Activity 3.2

Instructions: Look at the graph. Each point is labeled with a letter. Write the coordinates of each point in
the form (x, y).

1.​ Point M = __________

2.​ Point N = __________
3.​ Point P = __________

Instructions: Plot the following points on a Cartesian plane. Label each point with its corresponding
letter.

1.​ A (2, 3)
2.​ B (-4, 5)
3.​ C (0, -2)
Activity 3.3

Instructions: Answer the following questions. Write your answers clearly.

1. What is the coordinate of the origin on a 3D Cartesian plane?

2. In which octant is the point (-3, 4, 5) located?
3. If a point is located at (5, -2, 3), which octant does it belong to?
4. What is the distance of the point (0, 0, 5) from the xy-plane?
Activity 3.4

Instructions: Make a 3D Cartesian plane and plot the following points on the plane. Label each point with
its corresponding letter.

1.​ A (2, 3, 4)
2.​ B (-4, 5, 6)
3.​ C (0, -2, 3)
4.​ D (-3, -4, -5)
5.​ E (5, 0, 2)
6.​ F (1, -5, -3)
7.​ G (-2, 2, 1)
8.​ H (4, -3, -2)
Topic 4 - UNIT VECTOR and THE VECTOR FIELD

A vector that has a magnitude of 1 is a unit vector. For example, vector v = (1, 3, 2) is not a unit
vector, because its magnitude is not equal to 1. Any vector can become a unit vector by dividing it by the
magnitude of the given vector.

𝐴𝑥𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧𝑎𝑧

𝑎𝐴 =
2 2 2
𝐴𝑥+ 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧

Why Use Unit Vectors?

Unit vectors are helpful when we want to describe direction only, without worrying about how
long the vector is. They're like a compass: pointing the way, not measuring distance.
Example 4.1

A force vector F = (6, 8, 10) acts on a structure. What is the unit vector F in the direction of F?
6𝑎𝑥 + 8𝑎𝑦 +10𝑎𝑧
𝑎𝐹 = 2 2 2
(6) +(8) +(10)

6𝑎𝑥 + 8𝑎𝑦 +10𝑎𝑧

𝑎𝐹=
200

𝑎𝐹= 0. 42𝑎𝑥 + 0. 566𝑎𝑦+ 10. 707𝑎𝑧

Example 4.2

Given a vector 𝑉 = 4𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑎𝑦 + 2𝑎𝑧 and point P(2, 3, 1). Find the unit vector directed from P toward
V.

Solution:

𝑃𝑉 = (4 − 2)𝑎𝑥 + (− 3 − 3)𝑎𝑦 + (2 − 1)𝑎𝑧= 2𝑎𝑥 − 6𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧

2𝑎𝑥 −6𝑎𝑦+ 𝑎𝑧 2𝑎𝑥 −6𝑎𝑦+ 𝑎𝑧

𝑎𝑃𝑉= = = 0. 3123𝑎𝑥 − 0. 937𝑎𝑦 + 0. 1562𝑎𝑧
2 2
(2) +(−6) +(1)
2 41
Vector FIeld

A vector field assigns a vector to every point in a region of space. Think of it as a map that tells
you which way something is moving and how strongly at every location. Imagine invisible currents
flowing through space like magnetic auras around planets, swirling winds over oceans, or subtle nudges
guiding particles in electric fields. This topic dives into vector fields by treating them as force landscapes,
where every point whispers a direction and strength.

Vector field examples:

Wind blowing across a landscape

Water currents swirling around a rock

Magnetic lines surrounding a magnet

At every spot, a tiny arrow shows the local behavior.

In 3D space, a vector field is expressed as:

 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐹𝑥(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑎𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑎𝑦 + 𝐹𝑧(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑎𝑧

Each component is a function that varies with position

Applications in Real Life

Physics: Electric & magnetic fields define how particles move

Engineering: Fluid dynamics relies on vector fields to study air and water flow

Computer graphics: Flow fields help animate smoke, wind, or crowd movement

Meteorology: Wind maps are vector fields plotted over weather systems
Example 4.3
2 −𝑧
​ Given the vector field 𝐹 = (𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑎 + (𝑥𝑧 + 3𝑦)𝑎𝑦 + (𝑒 + 𝑦𝑧)𝑎𝑧. a) Evaluate F
𝑥
at point M(1, 3, -1), b) Find a unit vector specifying the direction of F at M, and c) Describe the
locus of all points for which 𝐹𝑦 = 3.

Solution:
a)
2 −𝑧
Substitute point M to the given equation 𝐹 = (𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑎𝑥 + (𝑥𝑧 + 3𝑦)𝑎𝑦 + (𝑒 + 𝑦𝑧)𝑎𝑧

2 −(−1)
𝐹 = ((3) − (− 1))𝑎𝑥 + ((1)(− 1) + 3(3))𝑎𝑦 + (𝑒 + (3)(− 1))𝑎𝑧

𝐹 = 10𝑎𝑥 + 8𝑎𝑦 − 0. 63212𝑎𝑧

b)
2 2 2
|𝐹| = (10) + (8) + (− 0. 63212) = 12. 8218 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

10𝑎𝑥 +8𝑎𝑦−0.63212 𝑎𝑧
𝑎𝐹= 12.8218
= 0. 77992𝑎𝑥 + 0. 6239 + 0. 0493 𝑎𝑧

c)

𝐹𝑦 = 3 then,

𝐹𝑦 = 3 = (𝑥𝑧 + 3𝑦)
Activity 4.1

1.​ A wind velocity vector v = (3, 4, 0) is measured. What is the unit vector av in the direction of v?
2.​ A robot arm moves along the vector r = (−2, 6, 3). What is the unit vector in that direction?
3.​ A drone moves along vector d = (5, −3, 2). What is the magnitude of d?
Activity 4.2
2 2
1. For the vector field 𝐴 = (2𝑥 − 𝑦 )𝑎 + (𝑥𝑧 + 3𝑦)𝑎𝑦 + (𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧)𝑎𝑧, determine the unit
𝑥
vector specifying the direction of A at the point J (1, -1, 2).
2 2
2. Given 𝑁 = (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧)𝑎 + (3𝑥 − 𝑦𝑧)𝑎𝑦 + (𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧)𝑎𝑧 as a vector, solve for the
𝑥
unit vector specifying the direction of F at the point (-1, 2, 3).

2 2 2 2
3. Given 𝑇 = [𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 1) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑦𝑧)𝑎𝑥 + [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥𝑦) + 𝑧 ]𝑎𝑦 + [ 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ]𝑎𝑧,
solve for the unit vector specifying the direction of T at the point E (2, 1, -1).
Activity 4.3

1.​ A vector A = (2, −1, 4) is given.

Tasks:

1.​ Calculate the magnitude of A.

2.​ Find the unit vector Â.

2. A force vector F = (5, −3, 2) N is given.

Tasks:

1.​ Find the magnitude of F.

2.​ Determine the unit vector F̂ that represents the direction of F.
Topic 5 - VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

In electromagnetics, physical quantities like electric field, magnetic flux, force, and current
density are vector quantities, they have both magnitude and direction. Understanding how to add and
subtract vectors correctly is essential for analyzing field interactions and solving real-world engineering
problems.

Two vectors A and B can be added together to give another vector C; C = A + B

if A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz) then,

C = (Ax + Bx)ax + (Ay + By)ay + (Az + Bz)az

Subtraction is similarly executed; D = A - B = A + (-B)

D = (Ax - Bx)ax + (Ay - By)ay + (Az - Bz)az

Graphically, the vectors are viewed as

and
Example 5.1

Let vector A = (2, 4, 1) and vector B = (−1, 3, 5). Find A + B

Solution: To add vectors, simply add each corresponding component:

A+B=(2+(−1), 4+3, 1+5)=(1, 7, 6)

Example 5.2

Problem: Let vector P = (5, −2, 4) and vector Q = (3, 1, −1). Find P − Q

Solution: Subtract each component of Q from P:

P−Q= (5−3, −2−1, 4−(−1))= (2, −3, 5)

Activity 5.1

Instructions: Answer the following

1. Add the vectors A = (2, 3, 1) and B = (4, −1, 2). What is the resultant vector R?

2. Subtract the vectors P = (5, −2, 4) and Q = (3, 1, −1). What is the resultant vector R?

3. Add the vectors A = (3, 4, 5) and B = (−2, 1, 3), then subtract C = (1, −3, 2). What is the resultant vector
R?

4. Given A = (2, 3, 4), B = (−1, 5, 2), and C = (3, −2, 1), find R = A − B + C.

5. Given A = (4, 2, 1) B = (−3, 5, 2) C = (1, −1, 3) D = (2, 3, −2). Find: R = A + B − C + D

Activity 5.2

Given vectors 𝐿 = 3𝑎 + 3𝑎𝑦 + 3𝑎𝑧 , 𝑀 = − 𝑎𝑥 + 5𝑎𝑦 + 7𝑎𝑧 and

𝑥
𝑁 = 2𝑎𝑥 + 6𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧

Solve for:
1. 2(L-N)
2. (L+M)-N
3. 3(L+M) - 2(L+N)
4. 5L - (N+M)
5. (N+M)+ (L/6)
Topic 6 - VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

The dot product (also called the scalar product) of two vectors A and B, written as A • B. is defined
geometrically as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle between them.
The dot product is found by multiplying the magnitude (length) of vector A, the magnitude (length) of
vector B and the cosine of the angle (θ) between them

𝐴 • 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠θ𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧𝐵𝑧

​ Also, consider that

𝑎𝑥 • 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑦 • 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎𝑧 • 𝑎𝑥 = 0

𝑎𝑥 • 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 • 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑧 • 𝑎𝑧 = 1

​ The dot product obeys commutative and distributive law. It tells you how much one vector goes
in the same direction as another. It’s not another vector. It gives you a single number (scalar).

If the angle between A and B is:

0° (they point the same way), cos(θ) = 1, so the dot product is maximum

90° (they’re perpendicular), cos(θ) = 0, so the dot product is zero

180° (they point opposite directions), cos(θ) = −1, so the dot product is negative

The cross product (or vector product) of two vectors A and B. written as A X B. is a vector quantity whose
magnitude is the area of the parallelopiped formed by A and B. ∣A| and ∣B| are the magnitudes of the
two vectors. θ is the angle between them. sin⁡(θ) captures how different their directions are
Also, consider that

𝑎𝑥 𝑥 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑧

𝑎𝑦 𝑥 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥

𝑎𝑧 𝑥 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦

​ The dot product obeys anti commutative and distributive law.

When:

θ= 0 → Cross product is 0 (vectors are parallel)

θ= 90 → Cross product is maximum (vectors are perpendicular)

If vectors A and B are in 3D space:

A×B=C

The resulting vector C is perpendicular (at a right angle) to both A and B.

The magnitude (length) of C tells you how "spread apart" the vectors are

To find the direction of the cross product:

1.​ Point your index finger in the direction of vector A

2.​ Point your middle finger in the direction of vector B
3.​ Your thumb will point in the direction of A × B
Example 6.1

Given points A(3, 1, 4), B(2, 5, -1) and C(-2, 2, 1). Find a) 𝐵𝐴 • 𝐶𝐵 , b) 𝐵𝐴 𝑥 𝐶𝐵 , c) the angle between 𝐵𝐴
and 𝐶𝐵 , and d) the area of the triangle formed by points ABC.

Solution:

a)

𝐵𝐴 = (3 − 2)𝑎𝑥 + (1− 5)𝑎𝑦 + (4 −− 1)𝑎𝑧= 𝑎𝑥 − 4𝑎𝑦 + 5𝑎𝑧

𝐶𝐵 = (2 −− 2)𝑎𝑥 + (5− 2)𝑎𝑦 + (− 1 − 1)𝑎𝑧= 4𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑧

𝐵𝐴 • 𝐶𝐵 = (1)(4) + (− 4)(3) + (5)(− 2) = (4) + (− 12) + (− 10) = − 18

b)

𝐵𝐴 𝑥 𝐶𝐵 =

𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧

1 -4 5

4 3 -2

𝐵𝐴 𝑥 𝐶𝐵 = [(− 4)(− 2) − (3)(5)]𝑎𝑥 + [(1)(− 2) −(4)(5)]𝑎𝑦 + [(1)(3) − (4)(− 4)]𝑎𝑧

𝐵𝐴 𝑥 𝐶𝐵 = [8) − (15)]𝑎𝑥 + [(− 2) −(20)]𝑎𝑦 + [(3) − (− 16)]𝑎𝑧

𝐵𝐴 𝑥 𝐶𝐵 = − 7𝑎𝑥 − 22𝑎𝑦 + 19𝑎𝑧

c)

𝐵𝐴 • 𝐶𝐵 = |𝐵𝐴||𝐶𝐵|𝑐𝑜𝑠θ

2 2 2
|𝐵𝐴| = (1) + (− 4) + (5) = 42 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

2 2 2
|𝐶𝐵| = (4) + (3) + (− 2) = 29 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

𝐵𝐴 • 𝐶𝐵 =− 18 = 42 29𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
−18
𝑐𝑜𝑠θ =
42 29
 −1 −18
θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 121. 05 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
42 29

d)

1 1 2 2 2
𝐴= 2
|𝐵𝐴 𝑥 𝐶𝐵| = 2
(− 7) + (− 22) + (19) = 14. 9499 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
Activity 6.1

Answer what is required.

1. Given two vectors a= (3, 4, 0) and b= (1, 2, 2), what is their dot product a⋅b?

2. Find the magnitude of the cross product a×b for a= (2, 3, 4) and b= (1, 0, −1).

3. What is the angle between two vectors a= (1, 0, 0) and b= (0, 1, 0)?

4. Given three points A(1, 2, 3), B(4, 5, 6), and C(7, 8, 9), find the area of the triangle formed by these
points.

5. If a= (2, 3, 4) and b= (1, 0, -1), what is the vector result of a×b?

Activity 6.2

Given three points in 3D space L (2, -1, 3), M (4, 2, -1) and N (1, 0, 5)

Find/compute:

a) vectors LM and LN.

b) the dot product LM and LN.

c) the angle θ between LM and LN.

d) the cross product LM×LN.

e) the area of the LMN triangle using the magnitude of the cross product.
Topic 7 - COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

CARTESIAN COORDINATES (X, Y, Z)

​ The ranges of the coordinate variables x, y, and z are

​ A vector A in Cartesian coordinates can be written as A = (Ax, Ay, Az) or A = Axax + Ayay + Azaz

where ax, ay, and az are unit vectors along the x-, y-, and z-directions

CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES (p, Φ, z)

​ The ranges of the variables are

A vector A in Cylindrical coordinates can be written as A=(Aρ, AΦ, Az) or A=Aρaρ + AΦaΦ + Azaz where

aρ, aΦ, and az are unit vectors in the p-, Φ-, and z-directions
​ Based on the figure and the x, y, z coordinate system, we can mathematically formulate that,

2 2
ρ= 𝑥 +𝑦
−1 𝑦
Φ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

z=z
​ To find any component of a vector, we use the dot product. The desired component may be
obtained by taking the dot product of the vector and a unit vector. Hence,

Aρ=A•aρ and AΦ=A•aΦ

Furthermore,

Aρ = (Axax + Ayay + Azaz) •aρ = Ax(ax•aρ) + Ay(ay•aρ) + Az(az•aρ)

AΦ = (Axax + Ayay + Azaz) •aΦ = Ax(ax•aΦ) + Ay(ay•aΦ) + Az(az•aΦ)

​ The dot product result maybe defined on the table

aρ aΦ az

ax cos Φ -sin Φ 0

ay sin Φ cos Φ 0
 az 0 0 1

​ Thus, results to,

Aρ = Ax cos Φ + Ay sin Φ + Az 0 and

AΦ = Ax (-sin Φ) + Ay cos Φ+ Az 0 lastly

Az= Ax(ax•az) + Ay(ay•az) + Az(az•az) = Ax (0) + Ay(0) + Az(1) = Az

SPHERICAL COORDINATES (r, θ, Φ)

The ranges of the variables are

A vector A in Cylindrical coordinates can be written as A=(Ar, Aθ, AzΦ) or A=Arar + Aθaθ + AΦaΦ where

ar, aθ, and aΦ are unit vectors in the r-, θ-, and Φ-directions
Based on the figure and the x, y, z coordinate system, we can mathematically formulate that,

2 2 2
𝑟= 𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧
−1 𝑧
θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2 2
𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧
−1 𝑦
Φ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

To find any component of a vector, we use the dot product. The desired component may be obtained by
taking the dot product of the vector and a unit vector. Hence,

Ar=A•ar , Aθ=A•aθ and AΦ=A•aΦ

Furthermore,

Ar = (Axax + Ayay + Azaz) •ar = Ax(ax•ar) + Ay(ay•ar) + Az(az•ar)

Aθ = (Axax + Ayay + Azaz) •aθ = Ax(ax•aθ) + Ay(ay•aθ) + Az(az•aθ)

AΦ = (Axax + Ayay + Azaz) •aΦ = Ax(ax•aΦ) + Ay(ay•aΦ) + Az(az•aΦ)

​ The dot product result maybe defined on the table

ar aθ aΦ

ax sin θ cos Φ cos θ cos Φ -sin Φ

ay sin θ sin Φ cos θ sin Φ cos Φ

az cos θ -sin θ 0

Thus, results to,

Ar = Ax sin θ cos Φ + Ay sin θ sin Φ + Az cos θ and

Aθ = Ax cos θ cos Φ + Ay cos θ sin Φ + Az (-sin θ) lastly

AΦ = Ax (-sin Φ) + Ay cos Φ + Az 0
Example 8.1

A vector A is given in Cartesian coordinates as:

V = 3ax + 4ay + 5az

Transform this vector into:

a) Cylindrical coordinates: A=Aρaρ+AΦaΦ+Azaz

b) Spherical coordinates: A=Arar+Aθaθ+AΦaΦ

Assume the point of interest is at x=3, y=4 and z=5

Solution:

a)

2 2 2 2
ρ= 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3 +4 = 5

−1 𝑦 −1 4
Φ=𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3
= 53. 13 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠

𝑧=5

Refer to the dot product table

𝐴ρ = 𝐴⋅𝑎ρ = 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡Φ + 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡Φ + 5(0) = 3(0. 6) + 4(0. 8) = 1. 8 + 3. 2 = 5

𝐴ϕ = 𝐴⋅𝑎ϕ = 3(− 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡Φ) + 4(𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡Φ) + 5(0) = 3(− 0. 8) + 4(0. 6) =− 2. 4 + 2. 4 = 0

𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴⋅𝑎𝑧 = 5

𝐴 = 5𝑎ρ + 0𝑎ϕ + 5𝑎𝑧 = 5𝑎ρ + 5𝑎𝑧

b)

2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑟= 𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 = 3 + 4 + 5 = 50 𝑜𝑟 7. 07 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

−1 𝑧 −1 5
θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7.07
= 45 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠

−1 𝑦 −1 4
ϕ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3
= 53. 13 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
Refer to the dot product table

𝐴𝑟 = 3(𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡θ𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡Φ) + 4(𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡θ𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡Φ) + 5(𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡θ)

= 3(0. 707)(0. 6) + 4(0. 707)(0. 8) + 5(0. 707) = 1. 27 + 2. 26 + 3. 54 = 7. 07

𝐴θ = 3(𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡θ𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡Φ) + 4(𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡θ𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡Φ) + 5(− 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡θ)

= 3(0. 707)(0. 6) + 4(0. 707)(0. 8) − 5(0. 707) = 1. 27 + 2. 26 − 3. 54 = − 0. 01

𝐴ϕ = 3(− 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡Φ) + 4(𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡Φ) + 5(0) =− 3(0. 8) + 4(0. 6) =− 2. 4 + 2. 4 = 0

𝐴 = 7. 07𝑎𝑟 − 0. 01𝑎θ + 0𝑎ϕ = 7. 07𝑎𝑟 − 0. 01𝑎θ

Example 8.2

Given the points A (x= -1, y= 2, z= 4) and B (r= 3, θ= 20, ϕ= 95), find a) cylindrical coordinates of
A, b) cartesian coordinates of B and c) the distance from A to B.

Solution:

a)

2 2 2 2
ρ= 𝑥 + 𝑦 = (− 1) + (2) = 2. 2236

−1 𝑦 −1 2
Φ=𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
=− 63. 43 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠

Since x<, we add 180° to get the correct quadrant,

ϕ= -63.43+180= 116.57 degrees

𝑧=5

A (ρ = 2.236, φ = 116.57°, z = 4)

b)

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡θ𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡ϕ = 3(0. 342)(− 0. 087) =− 0. 089

𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡θ𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡ϕ = 3(0. 342)(0. 996) = 1. 021

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡θ = 3(0. 940) = 2. 82

B (x = -0.089, y = 1.021, z = 2.82)

c)

2 2 2
𝐷 = (𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴) + (𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴) + (𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴)

2 2 2
𝐷 = (− 0. 089 −− 1) + (1. 021 − 2) + (2. 82 − 4)

2 2 2
𝐷 = (0. 911) + (− 0. 979) + (− 1. 18) = 0. 83 + 0. 96 + 1. 39

𝐷 = 1. 78 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
Example 8.3

Transform each of the following vectors as specified coordinates at the point specified a)
4ax-2ay-4az at (rho=2, phi=78 degrees, z=3) to cylindrical b) 3ax at (1, 3, 5) to spherical.

Solution:

a)

4ax-2ay-4az at (2, 78 degrees, 3) ← Cylindrical

Let A= 4ax-2ay-4az

𝐴ρ = 𝐴⋅𝑎ρ = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡78 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡78 − 4(0) = 4(0. 2079) − 2(0. 9781) =− 1. 1247

𝐴ϕ = 𝐴⋅𝑎ϕ = 4(− 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡78) − 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡78) − 4(0) = 4(− 0. 9781) − 2(0. 2079) =− 4. 3282

𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴⋅𝑎𝑧 =− 4

𝐴 = − 1. 1247𝑎ρ − 4. 3282𝑎ϕ − 4𝑎𝑧

b)

Convert 3ax at point (x = 1, y = 3, z = 5) ← Spherical

2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑟= 𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 = 1 + 3 + 5 = 35 𝑜𝑟 5. 9161 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

−1 𝑧 −1 5
θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5.9161
= 32. 31 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠

−1 𝑦 −1 3
ϕ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 1
= 71. 57 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠

Compute:

sin ⁡θ= 0.514

cos ⁡θ= 0.857

cos ⁡ϕ= 0.316

sin ⁡ϕ= 0.949

Let A= 3ax

𝐴 = 3[(𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡θ𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡Φ)𝑎𝑟 + (𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡θ𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡Φ)𝑎θ − (𝑠𝑖𝑚⁡θ)𝑎ϕ]

𝐴 = 0. 49𝑎𝑟 + 0. 81𝑎θ − 2. 85𝑎ϕ

Activity 8.1

A vector B is given in Cartesian coordinates as:

B = 6ax − 2ay + 4az

Transform this vector into:

a) Cylindrical coordinates: B=Bρaρ+BΦaΦ+Bzaz

b) Spherical coordinates: B=Brar+Bθaθ+BΦaΦ

Assume the point of interest is x=6, y=8 and z=4

Activity 8.2

1. Given points P(3, 4, 2) and Q(5, 120°, 3). Find a unit vector in cylindrical coordinates at point
Q directed toward point P.

2. Given points A(6, −2, 4) and B(ρ = 4, φ = 45°, z = 1), find a unit vector in cylindrical
coordinates at point B directed toward point A.

3. Given points C(2, 3, 5) in Cartesian coordinates and D(r = 6, θ = 60°, φ = 120°) in spherical
coordinates, find a unit vector in spherical coordinates at point D directed toward point C.
Topic 9 - COULOMB’S LAW AND ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

Everything in the universe with an electric charge either pushes or pulls on everything else that’s
charged. This invisible force is Coulomb’s Law in action. And the way a single charge warps space around
it? That’s an electric field. In this chapter, we’ll explore how two tiny particles can tug at each other
across empty space and how fields help us understand these invisible interactions.

Coulomb’s Law gives us the electric force between two point charges. It’s basically the
gravitational law of electrostatics but instead of mass, we use charge, and the forces can attract or repel.

𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 2
𝑟

𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 2 𝑎𝑣
𝑟

Where:

F is the magnitude of the electric force, N

q1 and q2 are the values of the two charges, C

r is the distance between the charges, m

9 1 −12
k is Coulomb’s constant: 8. 99𝑥10 𝑜𝑟 4πϵ0
, ϵ𝑜 = 8. 8542𝑥10

av is the unit vector in the direction from the source charge to the point of interest

Like charges repel (positive–positive or negative–negative). Unlike charges attract

(positive–negative). The force gets weaker with distance (inverse-square relationship)

Now, what happens if we just want to know how a single charge affects the space around it even
when no other charges are nearby? That’s where the electric field comes in.

The electric field intensity E at a point in space is the force per unit charge a tiny positive test charge
would feel if placed there:

𝐹
𝐸= 𝑞
Or, for a point charge Q:

𝑞1𝑞2
𝑘
𝑟
2
𝑞
𝐸= 𝑞
=𝑘 2 𝑎𝑣
𝑟

Where:

E is the electric field vector, N/C

Q is the source charge

r is the distance from the charge

av is the unit vector in the direction from the source charge to the point of interest

It’s like gravitational field strength, but for electric charges instead of mass.

Engineers use Coulomb’s Law and electric fields to design capacitors, sensors, and electrostatic
equipment. Electric fields explain how charges behave in circuits and insulators. Also, Understanding
field intensity is essential in antenna design, semiconductors, and electromagnetic shielding

Charge Density

In electromagnetics, charge density ρ(x,y,z)\rho(x, y, z) tells us how much electric charge is

present per unit volume at a given point in space. To find the total charge within a specified region, we
used a triple integral

Q=∭ρ(x,y,z) dx dy dz
For an electrical engineer, this kind of problem is foundational. Whether you're modeling charge
in a capacitor, analyzing electromagnetic fields, or simulating sensor behavior, understanding how to
integrate spatially varying quantities is key.

Understanding Streamlines in Vector Fields

In electromagnetics, streamlines offer a powerful way to visualize how particles move through a
field. They represent paths that are tangent to the vector field at every point, meaning they show the
direction a particle would follow if placed in the field. A streamline is not a physical object—it’s a
mathematical construct that helps us understand flow behavior. If you imagine placing a tiny particle in a
velocity field, the path it traces out (assuming steady flow) is a streamline.

Mathematically, for a vector field F=Fxaz+Fyay, the streamline satisfies:

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝐹𝑥
= 𝐹𝑦
This differential equation ensures that the particle’s movement aligns with the field’s direction at every
point.

Example 9.1

A 3 mC positive charge is located in vacuum at Q1 (4, 1, -3), and a 6 μC negative charge is placed
at Q2 (0, -2, 1). Find a) the vector force on the negative charge due to the positive charge, b) the
magnitude of the force on the charge at Q1?, c) the electric field at point Q2 due to the charge at Q1.

Solution:

𝑅12 = 𝑄2 − 𝑄1 = (0 − 4, − 2 − 1, 1 − (− 3)) = (− 4, − 3, 4)

2 2 2
|𝑅12| = (− 4) + (− 3) + 4 = 41 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠)

𝑅12 −4𝑎𝑥 −3𝑎𝑦+ 4𝑎𝑧

𝑎12 = = = − 0. 6247𝑎𝑥 − 0. 4685𝑎𝑦 + 0. 6247𝑎𝑧
|𝑅12| 41

𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 2 𝑎12
𝑟
−3 −6
9 (3𝑥10 )(−6𝑥10 )
= 8. 98755𝑥10 2 (− 0. 6247𝑎𝑥 − 0. 4685𝑎𝑦 + 0. 6247𝑎𝑧)
( 41)

= (− 3. 945754)(− 0. 6247𝑎𝑥 − 0. 4685𝑎𝑦 + 0. 6247𝑎𝑧)

= 2. 4649𝑎𝑥 + 1. 848586 − 2. 4649𝑎𝑧

The vector force is F(2.4649, 1.848586, -2.4649)

b)
The magnitude of the force on Q1 is the same as on Q2

2 2 2
|𝐹1| = |𝐹2| = (2. 4649) + (1. 848586) + (− 2. 4649) = 3. 9457

c)

−3
9 3𝑥10
𝐸 = 8. 98755𝑥10 2 (− 0. 6247𝑎𝑥 − 0. 4685𝑎𝑦 + 0. 6247𝑎𝑧)
41

= (657, 625. 61)(− 0. 6247𝑎𝑥 − 0. 4685𝑎𝑦 + 0. 6247𝑎𝑧)

3 3 3
= (− 410. 82𝑥10 𝑎𝑥 − 308. 1𝑥10 𝑎𝑦 + 410. 82𝑥10 𝑎𝑧)

Example 9.2

2
​ Given a charge density ρ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 8𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠(π𝑥𝑦). The volume is defined by,
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 3. Find the total charge

Solution:

3 2 1
2
𝑄 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 8𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠(π𝑥𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑧=1 𝑦=0 𝑥=0

3 2 1 3 1 2
2 2
= ∫ 8𝑧 ∫ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(π𝑥𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 8𝑧 ∫ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(π𝑥𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝑧=1 𝑦=0 𝑥=0 𝑧=1 𝑥=0 𝑦=0

3 1 3 1 3
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(π𝑥𝑦) 2 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2π𝑥) 2
= ∫ 8𝑧 ∫ ⎡ ⎤ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 8𝑧 ∫ ⎡ ⎤ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 8𝑧 (𝑠𝑖𝑛(2π)) 𝑑𝑧
𝑧=1 𝑥=0
⎣ π𝑥 ⎦0 𝑧=1 𝑥=0
⎣ π𝑥 ⎦ 𝑧=1

3 3 3
𝑧 2 26
=𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2π) ∫ 8𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = (8) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2π)⎡⎢ 3 ⎤⎥ = 3
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
𝑧=1 ⎣ ⎦1

Example 9.3

Obtain the equation of the streamline that passes through the point Q(1,2,0) in the vector field:
V=x2ax+ yay

Solution:

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2 = 𝑦
𝑥
 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
∫ 2 =∫ 𝑦
𝑥

1
− 𝑥
= 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 + 𝐶

@Q(1,2,0)
𝐶 =− 1 − 𝑙𝑛(2)

1
− 𝑥
= 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 − 1 − 𝑙𝑛(2)

1
𝑥
+ 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑙𝑛(2)
Topic 10 - ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY, GAUSS’S LAW AND DIVERGENCE

The electric flux density, also known as the electric displacement field D, tells us how electric
field lines behave when there's charge present in a medium.

𝐷 = ϵ𝐸
Where:

D= Electric flux density, C/m²

ε= Permittivity of the medium (how easily it allows electric fields)

E= Electric field intensity (V/m)

If E is the direction and strength of the electric breeze, then D tells us how that breeze carries
electric charges through space.