Paper: Airframe Systems Design

Table of Content

Aims

Accident/Incident Corner

Topics

Outcomes

Accident/Incident Corner

Assignment Summary

Airworthiness, Regulations and Technical Issues

Paper: Water Management within Fuel Tanks

Paper: Aircraft Icing and Thermo-Mechanical

Expulsion De-Icing

Paper: B767 Conversion to Special Freighter

Systems Modification

Paper: B747-400PAX/Combi Conversion to

Special Freighter Systems Modification

Presentation: Airframe Mechanical Systems

Installation

Presentation: FAR/CS 25.981(a)(3) Prevention

of Ignition in Fuel System

Aims

To expand knowledge of airframe systems, their role, design and integration,

to provide appreciation of the considerations necessary when selecting
aircraft power systems and the effect of systems on the aircraft. The course
provides:

 Major airframe systems description.

 Systems' weights, drag and power off-takes analysis.
 Fuel weight penalties analysis.
 Possible fuel weight penalties reduction.
 Comparison of current and advanced systems.
 More electric aircraft design.
Accident/Incident Corner: On July 17, 1996, a B747-100 (TWA 800), crashed
into the Atlantic Ocean about eight miles south of East Moriches, New York,
after taking off from Kennedy Airport. The crash was the result of a sudden
and catastrophic in-flight breakup. Witnesses saw an explosion and then
debris descending to the ocean. The flight crew did not report of any
problem to air traffic control. The NTSB determined that the cause of the
accident was a center wing fuel tank explosion, resulting from fuel/air vapor
ignition. The ignition source could not be determined with certainty; most
likely a combination of a fuel quantity indicating system fault inside the fuel
tank, and a short circuit or other fault outside the tank, resulting in a high-
energy arc. The FAA concluded that many current airplanes had similar
shortcoming. A Special Federal Aviation Regulation (SFAR) 88 issued in 2001,
requires the reexamination of the commercial fleet, ignition prevention and
implementation of safety enhancements. TWA 800 investigation discovered
numerous deficiencies in wiring and wiring related components. The Boeing
747 and nearly all other transport airplanes examined, revealed wiring
problems associated with aging and deterioration. As a result, the FAA issued
new regulations, intended to address wiring as a unique system, with
targeted maintenance. Additionally, FAA research showed that air separation
modules (ASM), a key component of an inerting system, perform well at low
differential pressures. This allows integrating ASMs into the bleed air system
(which typically operate at 10-40 psi), producing and supplying nitrogen into
the fuel tanks.

Topics

The course provides an in-depth understanding of actuators, sensors and

other components of airframe systems and flight control systems including
both analysis and practical use of sub-systems and components. Reviews of
good design practices typically used in airframe systems design.
The course covers meteorology and physics of aircraft icing, forecasting,
finding and avoiding icing conditions, designing and evaluating ice protection
systems and certification of aircraft for flight into known icing conditions.

Set of classical and modern airframe systems including more and all electric
aircraft systems analysis and design tools/software were presented. These
tools/software form a design process that enable the development of
advanced airframe systems that are implemented in “real world” vehicles.
These techniques can used to design typical aeronautical vehicles’ lateral
and longitudinal flight controllers.

The course covers fundamental design issues, analysis, design

methodologies for aerospace fuel, ECS, hydraulic and flight control systems
including design requirements, component description and operation,
component and system math modeling, component sizing, system layout
rationale, system sizing and airframe integration. The presentations
emphasize the fundamentals and necessary engineering tools (both
analytical and otherwise) needed to understand and design aerospace
systems. Practical examples and actual systems were presented and
discussed throughout the class. The course topics cover:

 Introduction to Airframe Systems.

 Systems Design Philosophy and Safety.
 Aircraft Secondary Power Systems.
 Aircraft Pneumatics Power Systems.
 Aircraft Hydraulics Power Systems.
 Aircraft Electrical Power Systems.
 Aircraft Emergency Systems.
 Flight Control Power Systems.
 Aircraft Environmental Control.
 Aircraft Icing and Ice Protection Systems.
 Aviation Fuels and Aircraft Fuel Systems.
 Engine Off-Take Effects.
 Fuel Penalties of Systems.
 Advanced and Possible Future Airframe Systems.
 The Ageing of Aircraft Systems.
 More and All Electrical Aircraft and Engine.

Outcomes
  Identify the main airframe systems in civil and military aircraft and
explain their purposes and principles of operation.
 Discuss the requirements for identify types of equipment and systems
used for and perform analysis of environmental control and oxygen
systems.
 Identify the major considerations to be made in the design of aircraft
fuel systems and the major components and sub-systems including
aviation fuels.
 Appraise the effects of airframe systems power provision on aircraft
engine.
 Recognize the reasons for and possible types of changes that may occur
in airframe systems in the future.
 Apply the principles of airworthiness to the design and operation of
airframe systems.

Accident/Incident Corner: On September 8, 1994, a USAir B737-300 entered

an uncontrolled descent and hit terrain near the destination airport.
Computer simulations demonstrated that heading change rates recorded by
the FDR were consistent with rudder deflection to its left limit. The
movement of the rudder could have only been caused by the flight crew or a
system anomaly. The potential for such an anomaly was demonstrated
during tests; the servo valve secondary slide was intentionally jammed
(pinned) to the valve housing and a rapid input was applied, opposing the
jam. The tests showed that the primary slide could overtravel, resulting with
a rudder move in a direction opposite to the input (reversal). During severe
thermal tests at a temperature difference greater than expected in normal
operation, the secondary slide jammed to the servo housing and a
momentary reversal occurred. Comparison of the accident servo valve with a
new unit indicated that the accident valve had significantly tighter
clearances, making it more susceptible to a jam. The tests demonstrated
that the secondary slide could jam if fluid is warming the valve housing as it
would if the yaw damper is energized. With the secondary slide thus
jammed, the primary slide may overtravel and cause a rudder hardover
deflection opposite to that commanded. It is very likely, that, USAir flight
427, United flight 585 and Eastwing flight 517 accidents-incidents, were
caused by this valve jam and rudder reversal.

Assignment Summary

Maritime Patrol Aircraft (MPA) was designed for anti-submarine warfare

(ASW) and anti-surface ship warfare (ASUW). Layout of passenger
accommodations LOPA, aircraft dimensions, payloads, interior,
instrumentation and specifications were presented. Aircraft mission is
search and rescue (SAR), sub-surface surveillance, detect, track, localize and
destroy submarine and surface ship, and all-weather crisis management;
fishery protection, drug trafficking, etc.

Propulsion: four Rolls-Royce BR710 turbofans with FADEC and EICAS, 66 kN

sea level static thrust each.

Aircraft instrumentation includes seven-screen full-color LCD EFIS, plus EICAS

and mission avionics.
The aircraft carries weapons under the wing and internal bay stores.

The flight crew consists of two pilots, flight engineer, two navigators and one
Air Electronics Officer (AEO). The mission team consists of two Weapon
System Operators Acoustics (WSOAs), and four Weapon System Operators
and Electronic Warfare (WSOEWs). The WSOAs also function as observers
during dense traffic. There are additional 13 seats for support personnel or
replacement crew. The aircraft is equipped with a fixed probe aerial refueling
(AAR) capability.

The assignment:

 Describes major airframe systems.

 Estimates systems masses, drags and power off-takes.
 Calculates and analyses fuel weight penalties.
 Examines improvement of systems in terms of fuel weight penalties.
 Compares between current and advance systems.

The following assignment recommendations were established:

 Four-turbofan engine MPA airframe systems architecture combines
"twin-engine" hydraulic and electrical systems and "four-engine" bleed
systems (pneumatic, ECS, anti-ice) similar to BAe-146 design approach.
Aircraft flight manual (AFM) procedures shut down two engines for
efficiency at low thrust.
 The MPA conventional secondary power systems require over design to
meeting the airframe systems requirements which cause high fuel
weights penalties.
 Four-engine configuration continues on its' mission, in case of engine
failure, whereas twin-engine aircraft would most likely have to turn back,
or land at the nearest airport. Also, four-engine configuration is an
advantage over the twin-engine because the engine has a smaller
diameter, so if an engine fails then the aircraft would be safer because it
creates less drag.
 However, records have shown that twin-engine aircraft are more
efficient, economical and more reliable than four-engine ones. Also, it is
unlikely that any aircraft would continue flying with one engine
damaged, be it a four-engine or twin-engine aircraft. Hence the odds of
a diversion due to engine failure are twice in four-engine aircrafts than
twin-engine ones.
 Twin-engine aircraft might not be operating at a lower thrust setting but
rather at the recommended one for a particular cruising level.
 However, current tendency is to replace four-engine maritime aircraft by
twin-engine aircraft. For example, four-turboprop engine Lockheed P-3
Orion is replaced by the twin-turbofan engine Boeing P-8 Poseidon based
on B737-800.
 The MPA aircraft is similar to P-8 Poseidon in specifications and weights.
 Nimrod MRA4 modification program with BR710 engines was cancelled
in 2010.
 It is believed that Nimrod MRA4 modification program was cancelled due
to growth avionic mission equipment requirements of electricity and
cooling energy which could not be met with the four-engine
configuration due to high fuel weights penalties.
 Elimination of conventional hydraulic and bleed air systems may leads
to mass reduction. However, the mass and size of the electrical
equipment would also increase and these changes must be accounted
for. Studies evaluate that adoption of more electric technologies would
introduce a small mass penalty. However, if the all-electric concept is
adopted, bleed air systems are eliminated and the conventional
hydraulic systems are replaced by local electro-hydrostatic actuators,
then the operating empty weight (OEW) for twin-engine aircraft could be
reduced and fuel saving can be achieved.
 Wing thermal anti-ice system requires four times more bleed than ECS.
Replacement of the thermal anti-ice system by hybrid thermo-
mechanical expulsion deicing system (TMEDS) reduces fuel weight
penalties.

Airworthiness, Regulations and Technical Issues

System Description Purpose FAR/CS Part 25
Regulations/Mil
Specifications
Propulsion Main propulsion units, To provide thrust Powerplant 901-945
propulsion control system, for the vehicle, and Operation Limitations
interface with intake, to provide a source Specification 1521
exhaust and airframe of takeoff power for
systems. electrical power
generation,
hydraulic power
generation and air
for pneumatic
systems and
environmental
cooling system
Secondary Auxiliary power unit Starting of main Oil System 1011-1027
Power (APU), starter and propulsion system,
connects to airframe provision of air and
systems. electrical power
during ground
operations with no
engines operating
to provide
autonomous
operation.
Emergency Emergency power unit: Provision of Operating Limitation
Power APU, ram air turbine electrical and/or 1552
(RAT), electro-hydraulic hydraulic power
pumps, hydraulic during period of
 accumulators, battery. failure of main
propulsion system.
Electrical AC generators powered To provide a source Electrical Systems and
by engine, generatorof regulated AC Equipment:
control units (GCUs), and DC power to 1351 - 1363
batteries, bus bars and the aircraft systems
feeders, load protection via bus-bars and
devices (fuses, circuit circuit protection
breakers, electrical power devices.
controllers.
Hydraulics Collection of hydraulic Hydraulic power  Miscellaneous
pumps, reservoirs, generation and Equipment: 1435
accumulators, pipes and distribution.  MIL-H-5440H
Hydraulic Systems,
couplings. Flight control
Aircraft, Design and
cables, servo actuators. Installation
Requirements For. This
specification covers the
design and installation
requirements for Types I
and II aircraft hydraulic
systems.

Flight Control Flight control cables, Flight control  Control

electro-mechanical cables, servo Systems:671 – 703
actuators (EMA), electro- valves, actuators.  MIL-F-18372
Flight Control
hydraulic actuators
Systems: Design,
(EHA), push-pull control Installation and
rod systems, trim systems, Test of, Aircraft,
feel systems This specification
covers the general
requirements for
the design,
installation, and
test of flight
control systems for
all types of piloted
aircraft contracted
for by the U. S.
Navy (power plant
controls are
excluded).
Fire Protection Fire or smoke, overheat or To detect fire or Fire Protection: 851 - 869
UV detectors installed in a overheat in engine
bay to provide wide area or secondary power
coverage, fire extinguisher bays or cargo
fluid and spay nozzles. compartment and to
provide a source of
extinguishing.
Fuel Gauging A collection of fuel tanks, T store fuel in tanks  Fuel System:
fuel gauge probes, fuel and to transfer from 951 – 1001
level sensors, tank to tank whilst  MIL-F-17874B
interconnection pipes and Fuel Systems,
measuring the
couplings, together with Aircraft,
pumps and valves. quantity of fuel on Installation and
board, and to Test of. This
provide a specification
continuous flow of covers the general
fuel to the engines> requirements for
Fuel is often used functional
operation,
as thermal sink for
installation, and
aircraft heat loads, testing of fuel
e.g. fuel cooled oil systems for all
cooler. piloted aircraft,
Fuel A collection of fuel tanks, To store fuel in target drones and
Management fuel gauge probes, fuel tanks and to guided missiles,
System (FMS) level sensors, transfer from tank and shall be
interconnection pipes and followed except as
to tank whilst
couplings, together with otherwise
pumps and valves. Inter- measuring the authorized by the
tank transfers, quantity of fuel on procuring activity
refueling/defueling, board, and to for each design.
venting, engine feed. provide a
continuous flow of
fuel to the engines.
Fuel is often used
as thermal sink for
aircraft heat loads,
e.g. fuel cooled oil
cooler.
Air Refueling AR pumps, wingtip pod, To enable military MIL-A-19736A Air
center reel, probe & aircraft to receive Refueling Systems,
drogue, flying boom, fuel from a tanker General Specification
receptacle. For
 in flight.
Environmental Heat exchangers, cooling To provide heating  Ventilation and
Control System systems, air distribution. and/or cooling air Heating:
(ECS) for passengers, 831 – 833
 MIL-E-18927E
crew and avionics
Environmental
equipment. Control Systems,
Aircraft, General
Requirements For.
This specification
establishes the
general
requirements for
design and
performance of
aircraft
Environmental
Control Systems
(ECS) required for
occupied spaces
and equipment. It
includes
pressurization,
heating, cooling,
ventilating,
moisture control,
bleed air system,
ram air supply,
pressure and anti-
G suit systems,
defogging,
defrosting, anti-
icing, rain
removal,
electronic/electrica
l equipment
environment,
boundary layer
control and related
systems
Canopy De/Anti Flow of hot air over the To prevent mist of MIL-E-18927E
Mist internal canopy surface. the canopy or to Environmental Control
remove misting. Systems, Aircraft, General
Requirements For
Rain Dispersal Hot air distribution of rain To remove rain MIL-E-18927E
dispersal fluid, wipers. from the external Environmental Control
 windshield/canopy. Systems, Aircraft, General
Requirements For
Pneumatic/ Use bleeds air to inflate To maintain the  841 Pressurized
Pressurization seals and pressurize cabin cabin or cockpit cabin
pressure vessel. pressure at a  843 Tests for
pressurized cabins
pressure that
 MIL-P-5518D
represents a cabin Pneumatic
altitude in which Systems, Aircraft,
the passengers feel Design and
comfortable and Installation,
where there is no General
threat to life. Requirements For.
This specification
covers the design
and installation
requirements of
aircraft pneumatic
systems.
Oxygen/Life Commercial: to cover To provide a source  Miscellaneous
Support descent to safe altitude in of breathable Equipment:1439 -
the event of pressurization oxygen for flight 1453
loss, bottles gaseous  MIL-O-87226
crew and
oxygen for pilots with Oxygen Systems,
quick don masks. Oxygen passengers. Aircraft, General
masks for passenger and Specification For.
oxygen bottled. This specification
Military: continuous establishes the
pressure breathing from development
liquid oxygen or on board requirements and
oxygen generation system verifications for an
(OBOGS) aircraft oxygen
system and its
components.
Passenger Emergency exit doors, To allow safe National Transportation
Evacuation evacuation slides, life evacuation of Safety Board (NTSB).
vests and fully equipped passengers from the Emergency Evacuation of
rafted. Commercial Airplanes.
cabin when the
Safety Study NTSB/SS-
aircraft is on the 00/01, 2000
ground or has
ditched in water.
Crew Escape Commercial: internal or Commercial: to MIL-E-9426F, Military
external open window enable crew to Specification Escape
mechanism. escape on ground Systems, Requirements
Military: rocket assisted via open window Conformance
 seat or escape module mechanism. Demonstrations and
equipped with parachute Military: to enable Performance Tests For.
and emergency oxygen. crew to escape from This specification
the aircraft under a establishes (a) the
procedures to be used in
wide variety of
demonstrating automated
conditions with aircrew escape system
minimum risk of compliance with the
injury or death. design, installation and
Range from high performance requirements
altitude to zero of MIL-S-18471 or MIL-
speed, zero altitude. A-23121, as applicable,
and (b) the demonstration
and test requirements
which must be satisfied
prior to the release of an
escape system for
installation and service
use. In addition, this
specification provides
guidance for developing
demonstration and test
programs for automated
aircrew escape systems
which do not conform to
MIL-S-18471 or MIL-A-
2312.
Canopy Jettison Rocket or explosive To provide means MIL-S-9479B Seat
mechanism to remove of removing or System, Upward Ejection,
canopy or embedded fragmenting the Aircraft, General
explosive cord to shatter Specification For. This
canopy material to
or to cut the canopy specification covers the
material. provide a means of general requirements for
exit or escaping adjustable, upward,
crew. aircraft ejection seat
systems.
Landing Gear Nose gear, main gear, To enable the Landing Gear:
oleos, retracting aircraft to be 721 – 737
mechanism, doors, locks mobile on the MIL-L-8552C Landing
and position monitoring Gear, Aircraft Shock
ground includes
devices. Absorber. This
nose wheel specification covers the
steering. requirements for shock
absorber landing gears of
the air-oil type.
Brakes/Anti- Brake discs and pads, MIL-B-8075D Brake
Skid braking control system, Control Systems,
anti-skid control system, Antiskid, Aircraft Wheels,
sensors. General Specification For.
This specification covers
the general requirements
for aircraft antiskid brake
control systems and their
components.
Steering Steering tiller or pedals, To provide a means MIL-S-8812D Steering
actuator acting on nose of steering the System, Aircraft General
wheel. Large aircraft may aircraft under its Requirements For. This
also include steerable specification covers the
own power or
main gear. general requirements for
whilst being towed. aircraft steering systems.
Arrestor Hook Arrestor hook stowed at To stop the aircraft  FAA AC 5220-9,
rear of aircraft and by engaging a Aircraft Arresting
deployed in emergency. runway arrestor Systems.
 MIL-A-18717C
gear wire if the
Arresting Hook
brakes should fail, Installation,
normal method of Aircraft. This
stopping naval specification
carrier borne covers the design,
aircraft. development,
construction,
analysis, test and
documentation
requirements for
arresting hook
installations in
aircraft for which
detail
specifications or
pertinent
contractual
documents require
that arresting
hooks be fitted.
Brake Parachute Parachute normally Used on military MIL-STD-1525A
stowed in a carrier in the types and some Verification Testing of
aircraft rear fuselage so commercial Parachute Textile
that the parachute or
prototypes to Materials. This standard
canister can be jettisoned
if required. decelerate the establishes the verification
aircraft for ultra- tests for parachute
short stopping materials (subcontracted
 distances or on supplies) used in the
short runways. fabrication of parachutes.
These tests are for the
purpose of confirming
subcontractor test reports,
determining conformance
of material to contract
specifications, and to
provide data for the
computation of reliability
for these materials.

Ice Detection Ice detector probe. To detect entry into DOT/FAA CT-92/27
icing conditions Aircraft Ice Detectors and
that may lead to the Technologies for On-
accretion of ice on ground and In-flight
leading edges of Applications.
wing, empennage
or intake lips.
Ice Protection Electrically or hot air To prevent the 1301, 1309, 1419
heated surfaces, inflatable build up of ice
rubber boots. and/or to remove
ice already formed.
Probes Heating Electrical heater built into To provide a means  1301, 1309
the probes. of heating the pitot,  MIL-P-26292C
static and Pitot and Static
Pressure Systems,
temperature probes
Installation and
on the external skin Inspection of. This
of the aircraft to specification
ensure that they are covers the
kept free of ice. requirements for
the installation and
inspection of pitot-
static tubes, pitot
tubes, and flush
static ports on
aircraft and
missiles.
External Wingtip high intensity To ensure that the  Lights: 1381 –
Lighting strobe lights, fuselage aircraft is visible to 1403
strobe lights or anti- other airspace users  MIL-L-6730C
collision beacons, logo Lighting
and to provide
lights. Military users Equipment,
include formation lights lighting for landing Exterior, Aircraft.
and air to air refueling and taxing. Also to This specification
probe or flying boom provide lighting sets forth the
lights. company logos. general
requirements for
exterior lighting
equipment on
military aircraft.

Cabin & Central light in the cabin To provide general MIL-L-85762A Lighting,
Emergency ceiling, reading lights with lighting for the Aircraft, Interior, Night
Lighting personal controls above cabin and galley, Vision Imaging System
each seat, emergency (NVIS). This specification
reading lights, exit
lighting. establishes performance,
lighting and general configuration test
emergency lights to and acceptance
provide a visual requirements for NVIS
path to the exits. (see 6.5.1) compatible
aircraft interior lighting. It
is applicable to all
systems, subsystems,
component equipment and
hardware which provide
the lighting environment
in aircraft crews stations
and compartments where
NVIS are employed.
Galley Storage, refrigeration and To provide a safe 1301, 1309. It is
cooking (heating and and hygienic mandatory to obtain an
microwave) applications. method of food FAA approval or FAR
21/FAR 145 certification
preparation and
for in-flight galley
cooking for equipment, conforming to
passengers and standard ATLAS or
crew. KSS/KSSU specs,
products like Standard
Containers, Oven Cages,
Oven Inserts, all made
from Aluminum Alloy.
Water & Waste Provision of flushing To provide Miscellaneous Equipment:
(Toilet) toilets, hot and cold water hygienic 1301, 1309, 1455
and disposal. management of
toilets and water
waste.
Flight A number of interfacing To provide an ARINC 424 specifications
Management and processing units integrated are not a database but a
System (FMS) geographically dispersed processing and "standard for the
in the airframe to reduce preparation and
communication
wiring lengths and a data transmission of data for
bus to interconnect the system for assembly of airborne
units. interfacing with navigation system data
aircraft system bases".
components,
performing built-in
test, performing
control functions,
providing power
demands to
actuators and
effectors, and
communicating
with cockpit
display.
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