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Drawing Class

This document describes the generalities of technical drawing, including the definition of drawing, the necessary equipment for the draftsman, the terminology used, and the rules for presenting drawings.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
18 views44 pages

Drawing Class

This document describes the generalities of technical drawing, including the definition of drawing, the necessary equipment for the draftsman, the terminology used, and the rules for presenting drawings.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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DRAWING

I. GENERALITIES

1.1 Definition

The drawing is a reproduction on a surface (greasy paper, canvas board, or cloth)


of an object in actual size, in reduced size or in enlarged size. This
drawing intended to support the assessment of the quantities to be included in the
the realization of a work on one hand or the construction of a work on the other hand. This
this implies that in order to better depict an object or a work, one must know it well or
to have a perfect vision of this last one (shapes and dimensions).
Drawing also involves mastering a methodology and a
appropriate codification.

1.2 Equipment of the designer

To draw better, the drafting technician needs certain equipment.

i) Drawing table
It is a drawing board mounted on adjustable legs that allows
to achieve a desired height and inclination. However, any surface
a unie can serve as a drawing board; however, it cannot guarantee comfort.
drawer.
Note: The height of a drawing table must be adjusted according to the size.
of the designer (if he draws standing) or the height of his seat (if he draws
However, its inclination must vary from 30 to 45°.

ii) Tea
It allows for obtaining parallel or perpendicular lines, it is convenient.
that the tea be the same length as the drawing board

iii) Squares
They allow you to raise the perpendiculars, parallels relative to
a given direction. They are of two types: 45° square, 60° square.
iv) Ruler
It allows you to draw straight lines or take measurements.
Note: Rulers, squares, and tees must be equipped with a
groove at their edge to reproduce blemish-free lines.

v) Crayons

The pencils commonly used by artists are 02 leads.


05, 07 etc. of various hardnesses: the HB, B for sharp lines, the H and the
2H for sketches
vi) Gums

There are two types: pencil erasers (avoid colored erasers


which end up leaving marks on the paper; good erasers are white
transparent ones), ink erasers (they are often yellow or green)

1
vii) Compass pouch
It is a tool that allows reproducing arcs with pencil or ink.
circle. A compass set includes a compass with an adjustable point and the
accessories.

drawing paper
It depends on whether you use pencil or ink, greasy paper or paper.
calque, their grammage (weight per square meter) varies from 40 to 110 g); that one
commonly used is 80 g/m2
ix) Adhesive tape
It is used to secure the paper to the drawing board.
x) Plumes
It is a pen equipped with a reservoir that allows it to reproduce lines in ink.
The pens come in several sizes corresponding to the thicknesses of the lines.
different (02,03,04,05,06,07,08,1).
xi) The grids
These are either traces of letter number 0.20 to 1.20 to reproduce some
letters and standardized character numbers are either sanitary grids allowing for
reproduce on a plan the different sanitary devices that exist in the
buildings.
xii) The parrots
These instruments allow for drawing various connections.
xiii) Accessory materials
This is Chinese ink, a cotton cloth, a paper cutter, a ruler.
on a scale etc.

1.3 Terminology and Presentation

1.3.1 Terminology

i) Diagram
It is a drawing executed to scale or not and with the help of instruments or not.
It only provides a simplified representation limited to the functions of the work and
to the organic connections between parts of the work.
ii) Sketch
It is a small-scale drawing executed freehand in order to research
of the main lines of an object or a work.
iii) Preliminary project or study.
It is a shirt of drawings made with instruments and at a small scale.
allowing to obtain the approval of the project owner.
iv) Detailed preliminary project.
It is a shirt of plans representing the object or work with enough of
details that allow for an appreciation of its consistency.
v) Execution project
Drawings established from the A.P.D in preparation for the execution of the work
vi) Site plan.
This is a comprehensive plan executed on a small scale that highlights
the immediate environment of the project and where the representation of the works is indicated
by their outer contours seen from above.

2
vii) Drawing of details.
He completes the detailed project plans and provides all the information.
useful on certain points. These drawings are executed on a larger scale than
that of the detailed preliminary project drawings
viii) Views
Every work has an orientation given by the observer; in the case
The observer's part of the building is positioned facing the main entrance or with its back to it.
turned towards the main road and the views are the consequence of this position:
View from the left or left gable
It is the face of the object or building that is to the left of the observer.
View from the right or right gable
Façade of the object or building located to the right of the observer.
Front view or main facade
Front of the object or building located in front of the observer.
Rear facade
This is the rear view of the object or building.
Note: In the particular case of the building, if the future orientation of the structure is
We will designate the views by their direction according to the cardinal points.
nine Coupe
This is a view taken from a straight section (cross-section),
longitudinal (longitudinal section) or horizontal (plan) of the building object.
x) Perspective
Representation allowing to obtain an overview of the object or of the
building.

1.3.2 Presentation
i) Layout
The different views or plans that appear on a board must be clear.
spaced. The spacing between views or plans must be constant in each direction.
This arrangement is called layout.

ii) Traits
Type Thickness Diagram Application
Contours of the viewed sections,
0.6, 0.7
strong trait frame of the drawings, of
0.8, 1
cartridges
Apparent contours (threshold,
market stairs etc.),
trait 0.35 contours joinery
average 0.4, 0.5 cut out in the drawings
of the set, Curves of
main levels
Coastline and recall line,
0.1, 0.2 drawing of hatching, curves
fine trait
0.3 of level intermediaries
tiling
Traits 0.6, 0.7
strong trait Hidden piping
interrogation 0.8, 1

3
mpus Hidden contours, contours of
trait 0.35
parties to demolish, lines
average 0.4, 0.5
electricity
0.1, 0.2
Fine trait Certain hatching
0.3
Trait 0.6, 0.7;
Cutting plane trace
fort 0.8, 1
Main axes of plans of
trait 0.35 symmetry, axes of elements of
average 0.4, 0.5 construction (beams, profiles,
etc.), shared property axes.
mixed 0.1, 0.2 Secondary axis of symmetry,
end 0.3 implantation axes.
Limitation of partial views
or interrupted views if
End à
0.1, 0.2, this limit is not an axis,
main
0.3 reprise of concreting
raising
certain hachures (wood
insulators,
continue Same as above except for the
end 0.1, 0.2 hachures.
with 0.3 Note: Use only one type
zigzag of a line in the same drawing.

1.3. Cartouches.

The cartouche is the identity of a drawing: it provides the information.


regarding the project contained in the board.

There are two types of cartridges: the building designer's cartridge,


and that of the industrial designer.

1.3.2 Cartouche of the building designer

It is a space (A4 format) reserved in the corner of the drawing and in


which contains all the information related to the project:
- designation and address of the construction (Construction project of a
office building in ODZA YAOUNDE
Owner's name and address,
Designation of the considered party (Building B),
-designation of the drawings contained in the board (distribution plan,
facade, section, etc.)
the ladder or ladders,
the state body,
-date of the drawing,
names and address of the project owner,
-names and address of the Architect or the design office,
-location for visas,
-location for modifications,

4
the legend,
-ranking number,
any other information
NB :
i) In terms of presentation, the caption may vary from one administration to another.
another one.
ii) The ranking number is always placed at one of the right angles of the.
cartouche.
iii) The project's designation must stand out in relief compared to the others.
project details.
(See appendix)

1.3.3 Cartouche of the industrial designer.


It contains the following information:
the name of the drawn part (or title) example: bridge pile
the scale
the format of the support
the date
the drawing number
the name of the designer
the symbol for representing views E and A.
the name of the structure
(See appendix)

Method A Method E

1.4 Formats - folds - scale

1.4.1 Formats

The standardized formats are in decreasing area: A0, A1, A2, A3A4.
These formats are derived from one another based on the folding format in
multiplying by two the smallest of the two dimensions.

A1

A0

A3
A2

A4

5
A4210 x 297 mm²
A3297 x 420
A2420 x 594
A1594 x 840
A0840 x 1188

1.4.2 Folding

The presentation of the drawings must be unified as much as possible for


facilitate consultation, classification, and shipping. To do this, we must adopt
as folding format A4(210 x 297). The sheets must fold in
accordion in both directions and according to the dimensions of the cartridge

1.4.3 Scale

Relationship between the actual dimensions of a work and its dimensions on the
plan

Value Utilization
2 Very small drawings (threading, very small parts)
1 Professional detail drawing (joinery, construction)
metallic)
0.5 or 1/2 Detail drawings (carpentry, metal construction)
0.1 or 1/10 Masonry drawings (structural work, reinforced concrete)
0.01 or 1/100 Building drawings (preliminary design)
0.02 or 1/50 Construction projects (elevation plans, sections, etc.)
0.05 or 1/20 Detailed building plans
0.005 or 1/200 Site plan, layout plan, location plan
0.002 or 1/500 site plan, situation plan
0.0001 or 1/1000 Site plan
0.0002 or 1/5000 Surveyor's measurements

1.5 Markings

In the particular case of buildings, indicators allow for orientation.


general as well as the designation of the various points of the construction. The marking has
to facilitate the writing or reading of the documents attached to the plans.

i) Floor identification
Each floor will be identified as follows:
− 2ebasement S2
− 1hebasement S1
− ground floor R or 0
− 1erfloor 1

ii) location of premises

The numbering of the rooms will start from the main stairwell and will be
made by turning clockwise.

6
Each number will be preceded by the floor reference separated by a dot.
example S2.1; 0.3; R.3.

iii) Identification of the spans


Space between two successive support points of a construction
Many buildings have a framework. It is then very useful to
to be able to identify either the posts or the spaces between 2 posts or again
the areas enclosed by 4 posts.

1 2 3 4
We identify the axes from left to right by numbers from bottom to top by
letters.
Example: -poles C-2
beam B-C-4
- From A-B 2-3

iv) Identification of the stairs

We number the steps of the staircase from the first step n°1 to the step
landing included. On each floor, we will start from number 1. The direction of ascent is
marked by a fine line arrow confused with the stride line (50cm from the collar).
v) The direction of north
Materialized in the drawing by a stylized arrow whose tip bears the letter N.

7
vi) Cutting trace

A A
or

vii) Level marking

+
In plan 3.10

+3.10
In cut

viii) Origin of the implantation baseline.

8
2. PROJECTIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

2.1. Usual views

2.1.1. Definition

It is called an orthogonal projection of the object onto a plane parallel to


these faces; the representation of a view follows the convention below:
The edges of the object parallel to the projection plane have images of
lines parallel to the said edges.
The edges perpendicular to the plane have as images a point.
The edges belonging to the same plane have a common image.

2.1.2. Layout of views

Choose a face which we will call the front view. Given the position of
the observer, the other views will be called:
-view from the right
-left view
top view
- view from below
view from behind.

The front view drawn, the object is rotated (Method E) by 90°:

-to the right and we obtain the left view;


-to the left and we get the view on the right;
−downwards to get the overhead view and so on;

Reminder: The visible edges are drawn in medium solid lines and the edges
hidden are drawn in interrupted medium lines.

2.1.3. Choice of views

It is often wise to only draw the most representative views and


containing the least number of hidden edges.

Note: It is unnecessary to write the names of the views on the support, as their
Disposition is invariant for each method of representation.

9
2.1.4. Execution:

The order of representation is as follows:


-Layout: identify the clutter of views and create space between them
constant intervals.
Sketch: do it lightly with an H or 2H pencil
Finishing: giving the different lines the appropriate thickness
horizontally then vertically. Be sure to erase matching lines
(in the case of ink drawings).

2.1.5. Particular Views

-half-view: (limited by the axis of symmetry)


When an object has an axis of symmetry in the direction of a reading, it is
advantageous to only bring out half of the corresponding view and in this
when we talk about semi-views

partial view:
When a piece is long and only its ends show...
understanding difficulties, one can limit the view to one of its ends The view
thus said partial and limited by a fine continuous line hand drawn (example: .

- interrupted view:
It is a view from which the central part has been removed (often for objects of
quite a long length.

2.1.6. Exercises
Lid, laundry tray, kitchen bench, etc.

10
2.2. Coupes – sections

2.2.1. Coupes
A. Definition
Cuts are views that allow showing the interior details of a
object (hollow). The intersection between the object and the cutting plane is represented with the
hachures. The sections complement the usual views by facilitating understanding of
the object.

B. Principle

− Suppose the piece is cut by a plane parallel to one of its faces.


− Remove by thought the part located in front of the cutting plane.
− Draw the part located behind the cut section.
− Hatch the cut parts following the indications relating to
conventions for representing views and hashes.

C. Representation

The outlines of the cut parts are in strong continuous lines.


The viewed parts located behind the cutting plane (non-visible parts
(cut) are drawn in a medium continuous line
The outline of the cutting plan is in a fine mixed line reinforced at its
extremities (indicate the direction of observation).
The hatching is regularly in a continuous fine line and inclined at 45°.
in relation to the main faces.
Write the name of the cup on the drawing at the bottom of it.
D. Hachures (see photocopies)
E. Special coupes
i) broken cup
Very commonly used in architectural and structural plans. It allows for
put on a single drawing details that are found on multiple cross-sections
parallels.

ii) Half-cut
It is possible to gather half of the room in the same view.
outside, the other half seen in section. These two parts are separated by a line
of the axis.

11
2.2.2. Sections
A. Definition
A section is called a cut whose representation is limited to only the
details located in the secant plane. It is commonly used in construction
metallic and in carpentry to show certain shapes or parts of work
quick and clear way than the cuts.
B. Recessed section
The piece is cut according to a plane perpendicular to the axis; then we proceed to
rotate the cutting plane 90° around the axis of the section. The apparent contours
are executed in fine continuous lines. The contours of the uncropped parts are in
Continuous traits average; the section is hatched.
The representation methodology is as follows:
-identify the cutting plan
−to indicate the direction of observation only if there may be confusion
Rotate the cutting plane by 90° to bring it onto the plane of the drawing.
−draw the outlines
- hatch the cut parts
Cutting plan

C. Exit Section
The section is folded back as before, then taken out of the drawing by
sliding along its axis.

2.3 The perspectives

2.3.1. Definition

Perspective is a representation of an object on a plane; the object being viewed at


a certain distance and in a given position. The projection plane can

12
to contain one face of the object (frontal face) and we talk about cavalier perspective or
only one edge (frontal edge) and we talk about axonometric perspective.
2.3.2. Cavalier perspectives.
This is the perspective whose execution is the simplest and the quickest; but
which significantly distorts the drawn object.
Principle and practical advice
All front faces are drawn to scale.
-All non-frontal (receding) edges are drawn inclined by a
the same angle α and are reduced by the same ratio referred to the coefficient of
reduction.
Choose the front face that provides more information about the object.
-Choose the direction of the "vanishing lines" carefully (Note: with a frontal face, one can
obtain 4 different images
Avoid placing cylindrical or circular shapes on the side edges.

Floaters

Frontal faces

2.3.3. Axonometric Perspectives

i) Definition

These are perspectives for which no face is frontal; by


Consequently, each face of the object is represented with a certain reduction.
Reduction. Axonometric perspectives are of four types: isometry,
trimetry, simple dimetry, and corrected dimetry.

ii) Isometry
It is the simplest of axonometric perspectives (all the vanishing lines
are inclined at 30° to the horizontal).
Isometry is commonly used for piping layouts in
plumbing, heating, electricity, etc.

r α r

γ β

α=β=γ=120°

13
r = 0.82

iii) Trimetry

α r = 0.65
r = 0.86
γ β

r = 0.92

135°

Its execution is long and delicate but gives a pleasant appearance to the
representation.

iv) Simple or usual measurements

It is used when one wants to highlight a face of an object by


relation to other faces (roof details).

r = 0.94 α r = 0.94

γ β

r = 0.47

97°

v) Rectified diameter

Like trimetry, it gives a rather pleasant image of the object: it is


recommended for long objects because the upright diameter of an object appears larger
more compact than the other axonometric perspectives.

α
r = 0.73 r = 0.73
γ β

r = 0.96
150°
2.3.4 Conical perspectives: (see photocopy).

14
4 Quotation
4.1 Purpose of the quotation

The quotation is the set of dimensions or measurements that one puts on the
drawings. These dimensions are linear, angular sizes; but the dimensioning can
also include literal or symbolic indications. The ratings are the
dimensions that will be used for the fabrication or implementation of the designed work.

4.2 Recording a distance rating


-Attachment lines: in fine line extending beyond the dimension line by a few
millimeters
−Dimension line: in fine line 8 mm from the object to be dimensioned.
−Limits of the ratings:
Arrows whose tip features are in strong opening strokes
30 to 90° and length: 2 to 4 mm. (1)
Strong traits 2 to 4 mm long inclined at 45°.
Circle of 1 to 2 mm in diameter.

(1) (2) 3

NB :
For the upper measurements in meters, the point is used.
Example 3.540.

a) Horizontal contours
The numbers are always placed above the 1 mm baseline.
above this last one.

b) Small slopes
Put the arrows outside if the scale measurement is less than 8mm.
Replace the arrows with dots if several small quotes touch.

c) Repetition of equal quotes

Carry the number of regular intervals and the rating of the interval. (9x30) rating
staircase steps in plan

d) Vertical braces
The numbers are always placed to the left of the dimension line and the direction of
writing is from bottom to top.

e) Inclined planes

The dimension lines are parallel to the outline.

15
4.3 Angle brackets

The dimension line is an arc


The tie lines are spokes.
-Place the numbers (in degrees most of the time) above the line of
side except in the hatched area.
Place the numbers to the left as for the vertical contour lines.
The numbers are horizontal in all positions.

4.4 Slope Rating

The slope indication is done with a horizontal reference line and line
perpendicular attachment to the slope.
p = 20%

NOTE: One can also directly use a fraction on the inclination, which is
equals the cotangent of the angle on the horizontal (for example: 2/5) or even with a
small triangle that provides the units on the vertical and horizontal (drawings of
road works.

4.5 Quotation of diameters and radii


−Symbol diameter Φ followed by the numbers representing the diameter dimension
side.
-The return line is horizontal.
The attachment line is radiating.
We do not use a return line, but only a tie line.
radiant on which the symbol R followed by its numerical value is placed
(when it comes to the rays)

SOME ADVICE
It may be easier to put a rating on a view or a section instead.
from the exit. Then stop the hatching around the numbers.
It is necessary to distribute the dimensions on the views and to dimension the details on the most
characteristics.
−Record the dimensions as the drawing progresses.

16
SOME MISTAKES NOT TO MAKE
-Contour line in the extension of an edge
−Figure straddling an axis or a line
Cross the dimension lines and the attachment lines.
-Coat on hidden parts.
Repeat the dimensions of a detail.
NOTE: The rating will depend on the purpose of the drawing (Execution, Definition, Diagram,
etc.).

17
5. Building drawing
5.1 Distribution plan (see annex)

5.1.1 Definition

A distribution plan is a horizontal section executed at 1.00 m at


above the finished floor of the level in question or 10 cm above
the highest window support so that all existing openings at the level
questions are represented.

In the specific case of homes with inhabited attics, it is a cut.


executed at 1.30 m above the finished floor.

5.1.2 Representation of plans

Sanitary appliances are represented using 'sanitary grids'.


or stickers to transfer.
The representation of furniture is optional because it makes the plan
"dense". However, it allows the projector to assess
the congestion of the rooms. (N.B: in some cases, a plan
equipment may be necessary
The contours of the cut walls are drawn in strong solid lines (07)
for the APD or average continuous traits (05) for the APS.
The carpentry details are fine line (02)
The outlines of the uncut masonry are in medium strokes (0.5,
0.4).
-In some cases (depending on the designer), the cut walls are
slightly sketched in pencil.

5.1.3 Scales

APS 0.01
APD 0.02

5.1.4 Designation

The floors are designated by the name of the level they represent.
Example: Ground floor plan, basement plan, first floor planerfloor.

5.1.4 Quotation
i) Exterior edges
The dimension lines are in fine continuous line (0.1, 0.2). The intervals between them
are such that the odds are neither too 'suffocated' nor too 'airy'.
Note:
- at 1/100 the rating numbers are at 0.2, 0.25
At 1/50, the odds are at 0.3, 0.35.
The measurement figures are expressed in cm for measurements below a meter and
in meters with two decimal places for dimensions greater than one meter (the
the notation is Anglo-Saxon).

18
the 1eralinefrom the wall side the bays and the panels.
A post on the facade is considered as a trumeau.
The 2eLine the edges of the bays.
The 3eline check the sets or uncheck (if they exist).
The 4eline side the total dimension.

ii) interior brackets


The interior dimensions must clearly define the following elements:
dimensions of each room and closet. (the interior measurement of the rooms
in the form CH1 3.20 x 350 is only tolerated for the APS).
The thicknesses of all the walls and partitions.
Dimensions and position of the openings (NB. The dimensions of the doors
interiors are inscribed on the shutters indicating in order the
nominal widths and heights
Indicate the levels for interior and exterior (Note: the origin is
often the floor of the living room on the ground floor.

Indicate the names of the rooms in the center of them.

Note: the lines of the inner edges must extend as far as possible.
possible from the middle of the pieces.
It is imperative to mark the cuts on the different plans.

5.2: The cups (See appendix)

5.2.1 Definition

The cut in the specific case of the building is a straight vertical section or
broken operated from the base of the foundations to the top of the roof. We often have 2
types of cuts:
cross section: the cutting plane is perpendicular to the facade
main.
Longitudinal section: the cutting plane is parallel to the façade.
main (rare and only executed when the projector wants to highlight some
necessary details for a proper understanding of the drawing).

5.2.2 Representation

pass the cutting plan through the openings (a window and a door at
less) to highlight the nominal heights.
Draw the windows in the closed position.
Do not represent sanitary devices
Do not draw the hidden edges
Do not cut the elements complicating the drawing and bringing nothing to
its understanding.
The outlines of uncut masonry are in medium line (0.4-0.5)
and those of the cut masonry are at a strong line of 0.7. The carpentry is at 0.2.

Note: When certain parts are not clearly defined in the cuts
Overall, we perform local or partial cuts (on a large scale) on
which carry the dimensions of the constitutive elements of the work.

19
5.2.3. Quotation of cuts

- carry the dimensions of the different elements (paving, openings, lintels,


chains etc.) on the elevation (1 line for the ceiling heights and the
thicknesses of the different floors, then a 2eline for nominal heights
of berries).
- Bring the levels of the different floors and the ridge. The dimensions of
level expressed in m with 2 decimal places.

5.3 : The facades (See appendix)

5.3.1. Definition

The facades of a building are the orthogonal projection of the latter onto
vertical plans parallel to the walls.

5.3.2. Representation of facades

The facades must highlight the following elements:


the bays and the reliefs
the shadows (they highlight the reliefs)
people, objects (vehicles) and vegetation at the scale of
drawing; this is to allow for an appreciation of the grandeur of the facade.
The façades do not carry either the dimensions or the hidden edges.

5.3.3 Designation of facades

When the projector knows the location of its project, it designates the
facades according to their geographical orientations.
(Example: East Facade)

Otherwise, the facade with the main entrance is called the facade.
the main one and the facade opposite to it is called the rear facade or
rear. The left gable is the facade located to the left of an observer who is looking
facing the main entrance.

Note: The designer represents the facades by imagining facing them.


last.
5.3.4. The Shadows

A. The types of shadow

We distinguish 2 types of shadow:

i) the clean shadows that correspond to the parts of the objects that do not
not struck by the light rays.
ii) The shadows cast that correspond to the parts of a plan P deprived of
light rays due to the position of an object.

20
B. Convention
It is assumed that the light rays originate from a source located at infinity.
In relation to the object, consequently all light rays are parallel.
The sun, which is considered the source of light, is by convention.
located at the top and to the left relative to the drawn facade; the rays of light
form an angle of 45° with the ground line both in elevation and in plan.

L.T
Elevation Plan

Remarks
Any edge line projects at an angle of 45° on the frontal plane.
If a line is parallel to a plane, its shadow on that plane will remain the same.
parallel.
The width of any frontal shadow is equal to the dimension of the overhang.
provocative.
−Ink shadow: shadows on the glass shadow of the reliefs not exceeding
not exceeding 10cm (some window supports, friezes, baseboards...).
Pencil shading: careful pouncing on the back of the tracing paper for the shadows of
reliefs wider than 10cm.

C. Some applications

Shadow of the posts on the facade plan


b) Shadows of supports, paintings, etc.
c) Shadows of the roof overhangs

5.4. Roof Plan

5.4.1 Definition

The roof plan is a projection of the entire framing-roofing on


a lower horizontal plan; this representation offers a view with semi-coverage
removed. (See page 17).

21
5.4.2 Details to highlight on a roof plan

A. Part removed
−Arrangement of master frames (in most cases the frames are
triangulated with moistened elements in 4x14cm basting2)
−Layout of faults (4x8cm2when they are wooden and arranged in the
sense of the greatest inertia.
The contours viewed from the upper chain.
The structure and architecture of the joisting or ceiling support (taken out in
details on the cover.)
B. Unremoved homeland
Waves of sheets or edges of slates, tiles, shingles
Ridges, crests, hoes...
Direction of water flow.
The gutters, the drains, the parapets or other roofing structures
provided for in the design of the latter.
The limits of the watersheds on the terraced areas as well as the points
of collected water runoff.

5.4.3 Representation standards


The ripples of the sheets or the contours of the covering elements are in
continuous end traits.
The ridges, the gables, the edges seen from the top chain are in lines.
continuous means.
The direction of water flow is represented with a stylized arrow on
all the watersheds.

5.4.4 Roof Plan Quotation

The roofing drawings must show:


the spacing of the trusses (axis dimensions)
the spacing of the beams on the horizontal plane (axis dimensions)
the beam spacing (axis dimensions).

5.5 Foundation Plan

5.5.1. Definition

The foundation is the structure that transmits the loads of the building to the ground.
the choice of the type of foundation (shallow, deep, semi-deep) depends on the
load that can be taken by the foundation soil and the allowable stress of
the latter.
The foundation plan itself is a top view representation of the
lower structure of the building. Structure made up of beams or bottom chaining,
insoles etc.

5.5.2. Representation Methodology

It is considered that the lower structure is completed and that the fills are not
not yet implemented. Therefore, the following elements are to be represented:

22
the contours of the soles, lintels and (in medium solid lines)
the contours of the pole bases (in bold solid lines)
the outlines of the excavations (in medium solid lines)
the axes of the soles and beams (fine mixed lines)
drainage of domestic water (sewage water, wastewater, etc.) and the
significant accessories (viewports, pits, sump in the case of
the independent sanitation or the position of the collector pipe or
sewer in the case of public sanitation
the location of various joints
superficial drainage.

5.5.3. Foundation plan quotation


The mentioned odds are as follows.
to the end of the girders
edge to edge of the excavations
location of the axes of the girders and columns
large housing estates
the edges of the soles

Note: the pits and manholes are drawn to scale and the pipelines to
their likely location to facilitate the plumbing quote.

5.6 Site Plan

5.6.1 Definition and purpose

It is an overall plan generally executed on a small scale.


0.002) in which the representation of the building(s) is indicated
schematically by their outer contours.
The site plan allows the relevant services (municipality, urban planning
etc.) to assess the project's setback in relation to the easements, to the boundaries of
neighboring properties and to the networks of the concessionaires (AES SONEL, SNEC,
TELEPHONE).
Note: Before embarking on a preliminary project, the project designer must seek from the
the above-mentioned services the tolerances regarding various setbacks.

5.6.2 Details to be highlighted on a site plan.

−Location of roadways (existing or planned) and property boundaries


with names of the owners.
The outlines of the proposed or existing buildings on the property.
Location of trees to be preserved.
Location of water, electricity, and telephone supply lines.
Location of domestic wastewater collection pipes (sewer)
The parking lots
The circulations and pedestrian paths
The grassy areas
Access
The orientation (north direction).

23
Note: In the case of large sets, it is recommended to attach to the plan
make a surface table (projected buildings, paths, circulation areas, parking lots)
grassy areas, etc.)

5.6.3. Quotation of the site plan

The following odds must appear:


- boundaries of the projected buildings (the footprint of these is hatched or
lightly traced with a pencil
the width of the roads or paths
the setbacks in relation to the easements
the distances between the project and the existing buildings
the surface of the property
The number of levels in the proposed building (Example R+1)

Note:
-Apart from the outlines of the buildings which are in strong continuous lines, the others
traits are continuously fine.
In some cases, we can raise the altitude of the project's highest point.
building.

5.7. Drawing of stairs

5.7.1 Definition and terminology (reminder)

A/ Definition

The stairs are elements made of reinforced concrete, wood, or metal.


allowing foot passage between the different levels of the building.

B/ Terminology
Step: horizontal tread with or without nosing.
Counterstep: horizontal barrier limiting two successive steps
Landing: width of a flight of stairs
Landing: horizontal space between two flights of stairs
Placeholder: supporting element of the staircase steps
Flight: set (treads, risers, landing) between two landings
successive.
Day: space left between two flights of stairs that adjoin.
Collar line: line bordering the day
Handrail: trace of guardrail on the staircase plan
Ciphers wall: wall bordering a staircase and serving as support.
Hatch: it is the opening reserved in the floor for the use of the staircase (or of
the elevator).
Line of stride: it is the trajectory followed by a person going up or down.
the stairs. (middle of the width of the stairs if the tread E ≤ 100 cm or at 50 cm
from the handrail ifE > 100 cm
Giron (g): it is the width of a step on a staircase or the distance between two
riser (25cm≤g≤32 cm)

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Height (h): it is the height of a riser or the distance between two steps
successive (15cm≤h≤19 cm)
NB: 60 cm ≤ 2h + g ≤ 65 cm

5.7.2 Representation Agreement

A/ In plan
The horizontal section plan is always that of the overall drawing.
(1.00 m above the finished floor or 10 cm above the lowest window support);
Knowing the height of the step, we can calculate the number of steps that will be.
Views at the initial level (Example: for a cut at 1.00 m above the ground of the ground floor, the trace
pass between 5e and the 6emarch.)

Following these considerations:


the edges seen from the steps located at the bottom of the trace of
the cuts are in medium solid lines;
the edges of the steps above the cutting line
are either in medium mixed traits or not reproduced;
In the event that the cut is made above the cage
of stairs, all the edges are in solid lines
means.
The lane of stride is marked by a thin solid line bearing the
sense of ascending the steps.
The steps are numbered starting from 1 for each floor.
up to and including the landing step.
The cut line must absolutely appear on the plan.

B/ In section
The general convention for section drawings must be respected.
C/ quotation
The quotation concerns the following elements in the plan:
The level of the different tiers
The width of the stepping
The width of the day
The dimensions of the bearings
The length of a series of steps.
And in elevation the following elements:
The thicknesses of the workbenches
The levels of the different tiers
The dimensions of a series of heights

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6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DRAWING
6.1. Formwork drawing
6.1.1. Definition

The formwork drawing is made to serve as support for the work of


formwork. These drawings are presented in different views (elevations, sections,
plans, sections, details intended for the execution of the formwork to be used for molding
posts, beams, slabs etc.
6.1.2. Presentation of formwork drawings

A/ Scale:
The scale of these drawings is generally 1:50 for the large parts.
of sets (plans, sections, elevations, etc.) and of 0.05 and 0.10 for the details
B/ Representation Agreement
I) Gussets
They are represented in plan by fine equidistant lines indicating the slope.
(wedges with regular slope) or by fine lines with crescent spacings
(quarter-circular gussets).

II) Cylindrical element

III) Sealing hole

Elevation
Plan
IV) Floors

26
The floors are identified by the name of the level covered by them.
last: For example the floor of the 1erfloor will be called "upper ground floor"
"pavement". The edges of the empty formwork are represented by solid lines.
The floors are designated by a lowercase letter enclosed in a circle. We
they can be crossed out diagonally in order to clearly specify the limits.

V) Wall and posts


On the formwork plans, the load-bearing walls and columns are cut and by
consequently are in strong solid lines (0.7; 0.6). The poles are marked:
- by a capital letter P followed by a subscript in the case of the poles
isolated (example: P3, P4, etc.)
by the intersection of two orthogonal axes, one marked by a letter
capital letter, the other by a number (for example A3) in the case of the poles
belonging to a cross network.

VI) Beams

They are drawn in medium continuous lines (0.4) and are identified by numbers.
written with a thick pen (0.6; 0.7) followed in parentheses by its right section
(bxh) with a medium pen (0.4) example4(20 x 40).
Note:

i)It is interesting to identify these beams by floor.204(20 x 40)


ii) the height taken into account is the height of the drop + table

VII) Reservation and hopper

They are drawn in medium lines (0.4). They must be crossed out according to their
two diagonals or pockets in an angle

VIII) Lintels

We will draw the lintels in medium continuous lines (0.4) and mark them with the
capital letter followed by its number in index.
Note: The lintels only appear on the load-bearing walls in cast-in-place concrete.

B. Quotation
i) Posts

They are rated bare at one (necessary rating for formwork) then from axis to axis (for
their implantation)

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Note: The isolated poles must be referenced (straight section and setback from the
closest walls.

ii) Beam

The rating of the beams is given by their squaring. The first number being
the width and the 2ndthe height204(20 x 40) which means: beam n°4 of 2efloor
having a cross-section of 20 x 40 cm².

Note: The beam is shown on the plan (number and section indicated above)
from the beam) and on the elevation (by arrow reference)

iii) Dalles

Case of floor to be seen: the thickness of the viewable area is indicated on the plan.
from that of the compression slab (inside two concentric circles) thus
that the level (inside a circle).
In the cut, the level of the crude appears

In the case of a solid slab: the thickness of the slab is indicated on the plan (inside of)
two concentric circles) as well as the level (inside a circle).

iv) Hoppers - reservations


Reservations and hoppers must be positioned in relation to the
closest load-bearing elements (beam, load-bearing wall). Reservations for small
dimensions can be annotated with a pointed arrow.

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v) Consoles
Straight consoles: as for the beams, the dimensions of the cross-section
are indicated in parentheses exampleC3(20 x 30)
Sloping consoles: the minimum height and the
maximum height of the right section of the console.
Example: C8(20 x 20 to 40)

vi) Other works in BA


In the case of other structures (retaining wall supports and bridge deck, etc.)
the formwork drawing consists of highlighting the work in plan and elevation of
in order to provide all the useful information to the formwork carpenter (shape, dimensions...).

6.2. Reinforcement drawing


6.2.2. Purpose of reinforcement drawings

The purpose of this drawing is to provide the steel prefabrication teams with the
information related to the shade, number, diameter, length, shape
and the spacing of the reinforcements.

6.2.3. Representation Agreement


A) The features
The outlines of the concrete are drawn in medium continuous lines.
The steels are drawn in strong continuous lines, but the thickness of the line will vary.
according to the diameter
The steels are drawn in a strong line but the thickness of the line will vary depending on the
diameter.
The cut parts of the concrete are lightly marked with a pencil.
The cut masonry is hatched.
The resumption of concreting is done with a fine continuous line.

B) Scales
Execution 1/50
Details 1/25, 1/20, 1/10 etc.

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C) Representation of the bars
Bars with hook

Collection
with hook

without hook

6.2.4. Nuances (V. course B.A)

-- round – smooth
-H.A
-TS
6.2.5. Designation of steels
Each steel must be defined by the following elements.
Name: For an element
Nuance:
For smooth circles.
−HA for high adhesion steels or their symbol Tor (T), Tentor
(TT) Nersid (N) caron, ( C ), creloi (SE) Breteuil (BR)
−Welded meshes (W.M) Welded meshes are type 4 steels. They are
present without the form of 2 steel beds arranged orthogonally to each other
relationship with others forming rectangular meshes. They are found in rolls
(when the diameter of the wires is less than 5 mm; otherwise, they are in panels.
Welded mesh is designated by the letters T.S followed by the indications of
diameter and spacing of the wires.
Example T.S 5/4 100x 250
The carrying wire: diameter 5mm; spacing 100mm
Distribution wire: diameter 4; spacing 250mm
The diameter in mm
Unrolled length: it is displayed on the diagram after the number,
nuance and the diameter.

30
When the steels of the same series are of variable length (case of the wing
of a abutment), we indicate the developed length of the shortest steel and that
the longest steel.
Shaping: the bent bars must be defined by a sketch listened to
small scale and rating.
The reference number
The spacing
One can enter either the spacing (for example e=25 or t=30) or the number of
bars per linear meter example 8HA 12/ml.
Variable length steels.
Remarks:
i) In practice, the elements defined above (number, nuance, diameter,
developed length, shaping, spacing, etc.) are rather shown in a table
summary made following the drawing.

No. Sketch Nuance


shaping (mm) (cm) developed total
(m) (m)
1
2

ii) The standardized diameters for both high adhesion steels and for the
aciers lisses sont les suivants :6 ; 8 ; 10 ; 12 ; 14 ; 16 ; 20 ; 25 ; 32 ; 40

6.2.6. Some examples


A. Beams, tie beams, lintels.

The reinforcement drawing of the chain beams and lintel can be done in
following the order below:
- draw the outlines of the room in medium continuous lines (N.B if the beam
presents an axis of symmetry, represented in only half the range
elevation.
- Draw the prestressed steels and hats according to the results of the B.A calculations.
- Draw the mounting steels while respecting the contrast of thickness between
diameter of the tensioned steels, caps and assembly.
- Make as many cuts as necessary
- If it turns out to be dense to draw the frames on the elevations, place only
A line of support parallel to the beam on which the distribution of the steels will be indicated.
of sewing
- Cut the dimensions of the frames on the cuts and those of the bars
longitudinal on elevation
- Draw up the nomenclature table of steels.

B. 12.7 Poles and Tension Rods

- draw the outlines in elevation by highlighting the beam connections


post, base - post.
- Draw the compressed or tensioned reinforcements as well as the steels.
transversal

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- Make one or two cuts if necessary
- Draw up the nomenclature table of steels.

C. Plancher (solid slab made of reinforced concrete)

The reinforcement of this type of structure is gridded. It is often observed:


- the main or bearing steels (1st layer) placed in the direction of the smaller
scope.
- The secondary distribution steels (2nd layer) placed perpendicularly to the layer
bearer.
- The hat steels (3rd bed) (upper) to fight against moments
negatives, at the edges of the slab.
The framework of the work is as follows:
- draw the outline of the slab and its supports (beams) in solid lines
means
- only draw one or two bass per bed
- indicate with a dimension line the area where the bars are placed.
- Indicate the name of each bed (for example, 2nd bed)
- Use different traits for the different beds
- main axes in solid lines
- secondary sections in mixed lines
- hats in short interrupted lines
- make cuts to show the arrangement of different beds
- make the nomenclature.

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6. FRAME DRAWING

6.1. Wooden framework


6.1.1. Traditional framing
Reminder
In the case of a building, the frame is the supporting structure of the roof.
it is either made of concrete, wood, or metal. The framework is made of
two main parts.
breakdowns that take over the cover charges and the
they are transmitted to farms. There are three types:
Eaves or ridge boards
Ridge panels
Intermediate breakdowns
-the farms that take on the charges resulting from the failures and
they transmit them to the supporting structure of the building, a
farm presents the following parts
The strut
The crossbowman
The punch
The sheets and the counter sheets.
b) Elevation drawings
Scales 1/100, 1/50, 1/25, 1/20.
These are rather simple drawings that allow the carpenter to draw.
the construction plan of the farm.
They must highlight:
all the elements as they should be presented on the
already assembled frame (tie beam, strut, rafter and
card...)
the overall dimensions of the farm in meters (length,
height, level of low and high points from a level
of reference).
The squared areas (in cm with a single decimal place in
power) of the constituent parts of the farm.
The folded sections of the elements
The outlines of the bars are in medium line (0.3, 0.4) and
those of the sections folded at 0.5
Rq. The lengths of the bars are not listed on
the elevation. Instead, an additional table is highlighted where are
figured the lengths of the bars taken on their neutral fiber.
When the farm is long enough and exhibits symmetry, it
it is advantageous to draw a half span.
Example see the previous page.
c) Outline: It is a drawing with fewer lines than the elevation. The lines
The outlines represent the edges of the pieces. The carpenter does not draw
the length of these but situate the room in relation to the line in
according to the following agreement:
Travel line: horizontal line passing through the lowest point of the face
higher in trait.

33
Axis line: vertical line indicating the main axis of the truss. It passes through
ridge
Guideline: a line that indicates, on the sign's side

Note: The detailed drawing in the case of traditional framing is drawn to scale.
on the construction site.

3.1.2. Modern framework


Unlike traditional frameworks, modern trusses have the elements
Moses; they are made from a precise triangulation template (drawing).

Note: For modern farms, the commonly used wood is 4x15cm2.


(battens) for the 4x8cm2 farm elements (strips) for the rafters
dimensions that may vary depending on the loads falling on the framework.

Elevations
The recommendations are the same as for traditional farms.
regarding the overall rating and methodology of
representation. The only difference lies in the fact that the elevations
The farms here are the consequence of triangulation layouts, the bars
are focused on the lines of refinement.

b) Blueprint
In the case of modern farms, the framework is a triangulated canvas.
mandatory on the framework drawing. The drawing must show:
the identification of the triangulation nodes designated by the
bold uppercase letters.
The identification of the triangulation bars referred to by
numbers (bolder and larger than the rating numbers so that
to avoid any confusion).
This identification allows to establish a correspondence
between the elevation and the details.
The elevation rating of the triangulation nodes as follows
a source that is usually the lowest point of
the draft.
The overall sides
The lengths of the lines are recorded above this.
however, for clarity, it is recommended to attach
in the drawing a table of lengths.
c) Detail drawings
The detailed drawings precisely highlight the assembly joints.
with the connecting parts (bolts, rivets, nails). They are to a scale
greater than her elevations (1/10, 1/5, 1/1 …)
Rq.: The assembly nodes are defined by 2 or 3 views presented in
correspondence.
The bolts in the views are represented without threads, we must indicate
their diameter and their position.
The nailed assemblies: the heads of the nails are represented by
points.
i) Representation rule

34
The interruption of the parts is done by a fine freehand line.
or by a zigzag line.
Hachures
Elevation
Coupe.

35
7. DRAWING OF ARTWORKS
7.1. Reminder of generalities

Civil engineering structures are constructions of great importance.


through the execution of major communication projects (bridges, culverts, tunnels, etc.).
We also assimilate to works of art, the retaining structures (dam,
support) or storage (silos, tanks, water towers, etc.).

7.2. General rules for the representation of works of art

The conventions and indications of details in the drawings of artworks


are the same as those of the technical drawings covered so far. The problem
what remains, however, is the overall presentation of these figures.
The arrangement of figures, with regard to works of art, cannot in
effect obey, as for objects or construction elements to strict rules.
This results from their extreme diversity, both in terms of shapes and
dimensions; consequently, it would no longer be a matter of applying the rules here
standardized drawings mentioned above. Within the framework of the drawings of these works,
The rules of representation stem from the particularity of most works.
and are as follows:

a) artworks generally allow for one or two plans of


symmetry. This allows the designer:
- only represent one of the two main facades (facades that
are called elevation).
-To use almost systematically outside of the drawings of
presentation (axonometry, conical, etc.) of cut views or partial sections
(half-figures or figures).
b) Side views usually have no interest.
A work of art can in most cases be clearly defined without these views.
which often correspond to buried or masked faces by the ground (back of the
abutments, supports etc.).
c) A complete plan of the work is mandatory.
A work of art generally cannot be clearly represented without
a plan (complete or partial) which is here a 'bird's eye view'.

Ultimately, a work of art requires for its representation


altogether:
a raise (half raise)
- a plan (half plan
vertical cuts (longitudinal, transverse) and horizontal cuts made
at the appropriate levels.

The arrangement of the figures that results depends, aside from these
general indications of the shapes and dimensions of the work.

7.3. Arrangement of figures


To facilitate a good understanding, the figures are arranged on a
same support.

36
7.3.1 Collected works (bridge, culvert, etc.).
We will proceed as follows:
a) Set up, at the top left of the support, the half elevation and the half-
elevation and the vertical half-section obtained from a cutting plan that is the
plan of symmetry parallel to the facade as seen in elevation. Traditionally, one places
the half-elevation to the left of the trace of the plane of symmetry perpendicular to
previous and the half-cut to the right of this mark. It should be noted that in the case of
the crossing structure, the elevation corresponds to one of the façades of the structure
parallel to the axis of the communication route.
b) Place at the same height as the previous figure and to its right the half-
vertical section obtained from a plane that is the plane of symmetry
perpendicular to the facade seen in elevation. It is wise to establish this figure at
the help of the horizontal reference lines drawn from the first figure.
c) Place the plans and horizontal sections (or sectional plan) above one another
the figures previously defined in a general way will be represented:
the upper plan, the work completed
the plan removed
Finally, set up possibly the detail drawings as best as possible.
available space, preferably towards the bottom right corner of the support.

1/2 Coupe
1/2 1/2 Coupe transversal
elevations longitudinal

1/2 Plan 1/2 Coupe Details


superior hourdi removed

NB.: The drawings of reinforced concrete (especially the reinforcement) always require a support.
apart.

7.3.2. Long and narrow structures with a significantly constant cross-section (dam,
support).

a) Set up, at the top and to the left of the sheet, the elevation, or if this is
has the same characteristics along its entire length, limiting the representation
to a partial elevation of sufficient length allowing the assessment of
the work
b) Highlight a vertical section facing the drawing above;

37
c) At the bottom of the two drawings above, represent the essential details.
d) The drawings of reinforced concrete (especially rebar) are always subject to a
support aside.

38
6. TECHNICAL DRAWING DETAILS

6.1. Definition
The detail drawing is a representation of a part of a work at a
Scale larger than that of the overall drawing from which this detail is extracted.

6.2. Importance - Scale

In a general drawing, the reliefs and other technical details cannot


not appearing; which hinders reading, interpretation, implementation of the part
work in question as well as the quantification of materials to be implemented
for its realization. It is therefore necessary to reproduce this part of
The work is at a well-chosen scale to facilitate its perception.

The scale of detail drawings depends on the dimensions of the part of the work.
that we want to highlight. The common scales are as follows: 1/25, 1/20, 1/10, 1/5,
1/2, 1/1, 2/1 etc.

6.3. Representation Agreement

The applicable convention for assembly drawings (line type, thicknesses


features, quoting, designation, etc.) also applies to the drawings of
detail.

Note: A detailed drawing without scale or dimensions cannot be used.

6.4. Some common details.

At each level of the construction of the work, there are details that the designer
It should stand out to facilitate its implementation.

6.4.1. Foundation
section on drain
the ancillary works (manholes, pits, septic tank)
- local cutting on paving, various coverings
types of soles (formwork and reinforcement)
various liaisons.
-Etc.
6.4.2. Elevations
-supports and reliefs;
-local cut on the floor;
thermal insulation, acoustic insulation, various wall coverings;
Woodwork;
Formwork - various reinforcement;
Liaison
Conduits and reservations;
Stairs;
Lifts;
-Etc.
6.4.3. Framework and Roofing

39
-nodes, assemblies;
-cut on sealing;
-cut on collection structures (swale, gutter, channel,
etc.) ;
acroterion
coastal
-threshold ;
water descents;
furniture
cut on cover;
solivage
-etc.

This list is only indicative and therefore depends on the design of the
designer.

40
CONIC PERSPECTIVE

The central perspective or projection (a) is a particularly expressive means of representing an idea.
constructive. It allows the observer, especially the layperson, to form a more precise idea than the parallel projection.
geometric in plan and elevation (b), usually used in architectural drawing.
The object is represented without regard to its true size as it appears to the eye or as a photograph would show it.
thus, we neglect the difference between the curvature of the retina and the plane of the tableau.
To understand well "be" raised perpendicularly on the base plane "gr". The perspective image results from the whole.
points where visual rays catch the eye to the object pierce the plane of the painting (a).
All lines parallel to the same direction converge towards the same vanishing point. On the lines parallel to the plane of
Tables remain parallel in perspective view, while their vanishing point moves away to infinity. The edges
verticals remain vertical.
Preconditions for building a perspective.

1- recommended position for the object:


30° with respect to the table plane.
2- Elevation or scale indicating heights from the base plan, shown laterally.
Elements to be fixed to allow construction
1- Determine the viewpoint S. The distance from (eye A - plane of the painting 'be') will be 1 and a half to 2 times the size.
of the object.
2- Choose the direction of the gaze. The angle of view will be 30° (at most 50°) and taken perpendicular to the plane of
tableau.
3- Indicate the trace of the plane of the "be" table and thereby choose the scale of the image. Place this trace by overlapping it.
with one of the edges of the object to facilitate the determination of heights.
4- Set the height of the eye (position of the horizon line h°).

Angle perspective (a)


The object is seen at an angle (or skewed) in relation to the plane of the 'be' table, while the gaze is parallel to the base plane.
gr
Central perspective (b)

41
On one side, the object is parallel to the plane of the 'be' board, the gaze remains parallel to the base gr. Ultimately, it's a...
perspective angle in which, in plan, the angle made by the object with the plane of the table becomes null. In doing so, one of the points of
the leak moves away towards infinity while the other moves closer to the center of the image.
Note: One can combine angle perspective and central perspective in the same drawing.
Construction
1- Starting from point S, we draw in plan two parallels to the sides of the object to be represented, until their intersection with
the 'be' trace of the plane of the table. By raising these bridges, we obtain the vanishing points F1 and F2 placed on the horizon line.
2- The points of the object in the plane are connected to the point of view S using visual rays.
3- The intersection P' of the visual ray with the plane of the table 'be' is then recorded in the image.
4- To determine the heights in perspective, the traces of the vertical edges of the volumes are extended until their
intersection with the plane of the table 'be' and recorded in the perspective image. Then, the heights taken in elevation
are reported in perspective starting from the base plan 'gr'.
At the intersection of the lines of sight and the vertical lines of elevation of points P’, we obtain the perspective image of the points.
superiors of the object.
Recommendations
Use the angle perspective for volumes viewed from the outside.

Construction
The construction of central perspective corresponds to that of angular perspective, but in this case, we only work with
a single vanishing point.

1- The horizon being chosen in advance, the main visual ray is recorded in the perspective and constitutes the vanishing point.
central.
2- +3 Proceed as for the angle perspective.
4-To determine the heights in perspective, the points on the plane are lifted in the image corresponding to their
projections on the plan of the table and the heights are then reported as in the angle perspective.
5- Proceed as for the angle perspective
Recommendations
Use the central perspective to represent interiors.
The central perspective looks more elegant if the central vanishing point is noticeably in the middle of the image.

42
Below are represented the various variants obtained by differently fixing elements such as the height of the eye, plan.
of the table, the point of view and the consequences that result for the perspective.
Depending on the height h chosen for the observer's eye, that is to say the horizon line h°, the object to be represented appears:
a) Overhead perspective
b) Normal perspective view at normal height
c) Perspective »ceiling view from below
Variation of perspective
lateral displacement
The direction of the main line of sight changes when the viewpoint S moves.
b) Modification of the distance
The distance d and the angle of view change when the viewpoint S moves away or gets closer.
Practical tips
The main line of sight S-H must be drawn perpendicularly on 'be' towards the middle of the object.
Distance of 1.5 times the size of the object.
3) Angle of view: about 30° (up to 50°).
By its position, the plan of the table "be" determines the size of the image and the image and the scale of the perspective (b). It can be
moved at will in depth without changing the shape of the image. It is assumed that the plane of the painting "be" is perpendicular to
basic plan "gr and to the visual axis A-H.
The perspective images appear as follows:
a) Objects behind the plane of the painting are smaller
b) Objects in the plane of the table in scale
c) Objects in front of the plane of the board are larger

Several horizontal vanishing points


This involves drawing the perspective image of a given exhibition hall, whose plan narrows in depth. The panels
The exhibition items indicated on the plan by numbers are placed at an angle and are not parallel to each other. They therefore have different perspectives.
For each panel, we will repeat the construction described for the angle perspective.
The 3 panels are parallel to each other and have the same vanishing point F3.

SEVERAL POINTS OF ESCAPE WITH INCLINED PLANS


The location Ai chosen for the eye, above the viewpoint S, is folded into the plane of the table (circle of radius Fi with Fi)
for center).

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Then, the angle of inclination above (or below) the horizon is reported in A1.
The intersection of the latter with the vertical coming from the corresponding horizontal vanishing point gives the vanishing point Fi of
each inclined plane.

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