EXPERIMENT-1

MACHINE SHOP

Introduction: The main types of machines that are to be found in the machine shop are lathes, milling
machines, drilling machines and grinding machines. These machines are all manually operated in as much as
they require the constant attention of highly skilled operator/setter for normal operation. These machines
require constant adjustmentsand alterations during their operation and so therefore safety consciousness and
vigilance are of paramount importance.

1.1.1 Dangers from Machinery

A person may be injured at machinery as a result of:
• Coming into contact with it, or being trapped between the machinery and any material in or at
the machinery orany fixed structure.
• Being struck by, or becoming entangled in or by, any material in motion in the machinery.

• Being struck by fragments of cutting tools ejected from it.

• Being struck by material ejected from the machinery.

1.1.2 Precautions
Precautions can be divided into 4 categories, these are:
• The Machine
• The Work piece
• The Work area
• Procedures

Lathe Machine

The lathe is one of the most important machines in any workshop. Its main objective is to remove
material from outside by rotating the work against a cutting tool. It is a power driver, well purpose
machine tool, which is used for producing cylindrical work piece.

An engine lathe is a power-driven, general-purpose machine tool used for producing cylindrical work-
pieces. As the pieceof metal to be machined is rotated in the lathe, a single-point cutting tool is advanced
radically into the work piece a specified depth and moved longitudinally along the axis of the work piece,
removing metal in the form of chips. Both inside and outside surfaces can be machined on a lathe by using
attachments and accessories. Other operations such as drilling, reaming, boring, taper and angle turning,
screw-thread chasing, form turning, knurling, milling, grinding, and polishing may be performed.
Parts of Lathe Machine:-
 Major parts
 Bed
 Headstock
 Tailstock
 Carriage.
 Carriage have five major parts. They are as follows:
 Saddle.
 Cross-slide.
 Compound rest.
 Tools Post.
 Apron.
 Power feed and thread cutting mechanism.
 Other Parts
 Carriage wheel
 Compound slide
 RPM selector dial
 Compound rest
 Apron
 Rack
 Tailstock spindle
 Lock lever
 Hand wheel
 Lead screw
 Set over screw
 Control rod
 Chip pan
 Tool holder
 Feed plate
 Taper wheel
 Spindle

 Sliding gear
 Mandrels
 Feed rod
 Lead Screw
 Carriage stop
 Emergency stop
 Feed compound
 Control handle
 Follower rest
 Angle plate
 Rests
 Carriage
 Wheel
 Lathe Operations.
The most common operations which can be carried out on a lathe are:
 Straight Turning.
It is an operation of removing excess amount of material from the surface of the cylindrical work piece. In
this operation, the work is held either in the chuck or between centers and the longitudinal feed is given
to the tool either by hand or power.
 Step Turning.
It is an operation of producing various steps of different diameters in the work place. This operation is
carried out in the similar way as plain turning.
 Taper Turning.
It is an operation of producing an external conical surface on a work piece. A small taper may be produced
with the help of a forming tool or chamfering tool, but the larger tapers are produced by swiveling the
compound rest, at the required angle or by offsetting the tailstock or by taper turning attachment.
If D is the larger diameter, “d” is the smaller diameter and “l” is the length
of taper, then,Taper, θ= tan-1(D-d)/2l
 Facing.
This operation is almost essential for all works. In this operation, the work piece is held in the chuck and
the facing tool isfed from the center of the work piece towards the outer surface or from the outer surface
to the center, with the help of a cross slide.
 Centre Drilling.
It is an operation of locating the centre of the job before proceeding for the drilling operation. In this
operation, the work piece is held in a chuck and the drill centre is held in the tailstock. The drill is fed
manually into the rotating work piece, by rotating the tailstock hand wheel.

 Drilling.
It is an operation of making a hole in a work piece with the help of a drill. In this operation, the work piece
is held in a chuck and the drill is held in the tailstock. The drill is fed manually into the rotating work piece,
by rotating the tailstock hand wheel.
 Knurling.
It is an operation of providing knurled surface on the work piece. In this operation, a knurled tool is moved
longitudinally to a revolving work piece surface.

Tools Needed.

1. Adjustable wrench
2. Slide calipers
3. Cutting tool
4. Chuck key

Cylindrical and Surface Grinders

These are machines which are situated in the machine shop area but because of their specialised nature
require to be treated with care. The following notes also apply to floor standing or pedestal grinders
which are used for tool sharpening.

Abrasive wheels must be mounted and dressed only by competent and trained personnel who have a
certificate defined under the Abrasive Wheel Regulations.
Before being used, a grinding wheel should always be examined thoroughly and tested by tapping with a
light non- metallic implement before fitting to the machine. Once fitted, guards should then be placed in
position and the wheel dressed. Suitable racks should be used for storing grinding wheels.
On no account should abrasive wheels be mounted on makeshift apparatus.
Floor standing grinders should be fixed to a good foundation. Bench grinders should be securely
anchored to a stout bench. Work rests should be kept adjusted as close as possible to the wheel to
prevent the work piece getting between thewheel and the rest. The maximum distance should be not
greater than 2mm. The necessary adjustments must not be made with the wheel in motion. Rests
should be examined periodically and maintained in good condition.

Means of starting and stopping grinding machines should be placed in a safe position within easy reach
of the operator. When mounting abrasive wheels the paper washers supplied by the wheel
manufacturers should always be used so as todistribute the clamping pressure of the flange evenly on
the wheel. Before a wheel is mounted a check should be made toensure that the operating speed of the
spindle is not greater that the maximum operating speed marked on the wheel.
It must be remembered that the centrifugal force on a grinding wheel increases not directly with the
speed but as the square of the speed
 Job No –1

OBJECT: To prepare a Job using Step Turning on Lathe Machine.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: MS Round dia 25 mm length 150 mm

Job No –2

OBJECT: To prepare a Job using Taper Turning on

Lathe Machine.MATERIAL REQUIRED: MS Round dia 25
mm length 130 mm
 Job No –3

OBJECT: To prepare a Job using Step Turning, Taper Turning, Knurling and parting off
operation on LatheMachine.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: MS Round dia 25 mm length 70 mm
 EXPERIMENT-2

CARPENTRY SHOP

Carpentry is the process of shaping Timber, using hand tools. The products produced are
used in building construction, such as doors and windows, furniture manufacturing, patterns for
moulding in foundries, etc. Carpentry work mainly involves the joining together of wooden pieces
and finishing the surfaces after shaping them. Hence, the term joining is also used commonly for
carpentry. A student studying the fundamentals of wood working has to know about timber and
other carpentry materials, wood working tools, carpentry operations and the method of making
common types of joints.

Materials Used in Carpentry:

Classification of Wood

The timber used for commercial purposes

can he dividedinto two classes as soft
wood and hard wood

 Soft wood: A soft wood is light in weight and light colored. They may have distinct annual rings
but the medullarrays (radial lines) are not visible and the color of the sap wood (outer layers) is
not distinctive from the heart wood (inner layers). These woods cannot resist stresses developed
across their fibers; hence, not suitable for wood working.
 Hard wood: In this type of wood the annual rings are compact and thin and the medullar rays
(radial lines} are Visible in most cases Figure6.1. Hard woods are nearly equally strong both along
and across the fibers. Hand wood is the material used for wood working
 Tools for wood working: The principle hand tools used in a carpentry workshop can be classified into
i) Marking and measuring tool
ii) Cutting tool
iii) Planning tool
iv) Boring tool
v) Striking tool
vi) Holding tool

Marking and measuring tool :

a) Rules: Rules are used for measuring dimensions. For measuring and setting out dimensions
various types of rules are used in carpentry shop. Steel Rule-Stainless Steel Rule of length 30cm
and 60cm. Flexible Measuring Rule-formeasuring large dimensions as well as curved or angular
surface dimensions.
 b) Straight Edge and Squares: This is a machined flat piece wood or metal having perfectly
straight and paralleledges.

c) Steel Tape: It is used for large dimensions, such as marking on boards and checking the overall
dimensions of the work.

d) Gauges: Gauges are used to mark lines parallel to the edges of a wooden piece. It mainly consists of a
wooden stem sliding inside a wooden stock. The stem carries a steel point for marking lines. The stock
position on the stem can be varied and fixed rigidly by tightening the thumb screw.

To mark a line parallel to an edge the gauge stock is held freely against the edge and pushed along it,
pressing the steel points to the surface

e) Try square: Try square consists of rectangular steel blade fixed rigidly to cast iron stock. The
length of blade variesfrom 150mm to 300mm.
f) Marking Knife or Scriber: Marking Knives are used to convert the pencil lines drawn on the
wooden surface intodeep scratch lines on the surface. They are made of steel with a sharp point at
one end and flat blade at the other end.

g) Bevel Square: it is also called sliding level. It is an adjustable try-square used for measuring/marking
angles between 00
and 1800.
Holding tools
a) Work Bench: This is a table of having size and raised construction made of hard wood. The size
ranges from 50- 80 cm in length and about 90cm in width. Two or four carpenters can work at a
time on the work bench.

b) Carpenters Bench Vice: It consists of jaw fixed on the table side and movable jaw kept in position
by means of screw and handle. The body of vice is made of cast iron or steel. The jaws are lined
with hard wood which can be removed when it is damaged.
The screw moves inside the fixed half nut which can been gaged or disengaged by operating the lever.
This is made up ofa bar of steel. The work is clamped between jaws by rotating the screw using the handle.
It is used for clamping glued pieces or holding the work piece of larger size together for various operations.

c) C Clamp: The clamp of the shape of letter C or G is used to clamp short pieces together as the
bar clamp. Theseclamps are available is sizes varying from 70 mm to 800 mm. it is used for
holding the planks after gluing.
d) Bar or T-cramp: it consists of a steel bar fitted with a threaded spindle and an
adjustable shoe. It isused for holding the glued pieces tightly or holding firmly two
or more unglued pieces for fitting dowels or doing other operations on them in
assembled position.

Fig. Carpenter bench-vice Fig. C-clamp Fig. Bar/T clamp

Cutting tools

a) Saws

Saw is a cutting tool which has teeth on one edge and cutting is affected by reciprocating motion of the
edge relative tothe work piece. Cutting occurs during the forward motion; such a saw is called push type
saw, the cutting occurs duringthe backward motion.
i. Hand Saw- This saw is used for short straight cuts. It has a blade of 25-40cm length 6-10cm width. The
number of teeth per cm length ranges from 3-5.

ii. Tenon Saw (Back Saw)- It has a parallel blade of 25-40cm length and 6-10cm width. The number
of teeth per cmlength ranges from 5-8.
b) Chisels: The common type of chisels used is briefly explained below.
i. Firmer Chisels- they are most common and general purpose chisel used by a carpenter. They have
flat blade of 15-50mm width and 125mm length.
ii. Dove Tail Chisel (beveled edge firmer chisel) - These chisels are used for fine and delicate works
as well as forcutting corners.
iii. Mortise chisel – These chisels are used for heavy and deep cut to remove large quantity of wood.
These chisels havewidth of about 15mm but the blade thickness may range from 6-15mm.
PLANNING TOOLS
Planning tool is used to
smoothen the woodensurfaces.

a) Wooden jack plane This is the

most commonly used plane in
carpentry shop. The main part of a
wooden jack plane is a wooden block
called sole, in which steel blade having
knife edge is fixed at an angle with the
help of wooden edge. The angle of the
blade is kept about 45 ° to bottom
surface ofthe blade.
b) Metal Jack Plane It serves the same purpose as
the wooden jack plane but facilitates a smoother
operations and better finish. The body of a metal jack
plane is made from a grey iron casting with the side
and sole machined and ground to better finish.

Striking Tools:

a) Mallet: Wooden mallets are usually used in

carpentry to knock wooden pieces together, or to drive
dowels or chisels. A wooden
mallet will not deform the striking end of a metal tool, as most metal hammers would.

b) Claw Hammer: A claw hammer is a tool primarily used for driving nails into, or pulling nails
from, some otherobject.
 Job No – 1
OBJECT: To prepare a job of cross lap joint having the dimensions given in the figure below.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Pine wood of 40 x 40 x 127 mm ( 2 Piece)

Job No – 2

OBJECT: To Prepare a job of Mortise and Tenon joint having the dimensions given in the figure below
METERIAL REQUIRED: Pine wood of 40 x 40 x 127 mm ( 2 Pieces)
 Job No – 3

OBJECT: To Prepare a job of Cross Half Lap Joint having the dimensions given in the figure below
METERIAL REQUIRED: Pine wood of 40 x 40 x 127 mm ( 2 Pieces)

Job No – 4

OBJECT: To Prepare a job of Dovetail Joint having the dimensions given in the figure below
METERIAL REQUIRED: Pine wood of 40 x 40 x 127 mm ( 2 Pieces)
 EXPERIMENT-3

FITTING SHOP

The term fitting, is related to assembly of parts, after bringing the dimension or shape to the required
size or form, in order to secure the necessary fit. The operations required for the same are usually carried
out on a work bench, hence the term bench work is also added with the name fitting.
The bench work and fitting plays an important role in engineering. Although in today's industries
most of the work is done by automatic machines which produces the jobs with good accuracy but still it
(job) requires some hand operations called fitting operations. The person working in the fitting shop is
called fitter.
FITTING TOOLS: Fitting shop tools are classified as below:
 Work Holding Devices/ Clamping Tools.
 Measuring and Marking Tools.
 Cutting Tools.
 Striking Tools.
 Drilling Tools.
 Threading Tools
I. WORK HOLDING DEVICES /CLAMPING TOOLS:
1. Work Bench
A fitting process can be done at various places,
but most of theimportant operations of fitting are
generally carried out on a table called work bench.

The work bench is a strong, heavy and rigid table

made up of hard wood.

The size of the work bench required is about 150

to 180 cm length, nearly 90 cm width and
approximately 76 to 84 cm height.
2. BENCH VICE:
It is firmly fixed to the bench with the help of nuts and bolts. It consists of a cast Iron body and cast
iron jaws. Two jaw plates are fitted on both the jaws. The holding surface of the jaw plates is knurled in
order to increase the gipping. Jaw plates are made up of carbon steel and are wear resistant. One jaw is
fixed to the body and the second slides on a square threaded screw with the help of a handle. The jaws are
opened up to required length; job is placed in the two jaws and is fully tightened with the help of handle.
Handle is used to move the movable jaw.
3. V Block: In V Block, V grooves are provided to hold the round objects longitudinally. The screw of the
clamp appliesthe holding pressure. When the handle is rotated there is movement in the screw.
II. MEASURING TOOLS
1. Steel Rule

These are made up of stainless steel and are available in many sizes ranging from 1/2 ft. to 2 ft. These
are marked in inches or millimetres. All the faces are machined true. The edges of steel rule should be
protected from rough handling.

2. Calipers
These are generally used to measure the inside or outside diameters. Different types are:
i. Outside Caliper: It is used to measure the outside dimensions.
ii. Inside Caliper: It is used to measure the inside dimensions.
iii. Spring Caliper: Spring is provided to apply the pressure and lock nut is provided to lock any desired
position.
iv. Hermaphrodite, Jenny or Oddleg Caliper: One leg is bent at the tip inwardly and the other has a
straight pointedend. It is used to scribe lines parallel to the straight edges.
1. Vernier Caliper: It is used for measuring the outer dimensions of round, flat, square components and
also the inner size of the holes and bore. A narrow blade is used to measure the depth of bar slots etc. The
reading accuracy in metric system is 0.02 mm and British system it is 0.001”. It is made of stainless steel.

III. MARKING TOOLS:

1. Surface Plate
It is used for testing the flatness, trueness of the surfaces. It is made up of cast iron or graphite.
Its upper face isplaned to form a very smooth surface. It is also used in scribing work.
While not in use, it should be covered with a wooden cover.

2. Angle Plate
It is made up of cast iron in different sizes; it has two planed surfaces at
right angles to each other and has various slots in each surface to hold
the work by means of bolts and clamps.
Never do hammering on the angle plate to fasten (lighten) the nuts and bolts.
3. Scriber and Surface Gauge
It consists of a cast iron bass on the center of which a steel rod is fixed vertically. Scriber is made up of
high carbon steel and is hardened from the front edge. It is used for locating the centres of round bars
or for marking of the lines.

Fig. Scriber and Surface Gauge

4. Punches

Punches are used for marking purposes. Dot punches are used for marking dotted line and centre
punch is used to mark the centre of hole before drilling. Punches are made up of high carbon steel or
high speed steels. One end is sharpened. Hammering is done on the second end while working. For dot
punch, angle of the punching end is 60 degree while in centre punch; angle of punching end is 90
degree.

5. Tri-square: It is used for checking squareness of two surfaces. It

consists of a blademade up of steel, which is attached to a base at 90
degree. The base is made up of cast iron or steel. It is also used to mark
the right angles and measuring straightness of surfaces. Never use try
square as a hammer.

Fitting Tools
I. Work Holding Devices /Clamping Tools:
Ii.
Measuri
ng Tools
Iii.
Marking
Tools:
5. Vernier Height gauge:

METHODS OF MARKING
. Vernier Height gauge:
Vernier height gauge consists of a heavy base, a
graduated beam, a sliding head with Vernier sliding jaws
holding the scriber and a fine adjustment clamp. It is
similar to large Vernier calipers in construction,except
that it consists of a heavy base which allows the gauge to
stand
upright instead of a fixed jaw in a Vernier. The movable jaw of Vernier
height gauge consists of a projection or extension which is levelled to
sharp edge for scribing lines at any required height.

METHODS OF MARKING: Marking means setting out dimensions with

the help of a working drawing or directly transferring them from a
similar part. The procedure is given as follows:
a. The surface to be marked is coated with the paste of chalk or red
lead and allowed to dry.
b. Then the work is held in a holding device depending upon shape and size.
c. Lines in horizontal directions are scribed by means of a surface
gauge. Lines at right angle may be drawn by the use of scriber.
d. For a round object its centre can be marked by using an odd leg caliper.
 e. Circles and arcs can be drawn by means of divider.
f. After the scribing is over, indentations on the surface are made
using dot punchand hammer.
CUTTING TOOLS
Hacksaw: Hacksaw is used for cutting of rods, bars, pipes, flats etc. It consists of a frame, which is made
from mild steel. The blade is placed inside the frame and is tightened with the help of a flange nut. The
blade is made up of high carbon steel or high speed steel. The points of the teeth are bent in a zig-zag
fashion, to cut a wide groove and prevent the body of the blade from rubbing or jamming in the saw cut.
The teeth of the blades are generally forward cut so in the case, pressure is applied in the forward direction
only. Depending upon the direction of cut, blades are classified as:
a.Forward-cut b. Backward cut
Depending upon the pitch of the teeth (Distance between the two consecutive teeth) blades is classified as:
a. Coarse (8-14 teeth per Inch), b. Medium (16-20 teeth per inch), c. Fine (24-32 teeth per inch)

Files: Files are multi points cutting tools. It is used to remove the material by rubbing it on the metals.
Files are availablein a number of sizes, shapes and degree of coarseness.

Classification of files

i. On the

basis of

length

4”,6”,8”,12

ii. On the basis of grade:

Rough (R)(20 teeth

per inch) Bastard
(B)(30 teeth per inch)
Second cut (Sc) (40
teeth per inch)
 Smooth file (S)(50 teeth
per inch) Dead smooth
(DS)(100 teeth per inch)

Rough and bastard files are the big cut files. When the material removal is more, these files are used.
These files have bigger cut but the surface produced Is rough. Dead smooth and smooth files have
smaller teeth and used for finishing work. Second cut file has degree of finish in between bastard and
smooth file.

Job No – 1

OBJECT: To prepare a job using the operation of Cutting, Filing, Drilling and Tapping for the
dimensions of the job asgiven in the figure below.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: MS Flat 60 x 40 x 6 mm

Job No – 2

OBJECT: To prepare a male and female job using the operation of Cutting and Filing etc., having
the dimensionsgiven in the figure below.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: MS Flat 50 x 38 x 6 mm
 Job No – 3

OBJECT: To prepare a job using Grinding operation on grinding machine having the dimensions
given in the figurebelow.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: MS Flat 100 x 40 x 5 mm

BEFORE GRINDING AFTER GRINDING

Job No – 4

OBJECT: To prepare a job using Drilling operation on Drilling machine having the dimensions
given in the figurebelow.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: MS Flat 250 x 40 x 5 mm
 EXPERIMENT-4

WELDING SHOP

Introduction: Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different
metals/alloys,with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. The
fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated either from combustion of gases,
electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical reaction.
Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components. It is
therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for most of the critical components. The
welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing process in industries. Some of the typical applications
of welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels, automobile bodies, off-shore platform,
bridges, welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives, etc.

Most of the metals and alloys can be welded

by one typeof welding process or the other.
However, some are easier to weld than
others. To compare this ease in welding term
‘weldability’ is often used. The weldability
may be defined as property of a metal which
indicates the ease with which it can be
welded with other similar or dissimilar
metals.
Edge preparations
For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared first. Different edge
preparations may be used forwelding butt joints, which are given in Figure.
Welding joints: Some common welding joints are shown in Figure. Welding joints are of generally of two
major kindsnamely lap joint and butt joint. The main types are described as under.

1. Lap weld joint:

Single-Lap Joint

This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate, is

not recommended for most work. The single lap has very
little resistance to bending. It can be used satisfactorily for
joining two cylinders that fit inside one another.

Double-Lap Joint
This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the
disadvantage that itrequires twice as much welding.
Tee Fillet Weld: This type of joint, although widely used,
should not beemployed if an alternative design is
possible.

2. Butt weld joint

a. Single-Vee Butt Weld:It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the vee depends upon the
technique being used, the plates being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.

b. Double-Vee Butt Weld:It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be performed on
both sides of the plate. The top vee angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom angle is 80°, depending
on the technique being used.

Welding Positions: There are four types of welding positions, which are given as:
Flat or Down-hand Welding Position: The flat position or down hand position is one in which the
welding is performedfrom the upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is approximately horizontal.
Horizontal Welding Position: In horizontal position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the
deposited weld headis horizontal.This position of welding is most commonly used in welding vessels
and reservoirs.
Vertical Welding Position: In vertical position, the plane of the work-piece is vertical and the weld is
deposited upon a vertical surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position due to the
effect of the force of gravity on themolten metal.
Overhead Welding Position: The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the
vertical position. Here the pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater.
ARC WELDING PROCESSES: The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a work-piece
or between two electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding process. The basic
principle of arc welding is shown in Figure1. However the basic elements involved in arc welding process
are shown in Figure2. Most of these processes use some shielding gas while others employ coatings or
fluxes to prevent the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere.
Arc Welding Equipment: Arc welding equipment, setup and related tools and accessories are shown in
Figure. However some common tools of arc welding are shown separately through Figure. Few of the
important components of arc welding setup are described as under.
1. Arc welding power source: Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric
arc welding, each having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained from
generators driven by electric motor orif no electricity is available by internal combustion engines. For AC
welding supply, transformers are predominantly used for almost all Arc-welding where mains electricity
supply is available. They have to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400 volts) to the normal open
circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts). The following factors influence the selection ofa power source:
a. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded
b. Available power source (AC or DC)
c. Required output
d. Duty cycle
e. Efficiency
f. Initial costs and running costs
g. Available floor space
h. Versatility of equipment

11) Channel for cable

1) Switch box. protection.
2) Secondary terminals 12) Welding cable.
3) Welding machine. 13) Chipping hammer.
4) Current reading scale. 14) Wire brush.
5) Current regulating hand 15) Earth clamp.
wheel. 16) Welding table
6) Leather apron. (metallic).
7) Asbestos hand gloves. 17) Job.

8) Protective glasses strap, 9) Electrode holder, 10) Hand shield

Electrode holder
Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually
and conducting current to it. These are usually matched to
the size of the lead, which in turn matched to the amperage
output of the arc welder.
Electrode holders are available in sizes that range from 150 to 500

Welding Electrodes: An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without
coatings. An arc is setup between electrode and workpiece. Welding electrodes are classified into
following types-
(i) Consumable Electrodes
(a) Bare Electrodes
(b) Coated Electrodes
(ii) Non-consumable Electrodes
(a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes
(b) Tungsten Electrodes

Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this electrode starts melting
when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus consumable electrode itself acts as a filler
metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes
have flux coating which starts melting as soon as an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting performs
many functions like prevention of joint from atmospheric contamination, arc stabilizers etc.
Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure tungsten or
alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But practically, the electrode length
goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of oxidation and vaporization of the electrode
material during welding. The materials of non- consumable electrodes are usually copper coated carbon
or graphite, pure tungsten, thoriated or zirconiated tungsten.

Hand Screen: Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.
Chipping hammer: Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.
Wire brush: Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.

Protective clothing: Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep away the exposure of
direct heat to thebody.
Safety Recommendations for ARC Welding: The beginner in the field of arc welding must go through and
become familiar with these general safety recommendations which are given as under.
1. The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed. Pipe lines containing gases
or inflammable liquids or conduits carrying electrical conductors shall not be used for a ground return
circuit All earth connections shall be mechanically strong and electrically adequate for the required
current.
2. Welding arc in addition to being very is a source of infra-red and ultra-violet light also; consequently
the operator must use either helmet or a hand-shield fitted with a special filter glass to protect eyes
3. Excess ultra-violet light can cause an effect similar to sunburn on the skin of the welder
4. The welder’s body and clothing are protected from radiation and burns caused by sparks and flying
globules of moltenmetal with the help of the following:
5. Gloves protect the hands of a welder.
6. Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect welder’s clothes and his trunk and thighs while
seated he is doing welding.
7. For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required
8. Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful.
9. Leather jackets and 1ather leggings are also available as clothes for body protection.
10. Welding equipment shall be inspected periodically and maintained in safe working order at all times.
11. Arc welding machines should be of suitable quality.

All parts of welding set shall be suitably enclosed and protected to meet the usual service conditions.

J
ob No – 1OBJECT: To prepare a butt joint using
arc welding process MATERIAL REQUIRED: MS
Plate 100x32x5 mm

J
ob No –2OBJECT: To prepare a T joint using arc
welding process MATERIAL REQUIRED: MS Plate
100x32x5 mm
 Job No –3
OBJECT: Demonstration of TIG and MIG welding
APPRATUS: TIG and MIG welding equipment

TIGWELDING EQUIPMENT MIGWELDINGEQUIPMENT

Job No –4

OBJECT: To prepare a Lap joint using TIG or MIG welding process.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: MS Plate 100x32x5 mm
 EXPERIMENT-5

MOULDING AND CASTING SHOP

PATTERN: A pattern is a model or the replica of the object (to be casted). It is embedded in molding sand
and suitable
ramming of molding sand around the pattern is made. The pattern is then withdrawn for generating
cavity (known asmold) in molding sand.
COMMON PATTERN MATERIALS: The common materials used for making patterns are wood, metal,
plastic, plaster,wax or Mercury.
TYPES OF PATTERN: The types of the pattern and the description of each are given as under.
1. One piece or solid pattern 2. Two piece or split pattern 3. Cope and drag pattern 4. Three-piece or multi-
piece pattern
5. Loose piece pattern 6. Match plate pattern 7. Follow board pattern 8. Gated pattern 9. Sweep pattern
10. Skeletonpattern 11. Segmental or part pattern

1. Single-piece or solid pattern: Solid pattern is made of single piece without joints, partings lines or
loose pieces. It is the simplest form of the pattern. Typical single piece pattern is shown in Fig. 10.1.
2. Two-piece or split pattern: When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the mold cavity, then
solid pattern is split in two parts. Split pattern is made in two pieces which are joined at the parting line
by means of dowel pins. The splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate the withdrawal of the pattern.
A typical example is shown in Fig. 10.2

Fig. Single Piece Pattern Fig. Two Piece Pattern

MOLDING SAND: The general sources of receiving molding sands are the beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granular
elements ofrocks, and deserts. Molding sands may be of two types namely natural or synthetic. Natural
molding sands contain sufficient binder. Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared artificially using
basic sand molding constituents (silica sand in 88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or moisture content 3-6%)
and other additives in proper proportion by weight with perfect mixing and mulling in suitable
equipments.

Binder: In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic substance. The inorganic group includes
clay sodium silicate and port land cement etc. In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be
Kaolonite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s earth and Bentonite. Binders included in the organic
group are dextrin, molasses, cereal binders, linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde, urea
formaldehyde etc. Organic binders are mostly used for core making. Among all the above binders, the
bentonite variety of clay is the most common. However, this clay alone cannot develop bonds among sand
grins without the presence of moisture in molding sand and core sand.

Additives: Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture to develop
some special property in the sand. Some common used additives for enhancing the properties of molding
and core sands are discussed as under.
1. Coal dust: Coal dust is added mainly for producing a reducing atmosphere during casting.
2. Corn flour: It belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates and is used to increase the
collapsibility of the moldingand core sand
3. Dextrin: Dextrin belongs to starch family of carbohydrates that behaves also in a manner similar
to that of the cornflour. It increases dry strength of the molds.
4. Sea coal: Sea coal is the fine powdered bituminous coal which positions its place among the pores
of the silica sandgrains in molding sand and core sand
5. Wood flour: This is a fibrous material mixed with a granular material like sand; its relatively long
thin fibers preventthe sand grains from making contact with one another.
6. Silica flour: It is called as pulverized silica and it can be easily added up to 3% which increases the
hot strength andfinish on the surfaces of the molds and cores

KINDS OF MOULDING SAND: Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of
varieties which are described below.

1. Green sand: Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared mixture
of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to 8%. The clay and water
furnish the bond for green sand.It is fine, soft, light, and porous.
2. Dry sand: Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and cores,is
called dry sand. It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability.
3. Loam sand: Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand possesses
high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water.
4. Facing sand: Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould. It is directly next to the
surface of the pattern and it comes into contact molten metal when the mould is poured. Initial coating
around the pattern and hence for mold surface is given by this sand. This sand is subjected severest
conditions and must possess, therefore, high strength refractoriness.
5. Backing sand: Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the
whole volume of the molding flask.
6. Parting sand: Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to stick
to the pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface the cope and drag to separate without
clinging
7. Core sand: Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand. This is
highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which composed of linseed oil, resin,
light mineral oil and other bind materials.

PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND: The basic properties required in molding sand and core sand are
described as under.
1. Refractoriness: Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand high
temperatures without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating to get sound casting. It is a highly
important characteristic of molding sands.Refractoriness can only be increased to a limited extent
2. Permeability: It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the escape of any
air,gases or moisture present or generated in the mould when the molten metal is poured into it. All
these gaseous generated during pouring and solidification process must escape otherwise the casting
becomes defective
3. Cohesiveness: It is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles interact and
attract each other within the molding sand
4. Green strength: The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have sufficient strength and
toughness to permit the making and handling of the mould. For this, the sand grains must be adhesive,
i.e. thev must be capable of attaching themselves to another body
5. Dry strength: As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the moisture in the sand layer
adjacent to the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand layer must have sufficient strength to its
shape in order to avoid erosion of mould wall during the flow of molten metal
6. Flowability or plasticity: It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid. It will
flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure evenly
all around in all directions
7. Adhesiveness: It is property of molding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign material such
sticking of moldingsand with inner wall of molding box
8. Collapsibility: After the molten metal in the mould gets
solidified, the sand mould must be collapsible so that free
contraction of the metal occurs and this would naturally avoid

the tearing or cracking of the contracting metal.

HAND TOOLS USED IN FOUNDRY SHOP
Hand riddle: It consists of a screen of standard circular
wire meshequipped with circular wooden frame. It is
generally used for cleaning the sand for removing
foreign material such as nails, shot
metal, splinters of wood etc. from it. Even power
operated riddles areavailable for riddling large volume
of sand.

Shovel: It consists of a steel pan fitted with a long

wooden handle. It is used in mixing, tempering and
conditioning the foundry sand by hand. It is also used
for moving and transforming the molding sand tothe
container and molding, box or flask.

Fig. Sprue Pin

Fig. Rammers

Rammers: Rammers are shown in Fig. These are required for striking the molding sand mass in
themolding box to packor compact it uniformly all around the pattern.
Sprue pin: It is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is placed or pushed in cope to join mold cavity
whilethe moldingsand in the cope is being rammed.
Trowels: These are used for finishing flat surfaces and comers inside a mould. Common shapes of trowels
are shown asunder. They are made of iron with a wooden handle.
Lifter: A lifter is a finishing tool used for repairing the mould and finishing the mould
sand. Lifter is also used for removing loose sand from mould.
Strike off bar: It is a flat bar, made of wood or iron to strike off the excess sand from the top of a box
after ramming.It’s one edge made beveled and the surface perfectly smooth and plane.
Vent wire: It is a thin steel rod or wire.
Slicks: They are also recognized as small double ended mold finishing tool which are generally used for
repairing and finishing the mold surfaces and their edges after withdrawal of the pattern
Swab: Swab is shown in It is a small hemp fiber brush used for moistening the edges of sand mould, which
are in contact with the pattern surface before withdrawing the pattern. It is used for sweeping away the
molding sand from the mold surface and pattern.

Gate cutter: Gate cutter is a small shaped piece of sheet metal

commonly used to cut runners and feeding gates for connecting
sprue hole with the mold cavity.
Bellows: Bellows gun is shown in It is hand operated leather made
device equipped with compressed air jet to blow or pump air when
rated. It is used to blow away the loose or unwanted sand from the
surfaces of mold cavities.

Draw spike: Draw spike is shown Fig. 11.1(f). It is a tapered steel

rod having a loop or ring at its one end and a sharp point at the
other. It may have screw threads on the end to engage metal pattern
for it withdrawal from the mold.
Sprue Pin: It is a tapered wooden pin, used to make a hole
in the copethrough which the molten metal is poured into
the mould.

MOULDING BOX: Moulding box is also called moulding flask. It is frame or box of wood or metal. It is
made of twoparts cope and drag as shown in figure.
 Job No -1

OBJECT: To prepare the mold

MATERIAL REQUIRED: Moulding sand, Parting sand, facing sand, baking sand, single piece solid
pattern,bottom board, moulding boxes etc.

Job No –2

OBJECT: To prepare a Stepped Pulley using casting Processes.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: Lead, Sand ,casting box and necessary tools.
.
 Job No –3

OBJECT: To prepare a Hollow Shaft using casting Processes.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: Lead, Sand ,casting box and necessary tools.

Job No –
4 OBJECT: To prepare a Yoke of milling machine using
casting Processes.MATERIAL REQUIRED: Lead, Sand
,casting box and necessary tools.
 EXPERIMENT-6
3D PRINTING

Objective: To Study the main features, different operations and working of 3D printing.
Equipment/ Material Required:
Theory: 3D Printing is a process for making a physical object from a three-dimensional digital model,
typicallyby laying down many successive thin layers of a material. It brings a digital object (its CAD
representation) into its physical form by adding layer by layer of materials.

3D Printing brings two fundamental innovations: the manipulation of objects in their digital
format andthe manufacturing of new shapes by addition of material. (Digital + Additive Manufacturing) -
Technology has affected recent human history probably more than any other field. Think of a light bulb,
steam engine or, more latterly, cars and airplanes .These technologies have made our lives better in many
ways, opened up new avenues and possibilities, but usually it takes time, sometimes even decades, before
the truly disruptive nature of the technology becomes apparent.

3D Printing Vs. Traditional Manufacturing

If the prototype reveals that the design needs rework, a new design can be programmed into the 3D
printer and created relatively fast, while a traditional assembly line would require lots of time to retool
the line just to churnout a small handful of prototype parts, which would be a waste of time, material, and
labor.
So, when it comes to making a limited-run prototype of a part, 3D printing has a clear edge over the
traditional method of tooling an entire production line.
Types of 3D printing
1) Stereolithography (SLA) ,
2) Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) ,
3) Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
4) Digital Light Process (DLP) ,
5) Multi Jet Fusion (MJF) ,
6) PolyJet .
7) Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)
8) Electron Beam Melting (EBM).

Stereolithography (SLA)

3D Printing Materials
The materials available for 3D printing have come a long way since the early days of the technology.
There is now a wide variety of different material types that are supplied in different states (powder,
filament, pellets, granules, resin etc.). Specific materials are now generally developed for specific
platforms performing dedicated applications (an example would be the dental sector) with material
properties that more precisely suit the application.
1. Plastics- Nylon, or Polyamide, is commonly used in powder form with the sintering process or in
filament form with the FDM process. It is a strong, flexible and durable plastic material that has proved
reliable for 3D printing. It is naturally white in color but it can be coloured — pre- or post-printing. This
material can also be combined (in powder format) with powdered aluminum to produce another common
3D printing material for sintering — Alumide.
2. PLA - it is a bio-degradable plastic material that has gained traction with 3D printing for this very
reason. Itcan be utilized in resin format for DLP/SL processes as well as in filament form for the FDM
process. It is offered in a variety of colors, including transparent, which has proven to be a useful option
for some applications of 3D printing.
3. Lay Wood - it is a specially developed 3D printing material for entry-level extrusion 3D printers. It
comes in filament form and is a wood/polymer composite (also referred to as WPC).
4. Metals- A growing number of metals and metal composites are used for industrial grade 3D printing.
Two of the most common are aluminum and cobalt derivatives. One of the strongest and therefore most
commonly
used metals for 3D printing is Stainless Steel in powder form for the sintering/melting/EBM processes. It
is naturally silver, but can be plated with other materials to give a gold or bronze effect.
In the last couple of years Gold and Silver have been added to the range of metal materials that can be 3D
printed directly, with obvious applications across the jewelry sector. These are both very strong materials
and are processed in powder form.
Titanium is one of the strongest possible metal materials and has been used for 3D printing industrial
applications for some time. Supplied in powder form, it can be used for the sintering/melting/EBM
processes.
5. Ceramics- Ceramics are a relatively new group of materials that can be used for 3D printing with
various levels of success. The particular thing to note with these materials is that, post printing, the
ceramic parts need to undergo the same processes as any ceramic part made using traditional methods of
production — namely firing and glazing.
6. Bio Materials- There is a huge amount of research being conducted into the potential of 3D printing
bio materials for a host of medical (and other) applications. Living tissue is being investigated at a number
of leading institutions with a view to developing applications that include printing human organs for
transplant, as well as external tissues for replacement body parts. Other research in this area is focused
on developing food stuffs — meat being the prime example.
7. Food - An experiment with extruders for 3D printing food substances has increased dramatically over
the last couple of years. Chocolate is the most common (and desirable). There are also printers that work
with sugar and some experiments with pasta and meat. Looking to the future, research is being
undertaken, to utilize 3D printing technology to produce finely balanced whole meals.

Steps in 3D Printing

The most basic, differentiating principle behind 3D printing is that it is an additive manufacturing process.
And this is indeed the key because 3D printing is a radically different manufacturing method based on
advanced technology that builds up parts, additively, in layers at the sub mm scale. This is fundamentally
different from any other existing traditional manufacturing techniques.
For many applications traditional design and production processes impose a number of
unacceptable constraints, including the expensive tooling, fixtures, and the need for assembly for complex
parts. In addition, the subtractive manufacturing processes, such as machining, can result in up to 90% of
the original block of material being wasted. In contrast, 3D printing is a process for creating objects
directly, by adding material layer by layer in a variety of ways, depending on the technology used. There
are a number of limitations to traditional manufacturing, which has widely been based on human labor.
However, the world of manufacturing
has changed, and automated processes such as machining, casting, forming and molding are all
(relatively) new, complex processes that require machines, computers and robot technology.
3D printing is an enabling technology that encourages and drives innovation with unprecedented
design freedom while being a tool-less process that reduces prohibitive costs and lead times. Components
can be designed specifically to avoid assembly requirements with intricate geometry and complex
features created at no extra cost. 3D printing is also emerging as an energy-efficient technology that can
provide environmental efficiencies in terms of both the manufacturing process itself, utilizing up to 90%
of standard materials, and throughout the products operating life, through lighter and stronger design.

Potential Effects to the Global Economy

 The use of 3D printing technology has potential effects on the global economy, if adopted worldwide.
The shift of production and distribution from the current model to a localized production based on-
demand, on site; customized production model could potentially reduce the imbalance between
export and import countries.
 3D printing would have the potential to create new industries and completely new professions, such
as thoserelated to the production of 3D printers. There is an opportunity for professional services
around 3D printing, ranging from new forms of product designers, printer operators, material
suppliers all the way to intellectual property legal disputes and settlements. Piracy is a current
concern related to 3D printing for many IP holders.
 The effect of 3D printing on the developing world is a double-edged sword. One example of the positive
effect is lowered manufacturing cost through recycled and other local materials, but the loss of
manufacturing jobs could hit many developing countries severely, which would take time to overcome.
 One of the biggest advantages that 3D printing over traditional manufacturing is that the 3D printing
process generally doesn’t require any special new tooling to make a part. When making a prototype,
this can save a lot of time, money, and effort that would normally be spent on tooling the production
line and getting an assembly process set up.

3D Printing Limitations
 Surface texture is generally too rough.
 Materials have low heat deflection temperatures.
 Materials generally have low strengths.
 Material prices are far too high restricting the growth of the market.
 Parts are generally not as dense as parts made by CNC and other processes.