1.11.

Atomic properties and periodic variations: nuclear charge

effective

electronics, electronegativity.

Effective nuclear charge

The effective nuclear charge is the net positive charge experienced by a

electron in a polyatomic atom. The term 'effective' is used because the

screening effect of electrons closest to the nucleus prevents the

electrons in higher orbitals experience the full nuclear charge. It is

it is possible to determine the strength of the nuclear charge by observing the number of

oxidation of the atom. In an atom with one electron, the electron experiences everything

the charge of the positive nucleus. In this case, the effective nuclear charge may be

calculated using Coulomb's law. However, in an atom with many

Electrons, the outer electrons are, simultaneously, attracted to the nucleus.

due to its positive charge, and repelled by the charged electrons

negatively. The effective nuclear charge on an electron of this type of atom

is given by the following equation:

Z eff=Z−S

Where: ZeffEffective nuclear charge, also often represented as 'Z'.

ZIt is the atomic number, and it defines both the number of protons in the nucleus.

as the total number of electrons in an atom.

SIt is the screen constant, it depends on the number of electrons between the

nucleus and the considered electron, and also in what type of orbital they are located

the electrons that remain nuclear charge. Electrons do not contribute

external to the energy level considered, but not the rest of the neighbors of

same level. It can be determined through the systematic application of various

rule sets, the simplest method is known as the rules of

Slater (in honor of John C. Slater).

The idea of effective nuclear charge is very useful for understanding how

they modify along the periodic table, the reaches of the atomic orbitals,

the variations in ionization energies, electron affinities, and the

electronegativity, in general, to understand periodic properties.

Atomic radio

The atomic radius represents the distance between the nucleus and the layer of

valence (the outermost) and it relates to the number of electrons it has.

Through the atomic radius, it is possible to determine the size of the atom, the size

of the atoms, on the other hand, affects the changes of state, the density and

other properties, such as the melting point and the boiling point.

Depending on the type of element, there are different techniques to determine the

size of the atom, such as neutron diffraction, electron diffraction, or X-ray diffraction.
In any case, it is not an easy property to measure as it depends, among other things

things, of the chemical species in which the element in question is found.

The attractive force exerted by the nucleus on the electrons determines the radius.

atomic. As the effective charge increases, the bond between the nucleus and

the atoms become stronger and, therefore, the atomic radius becomes more

small. Conversely, when the load decreases, the atomic radius

increases.

In groups, the atomic radius increases with atomic number, that is, towards

down.

In the periods, it decreases as Z increases, towards the right, due to attraction.

what the nucleus exerts on the electrons of the outermost orbitals,

thus decreasing the core-electron distance.

It is possible to distinguish between covalent atomic radius (when the nuclei are

they are found at a distance equivalent to the result of adding their radii

covalent) and metallic (when the atomic radius represents half of the segment

that can be traced between each nucleus in metallic crystals). Despite this

classification, the first case is the one that is used most frequently.

Ionic radio

The ionic radius is, like the atomic radius, the distance between the center of

core of the atom and the most distant stable electron from it, but making

reference not to the atom, but to the ion.

It is usually measured in picometers. 12 10
(1pm=10) m o Angstroms (1Å=10m) .

In the case of cations, the absence of one or more electrons decreases the

mutual repulsive electric force between the remaining electrons, causing the

approach of them to each other and to the positive nucleus of the atom of which

the ionic radius is smaller than the atomic radius.

In the case of anions, the phenomenon is the opposite, the excess of charge.

negative electric forces cause electrons to repel each other

restore the balance of electric forces, so that the ionic radius is

greater than the atomic.

Ionization energy

It is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the outer level.

from an atom in a gaseous state. Basically, the greater the amount of

There are protons in the nucleus, the force with which it attracts them is greater.

electrons and more energy is required to remove them.

Thus, the ionization energy changes in the opposite direction to the variation of the radius.

atomic, since an atom with a smaller radius has the electrons of the last

layers closer to the nucleus, therefore, more attracted, requiring more

energy to remove them.

By supplying enough energy to a neutral atom, it is possible to remove a

electron and obtain the corresponding positive ion or cation.

 I
Ionization energy is the minimum energy required for an atom

X
neutral of an element in gaseous state and in its electronic state

fundamental, it loses an electron from its outer shell and gives rise to an ion

monopositiveX+¿ ¿, also in gaseous state and in its electronic state

fundamental.

g ) +1 e −¿¿ ¿
) I → X +¿ (
X ( g+

Electron affinity

It is the ability of an atom to accept one or more electrons. It is a change of

energy that occurs when an atom in a gaseous state accepts an electron in

anion form.

An atom can accept an electron and transform into a negative ion or anion,

with the consequent exchange of energy.

The electron affinity, A, is the energy exchanged in the process by which

a neutral atom X, in a gaseous state and in its ground electronic state,

receives an electron and transforms into a mononegative ion X−¿¿ , also in

gaseous state and in its fundamental electronic state.

−¿( g)¿
¿
X ( g ) +1 e −¿→ X

This process can be endothermic or exothermic, depending on that

requires energy to be carried out or that releases it. The value of affinity
electronics inform of the tendency to form the anion; the more energy is

It will detach more easily in its formation process, the anion will be constituted.

The electron affinity of any anion is positive, meaning that anions do not

they tend to accept electrons, which does not mean that anions

with more than one negative charge are unstable; the stability of an ion —

cation or anion - depends mainly on the chemical bonds in which

participate.

Electronegativity

Ionization energy measures the tendency of an atom to give up electrons, and the

electron affinity, the tendency of the atom to accept them. These two trends

opposing forces can be combined into a single magnitude that is the

electronegativity.

The electronegativity of an element is defined as the relative tendency of its

atoms to attract the electrons of other atoms to which they are bonded.

In 1939, L. Pauling (1901-1994) established an arbitrary scale of

electronegativities, assigning to the most electronegative atom, that of fluorine, the value

4.0 y, starting from it, the one of all the others.

As usual, the values of electronegativity across the Table

Periodic elements show a clear variation in the representative elements, which do not

it is so in the transition elements.

In general, in periods, electronegativity increases as you move across.

atomic number, while in groups, it increases as the number decreases

atomic.

You should note that noble gases lack electronegativity value, which...

which is logical if we consider that these elements are characterized by their minimum

tendency to form bonds with other elements.

This magnitude is very useful when it comes to predicting the type of bond that

they will form two atoms: if the difference in electronegativities is very large, the

the link will be ionic, while if it is small, it will be covalent, more or less

polarized, according to the difference in electronegativity between the atoms.

Electronegativity increases up and to the right in the periodic table.