CHAPTER 2

BIOLOGICAL
CLASSIFICATION
 Attempts for Biological Classification

⚫ Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific

basis for classification.
 Attempts for Biological Classification

⚫ Carolus Linnaeus classified all

living organisms
into two kingdoms – on the basis of nutrition and
locomotion (mobility).
Why was two kingdom classification not
adequate?
Attempts for Biological Classification
Attempts for Biological Classification
Attempts for Biological Classification
 Issues that influenced the
5-kingom classification

⚫ Earlier classification systems included bacteria, blue

green algae, fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and
the angiosperms under ‘Plants’. (organisms included
had a cell wall in their cells.
⚫ This placed together groups which widely differed in
other characteristics.
⚫ It brought together the prokaryotic bacteria and the
blue green algae (cyanobacteria) with other groups
which were eukaryotic.
 Issues that influenced the
5-kingom classification

⚫ It also grouped together the unicellular

organisms and the multicellular ones.
(Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra were placed
together under algae).
⚫ Earlier classification did not differentiate
between the heterotrophic group – fungi, and
the autotrophic green plants, (differ in cell
wall)
 TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

⚫ Artificial classification system:- They were based mainly on

vegetative characters or on the androecium structure (system
given by Linnaeus).
Also, the artificial systems gave equal weightage to vegetative
and sexual characteristics; this is not acceptable since we
know that often the vegetative characters are more easily
affected by environment.
⚫ Natural classification system:- based on natural affinities
among the organisms and consider, not only the external
features, but also internal features, like ultrastructure,
anatomy, embryology and phytochemistry.
⚫ Phylogenetic classification system:- based on evolutionary
relationships between the various organisms are acceptable.
This assumes that organisms belonging to the same taxa have
a common ancestor.
Attempts for Biological Classification
SIMILARITY and DIFFERNCES
KINGDOM - MONERA
 MONERA
⚫ Bacteria are the
sole members of
the Kingdom
Monera.
⚫ Most abundant
micro-organisms.
⚫ Occur almost
everywhere.
⚫ They also live in extreme
habitats such as hot
springs, deserts, snow and
deep oceans where very few
other life forms can survive.
⚫ Many of them live in or on
other organisms as
parasites.
 BACTERIA
⚫ Show the most extensive metabolic
diversity.
⚫ Some of the bacteria are
autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise
their own food from inorganic
substrates.
⚫ They may be photosynthetic
autotrophic or chemosynthetic
autotrophic.
⚫ The vast majority of bacteria are
heterotrophs, i.e., they depend on
other organisms or on dead organic
matter for food.
⚫ Major method of reproduction is
binary fission.
⚫ Divided into two types:-
Archebacteria and Eubacteria.
 ARCHAEBACTERIA

⚫ These bacteria are special

since they live in some of the
most harsh habitats such as
extreme salty areas
(halophiles), hot springs
(thermoacidophiles) and
marshy areas
(methanogens).
⚫ Methanogens are present in
the gut of several ruminant
animals such as cows and
buffaloes and they are
responsible for the
production of methane
(biogas) from the dung of
these animals.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARCHAE AND
EUBACTERIA

⚫ Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a

different cell wall (POLYSACCHARIDE AND
PROTEINS BUT NO PEPTIDOGLYCAN) and cell
membrane structure.
⚫ They have pseudomurein in their cell wall and this
feature is responsible for their survival in extreme
conditions.
 EUBACTERIA
⚫ There are thousands of different
eubacteria or ‘true bacteria’. They
are characterised by the presence of
a rigid cell wall, and if motile, a
flagellum.
⚫ The cyanobacteria (also referred
to as blue-green algae) have
chlorophyll a similar to green plants
and are photosynthetic
autotrophs.
⚫ The cyanobacteria are unicellular,
colonial or filamentous,
freshwater/marine or terrestrial
algae.
⚫ They often form blooms in polluted
water bodies.
EUBACTERIA

⚫ The colonies are generally

surrounded by gelatinous
sheath.
⚫ Some of these organisms
can fix atmospheric
nitrogen in specialised
cells called heterocysts,
e.g., Nostoc and
Anabaena.
 CHEMOSYNTHETIC AUTOTROPHIC

⚫ These bacteria oxidize various inorganic

substances such as nitrates, nitrites and
ammonia and use the released energy for
their ATP production. (e.g. nitrosomonas,
nitrobacter)
⚫ They play a great role in recycling nutrients
like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and
sulphur.
 HETEROTROPHIC BACTERIA

⚫ are most abundant in nature.

⚫ The majority are important decomposers.
⚫ They are helpful in making curd from milk,
production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume
roots, etc.
⚫ Some are pathogens causing damage to human
beings, crops, farm animals and pets. Cholera,
typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well known
diseases caused by different bacteria.
 https://www.youtube.c
Bacteria reproduction om/watch?v=7Q9Eg1G
V6WI

⚫ Bacteria reproduce
mainly by fission.
⚫ Sometimes, under
unfavourable conditions,
they produce spores.
⚫ They also reproduce by a
sort of sexual
reproduction by adopting
a primitive type of DNA
transfer from one
bacterium to the other.
 TYPES OF BACTERIA

• Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape:

• The spherical coccus (pl.: Cocci),
• The rod-shaped bacillus (pl.: Bacilli),
• The comma-shaped vibrium (pl.: Vibrio) and
• The spiral spirillum (pl.: Spirilla)
MORE TO KNOW
 KINGDOM PROTISTA (undefined boundary)

⚫ Protists include solitary unicellular or colonial

unicellular eukaryotic organisms which do not form
tissues.
⚫ Members of Protista are primarily aquatic.
⚫ This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing with
plants, animals and fungi.
⚫ Being eukaryotes, the protistan cell body contains a
well defined nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles.
⚫ Some have flagella or cilia.
⚫ Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a
process involving cell fusion and zygote formation.
KINGDOM PROTISTA
 DIATOM
CHRYSOPHYTES
⚫ This group includes
diatoms and golden
algae (desmids).
⚫ They are found in fresh
water as well as in
marine environments. GOLDEN ALGAE
⚫ They are microscopic and
float passively in water
currents (plankton).
⚫ Most of them are
photosynthetic.
 DIATOMS
⚫ The cell walls form two thin
overlapping shells, which fit
together as in a soap box.
⚫ The walls are embedded with
silica and thus the walls are
indestructible.
⚫ Left behind large amount of cell
wall deposits in their habitat;
this accumulation over billions
of years is referred to as
‘diatomaceous earth’.
⚫ Being gritty this soil is used in
polishing, filtration of oils and
syrups. Diatoms are the chief
‘producers’ in the oceans.
 DINOFLAGELLATES
⚫ These organisms are mostly
marine and photosynthetic.
⚫ They appear yellow, green,
brown, blue or red depending
on the main pigments present
in their cells.
⚫ The cell wall has stiff cellulose
plates on the outer surface.
⚫ Most of them have two
flagella; one lies longitudinally
and the other transversely in a
furrow between the wall
plates.
 DINOFLAGELLATES
⚫ Very often, red
dinoflagellates
(Example: Gonyaulax)
undergo such rapid
multiplication that they
make the sea appear
red (red tides).
⚫ Toxins released by such
large numbers may
even kill other marine
animals such as fishes.
 EUGLENOIDS
⚫ Majority of them are fresh water
organisms found in stagnant
water.
⚫ Instead of a cell wall, they have a
protein rich layer called pellicle
which makes their body flexible.
⚫ They have two flagella, a short and a
long one.
⚫ Though they are photosynthetic
in the presence of sunlight, when
deprived of sunlight they behave
like heterotrophs by predating on
other smaller organisms.
⚫ Interestingly, the pigments of
euglenoids are identical to those
present in higher plants. Example:
Euglena
 SLIME MOULDS
⚫ Slime moulds are saprophytic
protists.
⚫ The body moves along decaying
twigs and leaves engulfing organic
material.
⚫ Under suitable conditions, they
form an aggregation called
plasmodium which may grow and
spread over several feet.
⚫ During unfavourable conditions,
the plasmodium differentiates and
forms fruiting bodies bearing
spores at their tips.
⚫ They are extremely resistant and
survive for many years, even under
adverse conditions.
⚫ The spores are dispersed by air
currents.
 PROTOZOANS

⚫ All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as

predators or parasites.
⚫ They are believed to be primitive relatives of
animals.
⚫ There are four major groups of protozoans.
1. Amoeboid protozoans
2. Flagellated protozoans
3. Ciliated protozoans
4. sporozoans
 Amoeboid protozoans
⚫ These organisms live in
fresh water, sea water or
moist soil.
⚫ They move and capture
their prey by putting out
pseudopodia (false feet) as
in Amoeba.
⚫ Marine forms have silica
shells on their surface.
⚫ Some of them such as
Entamoeba are parasites.
 Flagellated protozoans:
⚫ The members of this
group are either
free-living or parasitic.
⚫ They have flagella.
⚫ The parasitic forms
cause diaseases such
as sleeping sickness.
⚫ Example:
Trypanosoma.
FACT CHECK
 Ciliated protozoans:
⚫ These are aquatic, actively
moving organisms because
of the presence of
thousands of cilia.
⚫ They have a cavity (gullet)
that opens to the outside of
the cell surface.
⚫ The coordinated
movement of rows of cilia
causes the water laden
with food to be steered
into the gullet.
⚫ Example: Paramoecium
 Sporozoans:
⚫ This includes diverse
organisms that have an
infectious spore-like
stage in their life cycle.
⚫ The most notorious is
Plasmodium (malarial
parasite) which causes
malaria, a disease which
has a staggering effect on
human population.
KINGDOM FUNGI

⚫ The fungi constitute a

unique kingdom of
heterotrophic organisms.
⚫ They show a great
diversity in morphology
and habitat.
 FUNGI
⚫ Cosmopolitan and
occur in air, water,
soil and on animals
and plants.
⚫ They prefer to grow in
warm and humid
places.
⚫ With the exception of
yeasts which are
unicellular, fungi are
filamentous.
⚫ Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures called
hyphae.
⚫ The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
 KINGDOM FUNGI
⚫ Some hyphae are
continuous tubes filled
with multinucleated
cytoplasm – these are
called coenocytic
hyphae.
⚫ Others have septae or
cross walls in their
hyphae.
⚫ The cell walls of fungi
are composed of chitin
and polysaccharides.
 KINGDOM FUNGI

⚫ Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble

organic matter from dead substrates and hence are
called saprophytes.
⚫ Those that depend on living plants and animals are
called parasites.
⚫ They can also live as symbionts – in association
with algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants
as mycorrhiza.
⚫ Reproduction in fungi can
take place by vegetative
means – fragmentation,
fission and budding.
Asexual reproduction is
by spores called conidia or
sporangiospores or
zoospores, and sexual
reproduction is by
oospores, ascospores and
basidiospores.
⚫ The various spores are
produced in distinct
structures called fruiting
bodies.
 Sexual Reproduction in Fungi

⚫ The sexual cycle involves the following three steps:

(i) Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile
gametes called plasmogamy.
(ii) Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
(iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2cb_HS5mSjI
(19:20)
 KINGDOM FUNGI

The morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting

bodies form the basis for the division of the kingdom into various
classes.
⚫ Phycomycetes:-
⚪ Members of phycomycetes are found
in aquatic habitats and on
decaying wood in moist and damp
places or as obligate parasites on
plants.
⚪ The mycelium is aseptate and
coenocytic.
⚪ Asexual reproduction takes place by
zoospores (motile) or by
aplanospores (non-motile).
 PHYCOMYCETES
⚪ These spores are
endogenously produced
in sporangium.
⚪ Sexual reproduction takes
place by fusion of two
gametes which result in
formation of zygospore.
⚪ These gametes are similar
in morphology
(isogamous) or dissimilar
(anisogamous or
oogamous).
 Mucor

⚫ Some common examples are

Mucor , Rhizopus (the bread
mould mentioned earlier) and
Albugo (the parasitic fungi on
mustard).

Albugo
 ASCOMYCETES
(Sac fungi)

⚫ The ascomycetes are mostly

multicellular, e.g.,
Penicillium, or rarely
unicellular, e.g., yeast.
⚫ They are saprophytic,
decomposers, parasitic or
coprophilous (growing on
dung).
⚫ Mycelium is branched and
septate.
⚫ The asexual spores are conidia
produced exogenously on the
special mycelium called
conidiophores.
⚫ Conidia on germination produce
mycelium.
 ASCOMYCETES Aspergillus
(Sac fungi)

⚫ Sexual spores are called

ascospores which are
produced endogenously in
sac like asci (singular ascus).
⚫ Some examples are
Aspergillus , Claviceps and
Neurospora.
Neurospora
Claviceps
 Morels

⚫ Neurospora is used
extensively in
biochemical and
genetic work.
⚫ Many members like
morels and truffles
are edible and are
considered delicacies.

Truffles
 BASIDIOMYCETES

⚫ Commonly known
forms of
basidiomycetes are
mushrooms,
bracket fungi or
puffballs.
⚫ They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in
living plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and
smuts.
⚫ The mycelium is branched and septate. The
asexual spores are generally not found, but
vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is
common.
⚫ The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is
brought about by fusion of two vegetative or
somatic cells of different strains or genotypes.
• The resultant structure is dikaryotic which ultimately gives rise
to basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium
producing four basidiospores.
• The basidiospores are exogenously produced on the basidium
(pl.: basidia).
• Some common members are Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago
(smut) and Puccinia (rust fungus).
 DEUTEROMYCETES
(imperfect fungi)

⚫ Commonly known as imperfect fungi

because only the asexual or vegetative
phases of these fungi are known.
⚫ When the sexual forms of these fungi
were discovered they were moved into
classes they rightly belong to (either
ascomycetes or basidiomycetes).
⚫ The deuteromycetes reproduce only
by asexual spores known as conidia.
The mycelium is septate and
branched.
⚫ Some members are saprophytes or
parasites while a large number of
them are decomposers of litter and
help in mineral cycling.
⚫ Some examples are Alternaria,
Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.
 5-Kingdom classification

1. MONERA
2. PROTISTA
3. FUNGI
4. PLANTAE :- Kingdom Plantae includes all
eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms
commonly called plants.
5. ANIMALIA :- This kingdom is characterised by
heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are
multicellular and their cells lack cell walls.
 VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS AND LICHENS

⚫ Viruses did not find a place in classification since they are not
considered truly ‘living’, if we understand living as those
organisms that have a cell structure.
⚫ The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterised
by having an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.
⚫ Once they infect a cell they take over the machinery of the
host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host.
⚫ The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was
given by Dmitri Ivanowsky (1892) recognised certain
microbes as causal organism of the mosaic disease of tobacco.
⚫ These were found to be smaller than bacteria because they
passed through bacteria-proof filters.
 VIRUSES
⚫ M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of the infected
plants of tobacco could cause infection in healthy plants and called the
fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid).
⚫ W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be crystallised and
crystals consist largely of proteins.
⚫ They are inert outside their specific host cell.
⚫ Viruses are obligate parasites.
⚫ In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could
be either RNA or DNA.
⚫ In general, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA and
viruses that infect animals have either single or double stranded RNA
or double stranded DNA.
⚫ Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are
usually double stranded DNA viruses.
 VIRUSES

• The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres,
protects the nucleic acid.
• These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.
• Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, AIDS, herpes and
influenza.
• In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling,
yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
 VIROIDS and PRIONS

⚫ Viroids :-
⚪ In 1971, T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that
was smaller than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber
disease.
⚪ It was found to be a free RNA; it lacked the protein coat that
is found in viruses, hence the name viroid.
⚪ The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight.

⚫ Prions :-
⚪ Prions are abnormally folded protein, similar in size to viruses.
⚪ The most notable diseases caused by prions are bovine
spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow
disease in cattle and its analogous variant Cr–Jacob disease
(CJD) in humans.
 LICHENS
⚫ Lichens are symbiotic
associations i.e. mutually
useful associations, between
algae and fungi.
⚫ The algal component is known
as phycobiont and fungal
component as mycobiont,
which are autotrophic and
heterotrophic, respectively.
⚫ Algae prepare food for fungi and
fungi provide shelter and absorb
mineral nutrients and water for
its partner.
⚫ Lichens are very good pollution
indicators – they do not grow in
polluted areas.