Cascode and folded cascode configurations with an active load use a

cascode transistor and active load (a current source) to increase output

resistance and DC gain while providing higher bandwidth and power
efficiency than a simple common-source amplifier. A cascode amplifier
typically uses two identical transistor types in a single stack (like a
common-source stage followed by a common-gate stage) for a high gain
and output swing, while a folded cascode amplifier "folds" the signal path
by using different transistor types (e.g., an nMOS input and pMOS
cascode) to "fold" the input and output voltage spaces. Both configurations
typically use a cascode current mirror as an active load to achieve higher
output resistance compared to a simple load.

Cascode Configuration with Active Load

 Structure:
A common-source (CS) amplifier stage is connected in series with a common-gate
(CG) amplifier stage, forming a two-stage amplifier.
 Active Load:
A cascode current mirror (a two-transistor cascode structure) is used at the output
of the CG stage to act as the load.
 Benefits:
 Increased Output Resistance: The CG stage and the active load significantly
increase the output resistance, which is crucial for achieving high voltage gain.
 Higher DC Gain: The increased output resistance, when used with the high
transconductance of the CS stage, leads to a much higher open-loop gain than a
single CS stage.
 Increased Bandwidth: The CG stage acts as a current buffer, reducing the Miller
effect (input capacitance multiplication) on the CS stage and thus improving
bandwidth.
 Limitations:
The configuration requires a minimum voltage across each transistor, which can
limit the output voltage swing.
Folded Cascode Configuration with Active Load
 Structure:
A common-source input stage is connected to a common-gate cascode stage of
the opposite transistor type (e.g., an nMOS input stage with a pMOS cascode).
 Active Load:
 A cascode current source is typically used as the load at the output of the pMOS
cascode.
 Benefits:
 Improved Input/Output Voltage Swing: By "folding" the input and output common
mode voltage ranges, the folded cascode offers better performance in terms of
input voltage swing and is well-suited for applications with tight supply constraints.
 Higher Input Common-Mode Range: The folded cascode allows for a wider input
common-mode range, especially with an nMOS input, which can be close to VDD.
 Limitations:
 Higher Power Consumption: The additional branch for the different transistor
types in the "folding" path can increase power consumption.
 More Complex Design: Requires a different type of transistor for the input stage
and the cascode, leading to a more complex design.

 What is Cascode Amplifier?
 The Cascode Amplifier is the combination of the common
source (Common Emitter for BJT) and the Common Gate Stage
(Common Base for BJT). As shown in Fig. 1, the input is applied
to the common source amplifier.

 The transistor M1 is also known as amplifying transistor. And

the output of this transistor is fed to the common gate stage
(M2). The output of the cascode amplifier is measured at the
drain terminal of the common gate stage (M2). For a time
being here, the load is not shown. But the load could be a
passive resistive load or it could be an active load like a
resistor.
 The Cascode amplifier provides high intrinsic gain, high output
impedance and large bandwidth.
Output Resistance of Cascode Amplifier:
The common gate stage multiplies the output resistance of the
common source stage. If ro1 is the output resistance of the
transistor M1, then the output resistance seen from the drain
terminal of the M2 is approximately gm2ro2ro1.

Fig. 2 The output resistance of the Cascode Amplifier

Because of its higher output impedance, the intrinsic gain of the
cascode amplifier is also very high.

Intrinsic Gain of Cascode Amplifier:

The intrinsic gain of the cascode amplifier can be found by finding
the overall transconductance of the cascode stage. If Gm is the
transconductance of the cascode stage and Ro is the output
resistance of the cascode amplifier then intrinsic gain Ao = – Gm Ro

Fig.3 The output equivalent circuit of the Cascode Amplifier

without load
For the cascode stage, the transconductance Gm ≈ g m1 and Ro ≈
gm2 ro2 ro1. Therefore, the intrinsic gain |Ao| = gm1gm2ro1ro2. The intrinsic
gain of the Cascode amplifier is significantly higher than the
common source amplifier. The overall voltage gain of the cascode
configuration depends on the load.
Cascode Amplifier with Resistive Load

In this case, the voltage gain |Av| ≈ gm1 ( Ro|| RD). Where Ro is the
output resistance of the cascode stage. Typically Ro >> R D. Usually,
RD is in kΩ, while Ro is in MΩ. Therefore, |Av| ≈ g m1 RD. It is typically
the same as the common source amplifier with resistive load.

Cascode Amplifier with current source as a load

The higher gain can be achieved using the active load. As shown in
Fig.5, if the active load is the ideal current source then, the voltage
gain |Av| = gm1 Ro.

But the actual current source has finite output resistance. And due
to the finite output resistance, the overall voltage gain reduces.
Fig.6 shows the cascode amplifier with PMOS as a current source.
Where Ro1 is the output resistance of the cascode stage and ro2 is
the output resistance of the PMOS.
But the actual current source has finite output resistance. And due
to the finite output resistance, the overall voltage gain reduces.
Fig.6 shows the cascode amplifier with PMOS as a current source.
Where Ro1 is the output resistance of the cascode stage and ro2 is
the output resistance of the PMOS.

Fig. 6 The Cascode Amplifier with PMOS as a current source

With PMOS current source as a load, the voltage gain |Av| ≈ g m1 ro2. Because the output
resistance Ro1 of the cascode stage is much greater than the output resistance of the
PMOS. Typically, with this arrangement, the achieved voltage gain is similar to the
intrinsic gain of a common source amplifier. To further improve the gain, the cascode
current source can be used as a load with cascode amplifier.