CHAPTER – 4

STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Introduction:
Dalton’s atomic theory in suggested that an atom was indivisible.
However, the discovery of two fundamental particles named as electrons
and protons, inside the atom, led to the failure of Dalton’s atomic theory.

Fundamental particles of an atom:

Three particles; electron, proton and neutron from which an atom is
consisted of, are called fundamental particles of an atom or sub atomic
particles.

Discovery of Electron:
By J. J. Thomson in 1897.

He carried a cathode ray experiment in which observed a stream of

negatively charged particles coming out of cathode towards the anode.
These particles were named as electrons.

Discovery of Proton:
By Ernest Goldstein in 1886.

He observed in the same gas discharge tube, with different situations that
the anode emitted positive particles which he named as Canal
Rays/Anode Rays. His experiment led to the discovery of proton.
 Discovery of Neutron:
By J. Chadwick in1932.

Neutron is present in the nucleus of all atoms.

ELECTRONS - The negatively charged particles constituting the cathode

rays are called electrons.

Or An electron is that sub-atomic particle which carries one unit negative

charge and has mass nearly 1/1840th of that of an atom of hydrogen.

PROTONS - a proton is that sub-atomic particle which carries one unit of

positive charge and has mass nearly equal to that of hydrogen atom.

1. Thomson’s Model of Atom (by Joseph James Thomson in 1897)

Thomson’s model of an atom proposed that:

• An atom is a uniform sphere of positive charges and electrons are

embedded in the atom like seeds in the watermelon.
• Atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and
positive charges are equal in magnitude.

This model is also known as water melon model, plum pudding model and
apple pie model.

Limitations of Thomson’s Model:

• It could not explain the results of Rutherford’s scattering
experiments.

2. Rutherford’s Model of Atom (By Ernest Rutherford in 1909)

This was based on an experiment in which α – particles were bombarded
on a thin gold foil.α – particles are doubly charged helium ions (He2+)
Observations of Rutherford’s α-particle scattering experiment are:
(a) Most of the αlpha particles (99.9%) passed through the foil without
undergoing any deviation.

(b) Some of the αlpha particles were deflected through small angles and a
few were deflected through large angles.

(c) Very few (1 in 12000) of the αlpha particles bounced back at their
original path.

CONCLUSIONS :-

1) Since most of the alpha particles passed through the foil without
any deviation, there must be sufficient empty space within the
atom.
2) Since some of the alpha particles were deflected through small
angles and few through large angle, these could be deflected only
by some positively charged body.
3) Since some alpha particles are deflected back, these could be
deflected only when they strike heavier/denser body inside the
atom. Since very few were deflected back , this shows heavy body
present in the atom must be occupying a very very small volume.
 Postulates of Rutherford’s Model of Atom:
(a) Most of the part in an atom is empty. An atom consists of two parts
i)nucleus ii) extra-nuclear part

(b) Nucleus is a small heavy positively charged body present in the centre
of atom. Extra-nuclear part means the space around the nucleus in which
electrons are distributed.

(c) The entire mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. (because
electrons have negligible mass as compared to protons and neutrons)

(d) Electrons revolve around the nucleus. There is an electrostatic force of

attraction between electrons and nucleus.

Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

(a) According to Rutherford’s Model, electron revolves round the
positively charged nucleus which is not expected to be stable. But a
charged particle in an accelerated motion along a circular path would
continuously undergo loss of energy and finally would fall into nucleus.
This makes an atom unstable while atoms are quite stable.

It could not explain the stability of the atom.

3. Bohr’s Model of Atom (By Neils Bohr in 1913)

This model of atom states that:

• An atom consists of heavy positively charged nucleus in the centre.

The whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
• The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in definite
circular paths called orbits or energy level/shells.
• Each energy level is associated with definite amount of energy.
• So long as an electron is revolving in a particular orbit, it can
neither gain nor lose energy. Thus, the atom is stable. The change in
energy takes place when electron jumps from one energy level to another
energy level.
Try the following questions:
Q.1 Why is the relative mass of an electron is taken as negligible ?
Ans. The mass of electron is very small as compared to that of neutron
and proton. It is 1/1840 th of the mass of hydrogen atom.

(IMP)Q.2 Which observation of Rutherford’s scattering experiment

established the presence of large empty space in atom?
Ans. Most of the alpha rays passed through the foil straight without any
deviation.

NCERT Q.3 What are canal rays? What is the nature of the constituents
of canal rays?
Ans. Canal rays are anode rays. The positively charged radiations
produced in discharge tube containing a gas at low pressure and high
potential are called anode /canal rays. They are found to travel towards
oppositely charged cathode.

Q.4 How was Rutherford’s model of atom failed to explain the stability of
an atom?
Ans. It could not the explain the stability of the atom because electron will
be accelerated towards the nucleus . Hence, it will lose energy. Its orbit
will become smaller and smaller ultimately the electron will fall into the
nucleus. Atom will collapse depicting atom is unstable which is not true.
 Arrangement of electrons in an atom:
The arrangement of electrons in various shells (energy levels) of an atom
is known as Electronic configuration.

VERY VERY IMP -The Maximum number of electrons that could be put in
a particular shell, i.e., energy levels, was given by Bohr and Bury is called
Bohr-Bury Rule.
According to Bohr-Bury Scheme:
• The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in
any energy level is given by 2n2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …. (for K, L, M,
N…..)
For K shell, n=1 max. no of electrons =2n2
= 2 X(1)2=2
For L shell , n=2, max no. of electrons = 2n2
= 2X (2)2 = 2 X 4=8
For M shell, n=3, max no. of e- =2n2
= 2 X (3)2
= 2 X 9 = 18
For N shell, n= 4, max no. of e = 2n2
-

= 2 X (4)2
= 2 X 16= 32

• The maximum number of electrons in the outermost orbit will be 8

electrons.
• Electrons, are not accommodated in a given shell. Unless earlier
shells are filled, that is stepwise filling of shells is followed.

Orbit
The circular path around the nucleus is called orbit, energy level or shell.
Energy level are represented by English alphabets: K, L, M, N, …. and so
on.

Valence Electrons
The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as
valence electrons. These electrons determine the valency of an
atom.Outermost shell is known as valence shell.

Valency
Valency is the combining capacity of an atom.

OR

The number of electrons gained, lost or shared by the atom to complete

its octet or to attain noble gas configuration is called the valency of the
element.
Types of valency- Covalency or electrovalency

Electrovalency - The number of electrons gained or lost to complete its

octet or to attain noble gas configuration is called the valency of the
element.

Covalency- The number of electrons shared to complete its octet or to

attain noble gas configuration is called the valency of the element.

-For the atoms having valence electrons less than or equal to 4,

valency is same as that of the number of valence electrons in that
atom.

For example, Electronic configuration of Magnesium (Z=12)=(2, 8 , 2)

Valence e- =2, Valency = 2

-If number of valence electrons exceed 4, then valency = 8 –

Number of valence electrons.

For example, EC of oxygen (Z=8) = (2,6)

Valence e- =6 , Valency = 8 - 6 = 2

Valency of atoms with 8 valence electrons is zero as they have fully filled
valence shell and cannot gain or lose electrons to form, molecules or
compounds.

EC of Chlorine (Z=17) =2,8,7

Valence e-=7, valency =8-7=1

Atomic number (Z)

Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons present
in the nucleus of an atom.

Since an atom is electrically neutral, thus number of protons and number

of electrons are equal, therefore:

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons = number of electrons(neutral

atom)

Mass Number (A)/ atomic mass

The total number of the protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an
atom is called mass number. It is denoted by A.
 The protons and neutrons together are called nucleon.

A = p+ + n where p+ = number of protons and n= number of neutrons.

The number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is represented

by n.

2,8,18,32 He,Ne,Ar- noble gases

ATOMIC NUMBER ELEMENTS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION VALENCE ELECTRONS VALENCY IONS WILL BE FORMED

1 Hydrogen 1 1 1 H+

2 Helium 2 2 0 -

3 Lithium 2,1 1 1 Li+

4 Beryllium 2,2 2 2 Be2+

5 Boron 2,3 3 3 B3+

6 Carbon 2,4 4 4 -

7 Nitrogen 2,5 5 8-5=3 N3-

8 Oxygen 2,6 6 8-6=2 O2-

9 Fluorine 2,7 7 8-7=1 F-

10 Neon 2,8 8 8-8=0 -

11 Sodium 2,8,1 1 1 Na+

12 Magnesium 2,8,2 2 2 Mg2+

13 Aluminium 2,8,3 3 3 Al3+

14 Silicon 2,8,4 4 4 -

15 Phosphorus 2,8,5 5 8-5=3 P3-

16 Sulphur 2,8,6 6 8-6=2 S2-

17 Chlorine 2,8,7 7 8-7=1 Cl-

18 Argon 2,8,8 8 0 -

19 Potassium 2,8,8,1 1 1 K+

20 Calcium 2,8,8,2 2 2 Ca2+

I) Z(atomic number)=p+=e-(If neutral atom)

II) A (mass no.)= p+ + n

III) A =Z +n

IV) n=A - Z

NUMERICALS BASED ON ABOVE FORMULAS

Q1. Calculate the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in

sodium atom. Given atomic number of sodium is 11 and mass
number (atomic mass) is 23.

Ans. Z = 11

Z(atomic number)=p+=e =11 , Because atom is neutral

n=A - Z

= 23 - 11

= 12

No. Of electrons = 11 , no. of protons =11 & no. of neutrons = 12

Q2. The nucleus of the atom of an element contains 17 protons

and 18 neutrons . Calculate the atomic number and mass number
of the element and represent them along with the symbol of the
element.

Ans. Z = ? , A =?, p+ = 17, n = 18

Z(atomic number)=p+= 17

A =p+ + n

= 17 + 18 = 35

Q3. What will be the composition of the nucleus of the atom of an

element with atomic number 19 and mass number 39?
Ans. p+ = ?, n= ? , Z = 19 , A = 39

Z(atomic number)=p+ = 19

n= A - Z

n= 39 - 19

n=20

No. of protons = 19 , no. of neutrons = 20

Q4. Atomic number of sodium is 11 and mass number is 23. What

type of ion will be formed by it and how will you represent it ?
Calculate the number of electrons , protons and neutrons in the
ion formed . What will be the valency of sodium ?

Ans. For sodium atom, A = 23, Z = 11, E.C = 2,8,1 ; Valence

electrons = 1 , valency =1

Na+ which is cation. Representation discussed. This ion has been formed
by the loss of one electron.

Sodium ion, no.of electrons =11-1=10

No. Of protons = 11 = Z

No. Of neutrons, n = A - Z

n= 23 - 11

n=12

Valency of sodium = 1

REPRESENTATION :-
Q5. Atomic number of Aluminium is 13 and mass number is 27.
Calculate number of electrons ,protons and neutrons in the ion
formed. Represent the ion. What will be its valency ?

Ans. For aluminium atom, Z=13, E. C= 2,8,3 ; Valence electrons = 3,

valency=3, electrons=13

Al3+ which is cation. It has formed by the loss of 3 electrons.

For aluminium ion, No.of electrons= 13 - 3=10, E.C =2,8

No. Of protons =Z =13

No of neutrons= A - Z

=27 - 13

= 14

Valency of aluminium ion = 3

REPRESENTATION
Q6. Atomic number of fluorine is 9 and mass number is 19.
Calculate the number of electrons , protons and neutrons in the
neutral atom and in the ion formed by it. Represent the ion and
give its electronic configuration.

Ans. For Fluorine atom, Z =9, E.C = 2,7, Valence electrons=7,

valency=8-7=1

No. Of electrons= Z = 9 , No. Of protons=Z=9, n= A-Z =19-9=10

For fluorine ion , F- .It has gained one electron.

No. Of electrons= 10 , No. Of protons=Z=9 , n= A - Z =19 - 9=10

Electronic configuration of ion= 2,8

Q7. An ion M3+ contains 10 Electrons and 14 neutrons. What are

the atomic number and mass number of the element M? Name the
element.

Ans. M3+ It is cation which has formed by the loss of 3 electrons. That
means no of electrons in the neutral atom were 13.

For M atom, Z = 13 = no. Of electrons (neutral atom)

A=Z+n

A = 13 + 14

A = 27

The element is Aluminium.

Q8.Draw the atom of Magnesium with atomic number 12 (Z=12)

Ans. Z= 12 , Electronic configuration = 2,8,2

Q9. Draw the Chlorine atom with Z= 17.

Ans. Z= 17 , E.C = 2,8,7. Three shells are K,L,M

Q10. Draw the atom of oxygen and phosphorus.

Ans. For Oxygen atom Z = 8 , E.C =2,6

For phosphorus atom, Z = 15 , E.C =2,8,5

Q11. Write the electronic configuration of Chlorine ion, nitrogen

ion and calcium ion .

Ans. For Chlorine atom , Z=17, E.C =2,8,7, Valence electrons =7, valency
=8-7 =1

Cl- , it has gained one electron E.C = 2,8,8

For nitrogen atom, Z = 7 , E.C =2,5 , Valence electrons =5, valency = 8-

5 =3

N3- , It has gained three electrons , E.C = 2,8

For calcium atom, Z=20 , E.C=2,8,8,2 ,valence electrons =2, valency=2

Ca2+ , it has lost 2 electrons, E.C = 2,8,8

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different
mass numbers are known as Isotopes.

For example:

(NCERT) Three isotopes of hydrogen are as follows:-

Protium/hydrogen : H-1 isotope , e- = 1, p+=1(Z=1) , n= A-Z=1-1=0

Deuterium : H-2 isotope, e- = 1, p+=1(Z=1) , n= A-Z=2-1=1

Tritium : H-3 isotope , e- = 1, p+=1(Z=1) , n= A-Z=3-1=2

Characteristics of isotopes :

I) Same atomic number, same number of protons, same no.of electrons.

II) Different mass number and the number of neutrons

III) Same chemical properties because they have same atomic no. , same
electronic configuration, same valence electrons. Hence, same chemical
properties.

IV) Different physical properties because they have different mass

numbers.
 RADIOISOTOPES

The isotopes having larger number of neutrons is generally unstable. It

emits alpha, beta and gamma radiations spontaneously. Such isotopes
are called radioactive isotopes. /radioisotopes.

Applications of Isotopes
• Isotope of uranium, U-235 is used as a fuel in nuclear reactor
• Isotope of cobalt Co-60, is used in treatment of cancer
• Isotope of iodine (I-131, Iodine-131) is used in treatment of goitre.

Isobars
Atoms of different elements having same mass numbers but different
atomic number are known as Isobars,

For example: