4 STRUCTURE OF ATOM

INTRODUCTION
(i) The idea of tiniest unit of matter (Anu and Parmanu) was propounded by
maharishi Kanad in Vedic period in our country.
(ii) Democritus, a Greek philosopher also proposed that matter is made up of
extremely small particles, the “atom”. The name atom comes from Greek
language.
(iii) John Dalton in 1808 published theory of atom assuming that atoms are the
ultimate indivisible particles of matter.
(iv) Later the works f William Crookes (1878) , J.J. Thomson (1897) and
Goldstein proved that atom of any element contains smaller particles which are
either positively charged or negatively charged.
(v) Work of Rutherford and Neils Bohr confirmed that an atom consists of three
subatomic particles, that are electrons, protons and neutrons.
(vi) It has been established that the central core of an atom consists of protons and
neutrons and is commonly called nucleus. The electrons revolve around the
nucleus.
(vii) The atom as a whole is electrically neutral as the number of protons in it, is
equal to the number of electrons.
An element is a pure substance which cannot be subdivided into two or more new
substances by any means.
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN ATOM
(a) Electron :
Electron has a negative charge on it, its mass is 1/1837 times the mass of one
atom of hydrogen. It is denoted by the symbol 0-1e, where 0 denotes its mass and -
1 denotes its charge. Electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons.
(b) Proton :
Proton has a unit positive charge, it is denoted by the symbol 1+1P where 1
denotes it atomic mass and +1 denotes its charge.
(c) Neutron :
Neutron has no electric charge on it. Its mass is almost equal to the mass of one
atom of hydrogen. it is denoted by the symbol 10 n where 1 denotes its atomic
mass and 0 denotes its charge.
THOMSONS MODEL OF AN ATOM
After the discovery of electrons and protons J.J. Thomson (1898) tried to explain
the arrangement of electrons and protons within the tom. He proposed that an
atom consists of a sphere of positive electricity in which electrons are
embedded like plum in pudding or seeds evenly distributed in red spongy
mass in watermelon. The radius of the sphere is of the other 10-8 cm which is
equal to the size of the atom. Although Thomson’s model could explain the
electrical neutrality of an atom but this model could not satisfy experimental facts
proposed by Rutherford and hence was discarded.

RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF AN ATOM

(a) Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment :
Ernest Rutherford and his coworkers performed numerous experiments in which
alpha particles emitted from a radioactive element such as polonium were
allowed to strike thin sheets of metals such as gold and platinum.
(i) A beam of alpha -particles (He2+) we obtained by placing polonium in a lead
box and letting the alpha particles come out of a pinhole in the lead box. This beam
of alpha -rays was directed against a thin gold foil
(0.00004 cm). A circular screen coated with zinc sulphide was placed on the other
side of the foil.
(ii) About 99% of the alpha particles passed undeflected through the gold foil
and caused illumination of zinc sulphide screen.
(iii) Very few alpha-particles underwent small and large deflections after passing
through the gold foil.
(iv) A very few (about 1 in 20,000) were deflected backward on their path at an
angle of 1800.
Rutherford was able to explain these observations as follows :
(i) Since a large number of alpha -particles pass through the atom undeflected,
hence, there must be large empty space within the atom.
(ii) As some of the alpha - particles got defleted, therefore, there must be
something massive and positively charged present in the atom.
(iii) The number of alpha -particles which got deflected is very small.
(iv) Some of the alpha -particles retracted their path i.e. came almost straight
back towards the sources as a result of their direct collisions with the heavy
mass

(b) Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom :

Rutherford proposed a new picture of the structure of the atom.
Main feature of this model are as follows:-
(i) The atom of an element consists of a small positively charged “Nucleus”
which is situated at the centre of the atom and which carries almost the entire mss
of the atom.
(ii) The electrons are distributed in the empty space of the atom around the
nucleus in different concentric circular paths (orbits).
(iii) The number of electrons in the orbits is equal to the total number of protons in
the nucleus.
(iv) Volume of nucleus is very small as compared to the volume of atom.
(v) Most of the space in the atom is empty.
The stability of such a system in which negatively charged electrons surround a
positively charged nucleus was explained by proposing that the electrons revolve
around thenucleus at very high speed in circular orbits. This arrangement is
just like our solar system. The high sped of the moving electrons given them a
centrifugal force acting away from the nucleus. The centrifugal force balance
the electrostatic force of attraction acting between the nucleus and the electrons
(c) Defects in Rutherford’s Model :
(i) Rutherford did not specify the number of electrons in each orbit.
(ii) According to electromagnetic theory, if a charged particle (electron) is
accelerated around another charged particle (nucleus) then there would be
continuous radiation of energy. This loss of energy would slow down the speed
of electron and eventually the electron would fall into the nucleus. But
such a collapse does not occur. Rutherford’s model could not explain this theory.
BOHR’S MODEL OF AN ATOM
Rutherford’s model of the atom was unable to explain certain observations with
regard to the atom i.e. stability of the atom and the occurrence of the atomic
spectra. Neils Bohr accepted Rutherford’s idea that the positive charge and most
of the mass of the atom is concentrated in its nucleus with the electrons present at
some distance away.
According to Bohr’s theory -
(i) Electrons revolve around the nucleus in well defined orbits or shells, each
shell having a definite amount of energy associated with the electrons in it.
Therefore, these shells are also called energy levels.
(ii) The energy associated with the electrons in an orbit increases as the radius of
the orbit increases.
These shells are known as K, L, M, N etc. starting from the one closest to the
nucleus.
(iii) An electron in a shell can more to a higher or lower energy shell by absorbing
or releasing a fixed amount of energy.
(iv) The amount of energy absorbed or emitted is given by the difference of
energies associated with the two energy levels.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An atom consists of two parts :
(a) Nucleus :
Nucleus is situated in the centre of an atom. All the protons & neutrons are
situated in the nucleus, therefore, the entire mass of an atom is almost
concentrated in the nucleus. The overall charge of nucleus is positive due to the
presence of positively charged protons (neutrons present have no charge). The
protons & neutrons are collectively called nucleons. The radius of the nucleus of
an atom is of the order of 10-15 m.
(b) Extra nuclear region :
In extra nuclear part or in the region outside the nucleus, electrons are present
which revolve around the nucleus in orbits of fixed energies. These orbits are
called energy levels. These energy levels are designated as K, L, M, N and so on.
* The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is
given by the formula 2n2 (where n = number of shell i.e. 1, 2, 3--)
Each energy level is further divided into subshells designated as s.p.d.f.
1st shell (K) contains 1 subshell (s)
2nd shell (L) contains 2 subshells (s,p)
3rd shell ( M) contains 3 subshells (s,p,d)
4th shell (N) contains 4 subshells (s,p,d,f).
ORBITALS
Like shells are divided into subshells, subshells further contain orbitals.
An orbital may be defined as a
“Region in the three - dimensional space around the nucleus where the
probability of finding an
electron is maximum. The maximum capacity of each orbital is that of two
electrons.”
Subshell Orbital (s) Max. no. of electrons
S 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
ELECTRONIC CONFIGUATION OF AN ATOM
(i) Each of the orbits can accommodate a fixed number of electrons. Maximum
number of electrons in
an orbit is equal to 2n2, where ‘n’ is the number of the orbit.
If n = 1 then 2n2 = 2
n = 2 then 2n2 = 8
n = 3 then 2n2 = 18
n = 4 then 2n2 = 32
(ii) In the outermost shell of any atom, the maximum possible number of electrons
is 8, except in the
first shell which can have at the most 2 electrons.
(iii) The arrangement of the electrons is different shells is known as the electronic
configuration of the element. The pictorial representations of Bohr’s model o
hydrogen, helium, carbon, sodium and calcium atoms having 1, 2, 6, 11 and 20
electrons respectively are shown in the figure where the centre of the circle
represents the nucleus.

* If the outermost shell has 8 electrons it is said to be an octet. If the first

shell has its full quota of 2 electrons, it is said to be duplet.

VALENCY
Valency of an element is the combining capacity of the atoms of the element with
atoms of the same or different elements. The combining capacity of the atoms of
other elements was explained in terms of their tendency to attain a fully - filled
outermost shell (stable octet or duplet).
The number of electrons gained, lost or contributed for sharing by an atom of the
element gives us directly the combining capacity or valency of the element.
Valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons in an
atom of the element.
The valency of an element = number of valence electrons
(when number of valence electrons are from 1 to 4)
The valency of an element = 8 - number of valence electrons.
(when number of valence electrons are more than 4)
eg. Na has 1 valence electron, thus, its valency is 1.

Cl has 7 valence electrons, thus, its valency is 8 - 7 = 1.

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)

The number of protons is the nucleus of an atom of a given element is called the
atomic number of that element.
Or
Atomic number is the number of protons present in the atom of an element. It is
denoted. by “Z”
Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons
( in a neutral atom)
Atomic number = Number of protons

(in an ion)

E.g. 11Na

-Atomic number of sodium is 11

-Nucleus of sodium has 11 protons.
- Nucleus of sodium has 11 units of positive charge.
- There are 11 electrons, revolving round the nucleus of sodium

MASS NUBER (A)

Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons present in the atom of an
element. It is denoted by “A”. The mass number is represented either on the left
hand side (LHS) or on the right hand side (RHS) of the symbol of the element as
superscript.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.
e.g.Al
-Mass number of aluminum is 27.
-The total number of protons and neutrons is the nucleus of aluminum is 27.
-Number of protons is 13.
-Number of neutrons is = 27 - 13 = 14.
(a) Relation between Z, A and N

A=Z+N
Z = Number of Protons
N = Number of neutrons
A = Mass number
Therefore N = A – Z
ISOTOPES
(a) Atoms of same element having the same chemical properties, but differing
in mass are known as isotopes.
The isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different atomic
masses. Isotopes have the same electrical charges means same number of protons.
The difference in their masses is due to the presence of different number of
neutrons.
e.g. (a) Isotopes of hydrogen
HydrogenCharacteristics/ isotopes Protium Deuterium Tritium
( 1 H)
1
( 1H )
2
( 31H )
1. Atomic number 1 1 1
2. No. of protons 1 1 1
3. No. of electrons 1 1 1
4. No. of neutrons 0 1 2
5. Mass number 1 2 3
ISOBARS
The atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, but same mass
number are called isobars. e.g. 146 C and147 N are isobars
ISOTONES
The isotones may be defined as the atoms of different elements containing same
number of neutrons.
e.g136C and147 N
For C 13 -6= 7 For N 14-7=7
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