DR. S. & S. S.

GHANDHY
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLGE – SURAT

RAPID PROTOTYPING
Dr. Mahesh Chudasama
Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department
Introduction
to Rapid
Prototyping
Role of CAD in
Rapid
Prototyping
CAD
workflow for
Prototyping
CAD
workflow for
Prototyping
 • 3D MODELING

CAD • Advanced 3D CAD modeling is a general prerequisite in RP processes and,

usually is the most time-consuming part of the entire process chain. It is
most important that such 3D geometric models can be shared by the entire
Modelling design team for many different purposes, such as interference studies, stress
analyses, FEM analysis, detail design and drafting, planning for

and Data manufacturing, including NC programming, etc.

• Many CAD/CAM systems now have a 3D geometrical modeler facility with

Processing these special purpose modules. There are two common misconceptions
amongst new users of RP.

for RP: • First, unlike NC programming, RP requires a closed volume of the model,
whether the basic elements are surfaces or solids. This confusion arises
because new users are usually acquainted with the use of NC programming
CAD model where a single surface or even a line element can be an NC element.
• Second, new users also usually assume what you see is what you get.
preparation These two misconceptions often lead to under- specifying parameters to the
RP systems, resulting in poor performance and nonoptimal utilization of the
system.
CAD Modelling and Data
Processing for RP:
CAD model preparation
• 3D MODELING
• Examples of considerations that
have to be taken into account
include orientation of part,
need for supports, difficult-to-
build part structure such as thin
walls, small slots or holes and
overhanging elements.
Therefore, RP users have to
learn and gain experience from
working on the system.
 CAD model preparation

• The problem is usually more complex than one can imagine because
there are many different RP machines which have different
requirements and capabilities. For example, while a SLA requires
supports, SGC does not, and SGC works most economically if many parts
are nested together and processed simultaneously.
 CAD (Computer-Aided Design) modeling offers numerous significant benefits for rapid prototyping,
streamlining the product development process and leading to better, more efficient outcomes. Here
are the key advantages:
• 1. Enhanced Accuracy and Precision:
• Exact Measurements: CAD software allows designers to create digital models
with extremely precise measurements, minimizing the possibility of errors that
can occur with manual drafting.
• Detailed Representation: Every aspect of a product can be accurately
represented in a CAD model, which is crucial for complex components that need
to fit together perfectly.

Benefits of • 2. Faster Iteration and Design Refinement:

• Quick Modifications: CAD makes it incredibly easy to update designs quickly. If
changes are needed after testing a prototype, designers can easily adjust
CAD dimensions, alter features, or change materials in the digital model without
starting from scratch.

modelling: • Reduced Development Time: The ability to rapidly adjust and refine designs in
CAD leads to faster prototyping cycles, accelerating the overall product
development timeline and getting products to market quicker.
• 3. Cost Savings:
• Fewer Physical Prototypes: By enabling virtual testing and early identification of
flaws, CAD reduces the need for multiple, expensive physical prototypes.
• Reduced Material Waste: Identifying design issues early on in the digital stage
helps prevent costly mistakes and material waste during physical production.
• Optimized Manufacturing: CAD models, especially when integrated with CAM
(Computer-Aided Manufacturing), can optimize toolpaths and machining
strategies, further reducing production times and labor costs.
 • 4. Improved Visualization and Communication:
• 3D Representation: CAD provides clear, realistic 3D representations of a
product, making it easier for designers, engineers, clients, and even end-
users to fully understand how the prototype will look and function.
• Virtual Presentations: Designs can be presented with virtual models,
simulating movements, showing internal parts by sectioning, and
displaying them from different angles, all without the need for a physical
prototype.
• Clearer Design Intent: Highly accurate digital models visually communicate
Benefits of design intent to all stakeholders, serving as a precise blueprint for
fabrication.
CAD • 5. Virtual Testing and Simulation:
• Real-World Conditions: CAD software allows for the simulation of real-
modelling: world conditions (e.g., stress, thermal, motion analysis, fluid flow) before
physical prototypes are built.
• Early Issue Identification: These virtual tests help identify potential issues,
design flaws, and performance problems early in the design process,
preventing expensive mistakes down the line.
• Performance Optimization: Individual parts and assemblies can be
evaluated for performance under expected conditions, and designs can be
adjusted and re-simulated without the expense or time of building physical
test fixtures.
 • 6. Seamless Integration with Manufacturing:
• Direct to 3D Printing: CAD files can be directly imported into 3D
printers, which is a cornerstone of rapid prototyping. This
seamless transition from digital design to physical fabrication is
incredibly efficient.
• CAM Compatibility: CAD integrates with CAM software to
automate the conversion of designs into machine instructions
for CNC machining, ensuring a smooth transition from design to
Benefits of production.
• 7. Enhanced Collaboration:

CAD • Easy Sharing: Digital CAD models are easy to share among team
members, even across different locations, facilitating real-time
feedback and adjustments.
modelling: • Centralized Data: Cloud-based CAD platforms ensure all team
members have access to the latest version of the prototype,
reducing errors and accelerating the overall development
timeline.
In essence, CAD modeling for rapid prototyping empowers designers
and engineers to create, test, and refine product designs with
unprecedented speed, accuracy, and cost-effectiveness, ultimately
leading to higher quality products and faster time-to-market.
 DATA
CONVERSION
AND
TRANSMISSION
Data Conversion:

CAD software creates 3D models and 2D drawings in specific native file

formats. However, for these models to be used by different software,
machines, or collaborators, they often need to be converted into universally
recognized or compatible formats. This conversion process ensures
interoperability.
• Common file formats for CAD data conversion include:
• STL (Standard Tessellation Language - STereoLithography): This is a widely
used format for 3D printing (additive manufacturing). It represents a 3D
model as a series of connected triangles, defining the surface geometry of
the object.
• STEP (STandard for the Exchange of Product model data): A comprehensive
ISO standard for exchanging 3D product data, including not just geometry
but also product and manufacturing information (PMI). It's often used for
transferring models between different CAD systems.
• IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification): An older, but still used,
neutral file format for exchanging 2D and 3D design data.
The conversion process typically involves exporting the CAD model from its
native format into one of these neutral formats. During this process, the
software translates the geometric and other data into a structure that the
target format can understand.
Data Transmission:

Once converted, CAD data needs to be transmitted to various stakeholders and

systems.
This can involve:
• Sharing with Collaborators: Design teams, engineers, and clients often need
to access and review CAD models. This can happen through shared network
drives, cloud-based platforms, or direct file transfers.
• Sending to Manufacturing: For prototyping or production, the CAD data
(often in formats like STL for 3D printing or STEP for CNC machining) is
transmitted to manufacturing equipment. This could be a direct connection
to a 3D printer, a CNC machine, or a manufacturing execution system (MES).
• Cloud Storage and Management: Many modern CAD workflows utilize
cloud-based solutions for storing, managing, and sharing design files,
allowing for real-time collaboration and version control from anywhere.
• Integration with Other Systems: CAD data can be transmitted to other
enterprise systems like Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) or Enterprise
Resource Planning (ERP) for managing product information throughout its
lifecycle.
 DATA CONVERSION
AND TRANSMISSION
• The solid or surface model to be built is next converted into a format dubbed the
STL file format. This format originates from 3D Systems which pioneers the
STereoLithography system. The STL file format approximates the surfaces of
the model using tiny triangles.
• Highly curved surfaces must employ many more triangles, which mean that STL
files for curved parts can be very large. Almost, if not all, major CAD/CAM
vendors supply the CAD-STL interface.
• Since 1990, almost all major CAD/CAM vendors have developed and integrated
this interface into their systems. This conversion step is probably the simplest
and shortest of the entire process chain. However, for a highly complex model
coupled with an extremely low performance workstation or PC, the conversion
can take several hours. Otherwise, the conversion to STL file should take only
several minutes.
• Where necessary, supports are also converted to a separate STL file. Supports
can alternatively be created or modified in the next step by third party software
which allows verification and modifications of models and supports.
DATA CONVERSION
AND TRANSMISSION
• The transmission step is also fairly straightforward. The
purpose of this step is to transfer the STL files which reside
in the workstation to the RP system’s computer. It is typical
that the workstation and the RP system are situated in
different locations. The workstation, being a design tool, is
typically located in a design office.

• The RP system, on the other hand, is a process or

production machine, and is usually located on the shopfloor.
Data transmission via agreed data formats such as STL or
IGES may be carried out through a diskette, email
(electronic mail) or LAN (local area network). No validation of
the quality of the STL files is carried out at this stage.
CHECKING
AND
PREPARING
CHECKING AND PREPARING
• The computer term, garbage in garbage out, is also applicable to RP. Many first time users are
frustrated at this step to discover that their STL files are faulty. However, more often than not, it is
due to both the errors of CAD models and the non-robustness of the CAD-STL interface.
• Unfortunately, today’s CAD models — whose quality are dependent on the CAD systems, human
operators and postprocesses — are still afflicted with a wide spectrum of problems, including the
generation of unwanted shell-punctures (i.e. holes, gaps, cracks, etc.). These problems, if not
rectified, will result in the frequent failure of applications downstream.
• At present, the CAD model errors are corrected by human operators assisted by specialized
software such as MAGICS, a software developed by Materialise, N.V., Belgium. This process of
manual repair is very tedious and time consuming especially if one considers the great number of
geometric entities (e.g. triangular facets) that are encountered in a CAD model.
• Once the STL files are verified to be error-free, the RP system’s computer analyzes the STL files
that define the model to be fabricated and slices the model into cross-sections. The cross-sections
are systematically recreated through the solidification of liquids or binding of powders, or fusing of
solids, to form a 3D model.
• In a SLA, for example, each output file is sliced into cross-sections, between 0.12 mm (minimum) to
0.50 mm (maximum) in thickness. Generally, the model is sliced into the thinnest layer
CHECKING AND
PREPARING
• Checking and preparing CAD models for rapid prototyping
involves several crucial steps to ensure a successful and accurate
physical prototype. Here's a breakdown of the process:
• 1. CAD Modeling: The process begins with creating a 3D model
in CAD software. This digital blueprint serves as the foundation for
your physical prototype. Modern CAD software offers tools for
complex geometries, simulations, and preparing models for
prototyping.
• 2. CAD Conversion (to STL): For rapid prototyping, especially
3D printing, CAD models are typically converted to an STL
(STereoLithography) file format. STL represents the 3D model as
a mesh of interconnected triangles. The resolution of this
conversion is important:
• Low resolution: Can result in a rough surface finish.
• High resolution: Leads to larger file sizes and slower
processing. The goal is to find a balance between smoothness
and file manageability.
CHECKING AND
PREPARING
• 3. Model Repair and Optimization: CAD models, even after
conversion, can have errors that prevent successful printing. These
errors can arise from the original modeling, conversion issues, or
design complexity. Key aspects of model repair and optimization
include:
• Watertightness: The model must be "watertight," meaning all
surfaces are closed and define a clear volume. Gaps or open
spaces can lead to printing errors.
• Normal Orientation: Surfaces of the model need to have correct
normal orientation (indicating inside and outside). Inverted
normals can confuse the 3D printer.
• Non-manifold edges and singular points: These are geometric
issues where edges are shared by more than two faces, or
multiple faces meet at a single point, which can cause problems
for the printer.
• Overlaps and Intersections: These need to be resolved to ensure
a clean and printable model.
• Simplifying Geometry: Reducing unnecessary complexity, small
features (like tiny holes or text), and using basic geometric
shapes can improve printability and reduce print time.
CHECKING AND
PREPARING
• Designing for Assembly: If the prototype consists of
multiple parts, design proper connectors and account for
tolerances to ensure they fit together after printing.
• Orientation for Printing: Orienting the part correctly can
minimize the need for support structures and optimize
print time and strength. Placing high-detail surfaces face
down can improve resolution.
• Wall Thickness: Ensure walls are thick enough to be
structurally sound (e.g., typically at least 1.5mm).
• Supports: For overhangs greater than a certain angle
(often 45 degrees), support structures will be required
during printing. These should be designed for easy
removal.
• Many CAD software programs have built-in tools for checking
and repairing models. There are also specialized online tools
and software dedicated to STL file repair that can
automatically detect and fix common issues like holes, non-
manifold edges, and inverted normals.
CHECKING AND PREPARING
• The supports can be created using coarser settings. An internal cross hatch structure is generated
between the inner and the outer surface boundaries of the part. This serves to hold up the walls and
entrap liquid that is later solidified with the presence of UV light. Preparing building parameters for
positioning and stepwise manufacturing in the light of many available possibilities can be difficult if
not accompanied by proper documentation. These possibilities include determination of the
geometrical objects, the building orientation, spatial assortments, arrangement with other parts,
necessary support structures and slice parameters.

• They also include the determination of technological parameters such as cure depth, laser power
and other physical parameters as in the case of SLA. It means that user-friendly software for ease
of use and handling, user support in terms of user manuals, dialogue mode and online graphical
aids will be very helpful to users of the RP system.

• However, the job is now made simpler with the introduction of default values that can be altered to
other specific values. These values can be easily retrieved for use in other models. This software
also allows the user to orientate and move the model such that the whole model is in the positive
axis’ region (the SLA uses only positive numbers for calculations). Thus the original CAD design
BUILDING

• For most RP systems,

this step is fully
automated. Thus, it is
usual for operators to
leave the machine on to
build a part overnight.
The building process
may take up to several
hours to build depending
on the size and number
of parts required. The
number of identical parts
that can be built is
subject to the overall
build size constrained by
the build volume of the
RP system.
 STL
• Representation methods used to describe CAD geometry
vary from one system to another. A standard interface is
needed to convey geometric descriptions from various
CAD packages to rapid prototyping systems. The STL –
Standard Tessellation Language (STereoLithography)
file, as the de facto standard, has been used in many, if
not all, rapid prototyping systems.
Formats for • The STL file, conceived by the 3D Systems, USA, is
created from the CAD database via an interface on the
RP Systems CAD system. This file consists of an unordered list of
triangular facets representing the outside skin of an
object. There are two formats to the STL file.
• One is the ASCII format and the other is the binary
format. The size of the ASCII STL file is larger than that of
the binary format but is human readable. In a STL file,
triangular facets are described by a set of X, Y and Z
coordinates for each of the three vertices and a unit
normal vector with X, Y and Z to indicate which side of
facet is an object.
 Let's break down this example:
STL file format •solid MyTriangle: This line starts the definition of an object and gives it an optional
name ("MyTriangle").
•facet normal 0.0 0.0 1.0: This line defines a single triangular facet. The three
numbers (0.0 0.0 1.0) represent the X, Y, and Z components of the facet's normal
vector. This vector points outwards from the surface of the triangle, helping the
software determine which side of the triangle is the "outside" of the object. In
this case, a normal of (0,0,1) means the triangle is facing directly along the
positive Z-axis.
•outer loop: This indicates the beginning of the loop that defines the three vertices of
the triangle.
•vertex 0.0 0.0 0.0: This line defines the first vertex of the triangle with X, Y, and Z
coordinates (0.0, 0.0, 0.0).
•vertex 1.0 0.0 0.0: This defines the second vertex (1.0, 0.0, 0.0).
•vertex 0.0 1.0 0.0: This defines the third vertex (0.0, 1.0, 0.0).
•endloop: This closes the loop of vertices for the current facet.
•endfacet: This closes the definition of the current facet.
•endsolid MyTriangle: This marks the end of the object definition.

For a more complex object like a sphere, an STL file would contain hundreds or thousands of these facet definitions,
each representing a small triangular patch on the sphere's surface. The density of these triangles directly impacts the
smoothness of the printed object.
In summary, the STL format is a simple yet powerful way to represent 3D geometry for manufacturing, particularly
3D printing, by breaking down complex surfaces into a collection of flat triangles.
STL file format
 • Because the STL file is a facet model derived from precise CAD models, it
is, therefore, an approximate model of a part. Besides, many commercial
CAD models are not robust enough to generate the facet model (STL file)
and frequently have problems.

• Nevertheless, there are several advantages of the STL file.

• First, it provides a simple method of representing 3D CAD data.

STL file format
• Second, it is already a de facto standard and has been used by most CAD
systems and rapid prototyping systems.

• Finally, it can provide small and accurate files for data transfer for certain
shapes. On the other hand, several disadvantages of the STL file exist
 STL file format: Disadvantages
• First, the STL file is many times larger than the original CAD data file for a given accuracy
parameter. The STL file carries much redundancy information such as duplicate vertices and edges
shown in Figure below.

• Second, the geometry flaws exist in the STL file because many commercial tessellation algorithms
used by CAD vendor today are not robust. This gives rise to the need for a “repair software” which
slows the production cycle time. Finally, the subsequent slicing of large STL files can take many
hours. However, some RP processes can slice while they are building the previous layer and this will
alleviate this disadvantage.
POSTPROCESSING
• The final task in the process chain is the postprocessing task. At this stage, generally some manual
operations are necessary. As a result, the danger of damaging a part is particularly high. Therefore,
the operator for this last process step has a high responsibility for the successful process
realization. The necessary postprocessing tasks for some major RP systems are shown.

• The cleaning task refers to the removal of excess parts which may have remained on the part.
Thus, for SLA parts, this refers to excess resin residing in entrapped portion such as a blind hole of
a part, as well as the removal of supports. Similarly, for SLS parts, the excess powder has to be
removed. Likewise for LOM, pieces of excess wood-like blocks of paper which acted as supports
have to be removed.
POSTPROCESSING
• Parts are typically cleaned with solvent to remove unreacted photosensitive resin. Depending upon
the “build style” and the extent of crosslinking in the resin, the part can be distorted during the
cleaning process. This effect was particularly pronounced with the more open “build styles” and
aggressive solvents. With the “build styles” approaching a solid fill and more solvent-resistant
materials, damage with the cleaning solvent can be minimized. With newer cleaning solvents, like
TPM (tripropylene glycol monomethyl ether) introduced by 3D Systems, part damage due to the
cleaning solvent can be reduced or even eliminated.

• For reasons which will be discussed later, SLA parts are built with pockets of liquid embedded within
the part. Therefore, post-curing is required. All other nonliquid RP methods do not undergo this task.

• Finishing refers to secondary processes such as sanding and painting used primarily to improve the
surface finish or aesthetic appearance of the part. It also includes additional machining processes
such as drilling, tapping and milling to add necessary features to the parts.
Problems & Repair of Models
• STL file problems
• Several problems plague STL files and they are due to the very nature of STL files as they contain
no topological data. Many commercial tessellation algorithms used by CAD vendors today are also
not robust, and as a result they tend to create polygonal approximation models which exhibit the
following types of errors:
(1) Gaps (cracks, holes, punctures) that is, missing facets.
(2) Degenerate facets (where all its edges are collinear).
(3) Overlapping facets.
(4) Non-manifold topology conditions.
• The underlying problem is due, in part, to the difficulties encountered in tessellating trimmed
surfaces, surface intersections and controlling numerical errors. This inability of the commercial
tessellation algorithm to generate valid facet model tessellations makes it necessary to perform
model validity checks before the tessellated model is sent to the Rapid Prototyping equipment for
manufacturing. If the tessellated model is invalid, procedures become necessary to determine the
specific problems, whether they are due to gaps, degenerate facets or overlapping facets, etc.
 Problems & Repair of Models
• Missing Facets or Gaps
• Tessellation of surfaces with large curvature can result in errors
at the intersections between such surfaces, leaving gaps or
holes along edges of the part model. A surface intersection
anomaly which results in a gap is shown in Figure.

• Degenerate Facets
• A geometrical degeneracy of a facet occurs when all of the
facets’ edges are collinear even though all its vertices are
distinct. This might be caused by stitching algorithms that
attempt to avoid shell punctures as shown in Figure.
• The resulting facets generated, shown in Figure 6.4(b),
eliminate the shell punctures. However, this is done at the
expense of adding a degenerate facet. While degenerate facets
do not contain valid surface normals, they do represent implicit
topological information on how two surfaces mated. This
important information is consequently stored prior to
discarding the degenerate facet.
 Problems & Repair
• Overlapping facets may be generated due to numerical round-off errors
occurring during tessellation. The vertices are represented in 3D space as
floating point numbers instead of integers. Thus the numerical roundoff
can cause facets to overlap if tolerances are set too liberally. An example
of an overlapping facet is illustrated in Figure

• Non-manifold Conditions
• There are three types of non-manifold conditions,
namely:
• (1) A non-manifold edge.
• (2) A non-manifold point.
• (3) A non-manifold face.
• These may be generated because tessellation of the
fine features are susceptible to round-off errors. An
illustration of a non-manifold edge is shown in
Figure(a). Here, the non-manifold edge is actually
shared by four different facets as shown in Figure (b).
A valid model would be one whose facets have only an
adjacent facet each, that is, one edge is shared by two
facets only. Hence the non-manifold edges must be
resolved such that each facet has only one neighboring
Problems & Repair of Models
• All problems that have been mentioned previously are difficult for most slicing algorithms to handle
and they do cause fabrication problems for RP processes which essentially require valid tessellated
solids as input. Moreover, these problems arise because tessellation is a first-order approximation
of more complex geometric entities. Thus, such problems have become almost inevitable as long as
the representation of the solid model is done using the STL format which inherently has these
limitations.
• STL FILE REPAIR
• Generic Solution
• In order to ensure that the model is valid and can be robustly tessellated, one solution is to check
the validity of all the tessellated triangles in the model. This section presents the basic problem of
missing facets and a proposed generic solution to solve the problem with this approach.
• In existing RP systems, when a punctured shell is encountered, the course of action taken usually
requires a skilled technician to manually repair the shell. This manual shell repair is frequently done
without any knowledge of the designer’s intent. The work can be very time consuming and tedious,
thus negating the advantages of rapid prototyping as the cost would increase and the time taken
might be longer than that taken if traditional prototyping processes were used.
Problems & Repair of Models
• The main problem of repairing the invalid tessellated model would be that of matching the solution
to the designer’s intent when it may have been lost in the overall process. Without the knowledge of
the designer’s intent, it would indeed be difficult to determine what the “right” solution should be.
Hence, an “educated” guess is usually made when faced with ambiguities of the invalid model. The
algorithm in this report aims to match, if not exceed, the quality of repair done manually by a skilled
technician when information of the designer’s intent is not available.

• The basic approach of the algorithm to solve the “missing facets” problem would be to detect and
identify the boundaries of all the gaps in the model. Once the boundaries of the gap are identified,
suitable facets would then be generated to repair and “patch up” these gaps. The size of the
generated facets would be restricted by the gap’s boundaries while the orientation of its normal
would be controlled by comparing it with the rest of the shell. This is to ensure that the generated
facets’ orientation are correct and consistent throughout the gap closure process.

• The orientation of the shell's facets can be obtained from the STL file which lists its vertices in an
ordered manner following Mobius’ rule. The algorithm exploits this feature so that the repair carried
out on the invalid model, using suitably created facets, would have the correct orientation.
Problems & Repair of Models
• Thus, this generic algorithm can be said to have the ability to make an inference from the
information contained in the STL file so that the following two conditions can be ensured:
• (1) The orientation of the generated facet is correct and compatible with the rest of the model.
• (2) Any contoured surface of the model would be followed closely by the generated facets due to
the smaller facet generated. This is in contrast to manual repair whereby, in order to save time,
fewer facets generated to close the gaps are desired, resulting in large generated facets that do not
follow closely to the contoured surfaces.
• Finally, the basis for the working of the algorithm is due to the fact that in a valid tessellated model,
there must only be two facets sharing every edge. If this condition is not fulfilled, then this indicates
that there are some missing facets. With the detection and subsequent repair of these missing
facets, the problems associated with the invalid model can then be eliminated.
Other DATA formats for RP
• IGES File
• IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) is a standard used to exchange graphics information
between commercial CAD systems. It was set up as an American National Standard in 1981 [12,
13]. The IGES file can precisely represent CAD models. It includes not only the geometry
information (Parameter Data Section) but also topological information (Directory Entry Section). In
the IGES, surface modeling, constructive solid geometry (CSG) and boundary representation (B-
rep) are introduced. Especially, the ways of representing the regularized operations for union,
intersection, and difference have also been defined.
• The advantages of the IGES standard are its wide adoption and comprehensive coverage. Since
IGES was set up as American National Standard, virtually every commercial CAD/CAM system has
adopted IGES implementations. Furthermore, it provides the entities of points, lines, arcs, splines,
NURBS surfaces and solid elements. Therefore, it can precisely represent CAD model.
CAD file formats
• Here's a breakdown of the IGES file structure:

1. Start Section: Contains basic information about the file, like the file name and the system used to create it.

2. Global Section: Includes preprocessor data and other global information.

3. Directory Entry (DE) Section: Lists the entities present in the file, with their properties and attributes.

4. Parameter Data (PD) Section: Contains the specific geometric data for each entity.

5. Terminate Section: Indicates the end of the file.

CAD file formats

• However, several disadvantages of the IGES standard in relation to its use as a RP format include
the following objections:

• (1) Because IGES is the standard format to exchange data between CAD systems, it also includes
much redundant information that is not needed for rapid prototyping systems.

• (2) The algorithms for slicing an IGES file are more complex than the algorithms slicing a STL file.

• (3) The support structures needed in RP systems such as the SLA cannot be created according to
the IGES format.

• IGES is a generally used data transfer medium which interfaces with various CAD systems. It can
precisely represent a CAD model. Advantages of using IGES over current approximate methods
include precise geometry representations, few data conversions, smaller data files and simpler
control strategies. However, the problems are the lack of transfer standards for a variety of CAD
systems and system complexities.
CAD file formats
• HP/GL File
• HP/GL (Hewlett-Packard Graphics Language) is a standard data format for graphic plotters. Data
types are all two-dimensional, including lines, circles, splines, texts, etc. The approach, as seen
from a designer’s point of view, would be to automate a slicing routine which generates a section
slice, invoke the plotter routine to produce a plotter output file and then loop back to repeat the
process.

• The advantages of the HP/GL format are that a lot of commercial CAD systems have the interface
to output the HP/GL format and it is a 2D geometry data format which does not need to be sliced.

• However, there are two distinct disadvantages of the HP/GL format. First, because HP/GL is a 2D
data format, the files would not be appended, potentially leaving hundreds of small files needing to
be given logical names and then transferred. Second, all the support structures required must be
generated in the CAD system and sliced in the same way.
CAD file formats
• CT Data
• CT (Computerized Tomography) scan data is a particular approach for medical imaging. This is not
standardized data. Formats are proprietary and somewhat unique from one CT scan machine to
another. The scan generates data as a grid of three-dimensional points, where each point has a
varying shade of gray indicating the density of the body tissue found at that particular point. Data
from CT scans have been used to build skull, femur, knee, and other bone models on
Stereolithography systems. Some of the reproductions were used to generate implants, which have
been successfully installed in patients. The CT data consist essentially of raster images of the
physical objects being imaged. It is used to produce models of human temporal bones.
• There are three approaches to making models out of CT scan information: (1) Via CAD Systems (2)
STL-interfacing and (3) Direct Interfacing.
• The main advantage of using CT data as an interface of rapid prototyping is that it is possible to
produce structures of the human body by the rapid prototyping systems.
• But, disadvantages of CT data include firstly, the increased difficulty in dealing with image data as
compared with STL data and secondly, the need for a special interpreter to process CT data.
CAD file formats
• SLC File
• The SLC (StereoLithography Contour) file format is developed at 3D Systems, USA [15]. It addresses a
number of problems associated with the STL format. An STL file is a triangular surface representation of a
CAD model. Since the CAD data must be translated to this faceted representation, the surface of the STL file
is only an approximation of the real surface of an object. The facets created by STL translation are sometimes
noticeable on rapid prototyping parts (such as the AutoCAD Designer part). When the number of STL
triangles is increased to produce smoother part surfaces, STL files become very large and the time required
for a rapid prototyping system to calculate the slices can increase.
• SLC attempts to solve these problems by taking two-dimensional slices directly from a CAD model instead of
using an intermediate tessellated STL model. According to 3D Systems, these slices eliminate the facets
associated with STL files because they approximate the contours of the actual geometry.
• Three problems may arise from this new approach. Firstly, in slicing a CAD model, it is not always
necessarily more accurate as the contours of each slice are still approximations of the geometry. Secondly,
slicing in this manner requires much more complicated calculations (and therefore, is very time-consuming)
when compared to the relatively straightforward STL files. Thirdly, a feature of a CAD model which falls
between two slices, but is just under the tolerances set for inclusion on either of the adjacent slices, may
simply disappear.
SLC File Specification
• The SLC file format is a “21/2D” contour representation of a CAD model. It consists of successive cross-sections taken at
ascending Z intervals in which solid material is represented by interior and exterior boundary polylines. SLC data can be
generated from various sources, either by conversion from CAD solid or surface models, or more directly from systems
which produce data arranged in layers, such as CT-scanners.
• Definition of Terms
• Segment
A segment is a straight line connecting two X/Y vertice points.

• Polyline
A polyline is an ordered list of X/Y vertice points connected
continuously by each successive line segment. The polyline
must be closed whereby the last point must equal the first point
in the vertice list.

• Contour boundary
A boundary is a closed polyline representing interior or exterior solid material. An exterior boundary has its
polyline list in counter-clockwise order. The solid material is inside the polyline. An interior boundary has its
polyline list in clockwise order and solid material is outside the polyline. Figure 6.28 shows a description of the
contour boundary.

• Contour layer
A contour layer is a list of exterior and interior boundaries representing the solid material at a specified Z cross-
section of the CAD model. The cross-section slice is taken parallel to the X/Y plane and has a specified layer
thickness.
 Overview of the SLC File Structure
• The SLC file is divided into a header section, a 3D reserved section, a sample table section, and the contour data
section.
• Header section
• The Header section is an ASCII character string containing global information about the part and how it was prepared.
• The header is terminated by a carriage return, line feed and control Z character (0x0d,0x0a,0x1a) and can be a
maximum of 2048 bytes including the termination characters.
• The syntax of the header section is a keyword followed by its appropriate parameter.
• Header keywords
• “-SLCVER ” specifies the SLC file format version number. The version number of this specification is 2.0.
• “-UNIT ” indicates which units the SLC data is represented.
• “-TYPE ” specifies the CAD model type. PART and SUPPORT must be closed contours. WEB types can be open
polylines or line segments.
• “-PACKAGE ” identifies the vendor package and version number which produced the SLC file. A maximum of 32
bytes.
• “-MAXGAPFOUND ” specifies the maximum gap size found when generating the SLC data.
 Overview of the SLC File Structure
• 3D reserved section
This 256 byte section is reserved for future use.
• Sampling table section
The sample table describes the sampling thicknesses (layer thickness or slice thickness) of the part. There can be up to 256
entries in the table. Each entry descibes the Z start, the slice thickness, and what line width compensation is desired for that
sampling range.
The first sampling table entry Z start value must be the very first Z contour layer. For example, if the cross-sections were
produced with a single thickness of 0.006 inches and the first Z level of the part is 0.4 inches and a line width compensation
value of 0.005 is desired, then the sampling table will look like the following:
Sample Table Size 1
Sample Table Entry 0.4 0.006 0.005 0.0
If for example, the part was sliced with two different layer thicknesses, the sample table could look like the following:
Sample Table Size 2
Sample Table Entry 1 0.4 0.005 0.004 0.0
Sample Table Entry 2 2.0 0.010 0.005 0.0
Slice thicknesses must be even multiples of one other to avoid processing problems.
• Contour data section
• The contour data section is a series of successive ascending Z cross-sections or layers with the accompaning contour data.
Each contour layer contains the minimum Z layer value, number of boundaries followed by the list of individual boundary
data. The boundary data contains the number of x, y vertices for that boundary, the number of gaps, and finally the list of
floating point vertice points.
• The location of a gap can be determined when a vertice point repeats itself.
• To illustrate, given the contour layer in Section 2.4 the contour section could be as follows:
Z Layer 0.4
Number of Boundaries 2
Number of Vertices for the 1st Boundary 5
Number of Gaps for the 1st Boundary 0
Vertex List for 1st Boundary 0.0, 0.0
1.0, 0.0
1.0, 1.0
0.0, 1.0
0.0, 0.0
Notice the direction of the vertice list is counter-clockwise indicating that the solid material is inside the polylist. Also, notice
that the polylist is closed because the last vertice is equal to the first vertice.
 Number of Vertices for the 2nd Boundary 5
Number of Gaps for the 2nd Boundary 0
Vertex List for 2nd Boundary 0.2, 0.2
0.2, 0.8
0.8, 0.8
0.8, 0.2
0.2, 0.2
Notice the direction of the vertice list is clockwise indicating the solid material is outside the polylist. Also,
notice that the polylist is closed because the last vertice is equal to the first vertice. The contour layers are
stacked in ascending order until the top of the part. The last layer or the top of the part is indicated by the Z level
and a termination unsigned integer (0xFFFFFFFF).
CLI File
• The CLI (Common Layer Interface) format is developed in a Brite Euram project with the support of major
European car manufacturers. The CLI format is meant as a vendor-independent format for layer by layer
manufacturing technologies. In this format, a part is built by a succession of layer descriptions. The CLI file
can be in binary or ASCII format. The geometry part of the file is organized in layers in the ascending order.
Every layer is started by a layer command, giving the height of the layer.

• The layers consist of series of geometric commands. The CLI format has two kinds of entities. One is the
polyline. The polylines are closed, which means that they have a unique sense, either clockwise or
anticlockwise. This directional sense is used in the CLI format to state whether a polyline is on the outside of
the part or surrounding a hole in the part. Counter-clockwise polylines surround the part, whereas clockwise
polylines surround holes. This allows correct directions for beam offset.

• The other is the hatching to distinguish between the inside and outside of the part. As this information is
already present in the direction of polyline, and hatching takes up considerable file space, hatches have not
been included into output files.
• The advantages of the CLI format are given as follows:
(1) Since the CLI format only supports polyline entities, it is a simpler format compared to the HP/GL format.
(2) The slicing step can be avoided in some applications.
(3) The error in the layer information is much easier to be correct than that in the 3D information. Automated
recovery procedures can be used and if required, editing is also not difficult.
• However, there exists several disadvantages of the CLI format. They are given as follows:
(1) The CLI format only has the capability of producing polylines of the outline of the slice.
(2) Although the real outline of the part is obtained, by reducing the curve to segments of straight lines, the
advantage over the STL format is lost.
• The CLI format also includes the layer information like the HP/GL format. But, the CLI format only has
polyline entities, while HP/GL supports arcs and lines. The CLI format is simpler than the HP/GL format and
has been used by several rapid prototyping systems. It is hoped that the CLI format will become an industrial
standard such as STL.
RPI File
• The RPI (Rapid Prototyping Interface) format is designed by the Rensselaer Design Research Center [4, 7],
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. It can be derived from currently accepted STL format data. The RPI format
is capable of representing facet solids, but it includes additional information about the facet topology.
Topological information is maintained by representing each facet solid entity with indexed lists of vertices,
edges, and faces. Instead of explicitly specifying the vertex coordinates for each facet, a facet can refer to
them by index numbers. This contributes to the goal of overall redundant information reduction.

• The format is developed in ASCII to facilitate cross-platform data exchange and debugging. A RPI format file
is composed of the collection of entities, each of which internally defines the data it contains. Each entity
conforms to the syntax defined by the syntax diagram shown in Figure 6.29. Each entity is composed of an
entity name, a record count, a schema definition, schema termination symbol, and the corresponding data. The
data is logically subdivided into records which are made up of fields. Each record corresponds to one variable
type in the type definition.
• The RPI format includes the following four advantages:
(1) Topological information is added to the RPI format. As the result, flexibility is achieved. It allows users to
balance storage and processing costs.
(2) Redundancy in the STL is removed and the size of file is compacted.
(3) Format extensibility is made possible by interleaving the format schema with data as shown in Figure 6.29.
(4) Representation of CSG primitives is provided, as capabilities to represent multiple instances of both facet
and CSG solids.
• Two disadvantages of the RPI format are given as follows:
(1) An interpreter which processes a format as flexible and extensible as the RPI format, is more complex than
that for the STL format.
(2) Surface patches suitable for solid approximation cannot be identified in the RPI format.
• The RPI format offers a number of features unavailable in the STL format. The format can represent CSG
primitive models as well as facet models. Both can be operated by the Boolean union, intersection, and
difference operators. Provisions for solid translation and multiple instancing are also provided. Process
parameters, such as process types, scan methods, materials, and even machine operator instructions, can be
included in the file. Facet models are more efficiently represented as redundancy is reduced. The flexible
format definition allows storage and processing cost to be balanced.
LEAF File
• The LEAF or Layer Exchange ASCII Format, is generated by Helsinki University of Technology [11]. To
describe this data model, concepts from the object-oriented paradigm are borrowed. At the top level, there is
an object called LMT-file (Layer Manufacture Technology file) that can contain parts which in turn are
composed of other parts or by layers. Ultimately, layers are composed of 2D primitives and currently the only
ones which are planned for implementation are polylines.

• For example, an object of a given class is created. The object classes are organized in a simple tree shown in
Figure 6.30. Attached to each object class is a collection of properties. A particular instance of an object
specifies the values for each property. Objects inherit properties from their parents. In LEAF, the geometry of
an object is simply one among several other properties.
• In this example, the object is a LMT-file. It contains exactly one child, the object P1. P1 is the combination of
two parts, one of which is the support structures and the other one is P2, again a combination of two others.
The objects at leaves of the tree — P3, P4 and S — must have been, evidently, sliced with the same z-values
so that the required operations, in this case or and binary-or, can be performed and the layers of P1 and P2
constructed.
• In LEAF, the properties support-structure and open can also be attached to layer or even polyline objects
allowing the sender to represent the original model and the support structures as one single part. In Figure
6.31, all parts inherit the properties of object, their ultimate parent. Likewise, all layers of the object S inherit
the open property indicating that the contours in the layers are always interpreted as open, even if they are
geometrically closed.
• Amongst the many advantages of the LEAF format are:
(1) It is easy to implement and use.
(2) It is not ambiguous.
(3) It allows for data compression and for a human-readable representation.
(4) It is machine independent and LMT process independent.
(5) Slices of CSG models can be represented almost directly in LEAF.
(6) The part representing the support structures can be easily separated from the original part.
• The disadvantages of the LEAF format include the following items:
(1) The new interpreter is needed for connecting the rapid prototyping systems.
(2) The structure of the format is more complicated than that of the STL format.
(3) The STL format cannot be changed into this format.
• The LEAF format is described at several levels, mainly at a logical level using a data model based on object-
oriented concepts, and at a physical level using a LISP-like syntax. At the physical level, the syntax rules are
specified by several translation phases. Thus defined, it allows one to choose at which level, interaction with
LEAF is desirable and at each level there is clear and easy-to-use interface. It is doubtful that LEAF currently
supports the needs of all processes currently available but it is hoped it is a step forward in the direction.
Part Orientation and
Support Generation

• Introduction
• Rapid prototyping transforms digital designs
into physical parts by building them layer by
layer.
• The quality, speed, and cost of a prototype
depend heavily on two interrelated decisions:
how the part is oriented in the build chamber
and how support structures are designed and
placed.
Part Orientation
• Definition
• Part orientation refers to the chosen spatial positioning of a
virtual model within the build volume of a 3D printing
system.
• Changing orientation alters layer count, overhang angles,
surface finish, mechanical strength, and build time.
• Objectives
• Minimize build time by reducing the number of layers
• Reduce support volume and material waste
• Improve surface quality on critical faces
• Optimize mechanical properties along load paths
• Simplify post-processing and part removal
Part Orientation
• Factors Influencing Orientation
• Geometry and overhangs: Steep overhangs demand more
supports

• Surface finish requirements: Critical surfaces should face

upward or sideways

• Mechanical loading: Align layer lines with principal stress

directions

• Build time and cost: Lower layer count speeds up printing

• Printer constraints: Build volume shape, nozzle access, resin

cure angles
Part Orientation
• Orientation Guidelines

• Place large flat surfaces parallel to the build plate to maximize stability

• Angle parts (typically 30–45°) when a balance between surface finish and support volume is needed

• Align longest axis vertically for cylindrical shapes to reduce supports

• Rotate models so that delicate features face inward or upward, away from direct layer stepping
Orientation Comparison

Surface Quality on
Orientation Style Build Time Support Volume
Critical Face

Flat Fast Poor Low

Vertical Slow Excellent High

Angled (~30°) Moderate Good Moderate

Support Generation
• Definition
• Support generation is the creation of
temporary structures that uphold overhangs,
bridges, and delicate features during printing.
• These structures prevent sagging, warping, or
collapse and are removed after the print
completes.
• Support Types
• Tree-like Supports: Branching scaffolds ideal for
resin and FDM prints
• Lattice Supports: Mesh grids often used in
powder-based and metal printing
• Custom/Manual Supports: Tailored structures
for highly complex geometries
Support Generation

Stabilize overhangs exceeding the printer’s self-support limit

Anchor the part to the build platform to prevent shifting
Primary Functions
Distribute thermal stresses to reduce warping
Provide a sacrificial interface that simplifies removal

Material choice: Brittle resins may need denser supports than flexible plastics
Printer technology: SLA, FDM, SLS, DMLS each have unique support requirements
Design Geometry complexity: Sharp edges, thin walls, and deep cavities need precise support
Considerations placement
Ease of removal: Soluble supports or breakaway interfaces minimize post-processing
damage
Support Removal Comparison

Criterion Soluble Supports Breakaway Supports No Supports

Removal Effort Low Moderate None

Surface Damage
Minimal Moderate High (if needed)
Risk

Material Waste Higher Moderate Low

 Optimization Strategies
• Use automatic support generators as a baseline and refine manually for
Support Generation critical zones
• Combine part orientation and support design simulation to predict stress
points
• Select support styles (tree vs. lattice) based on material and geometry
• Employ angled or curved supports to reduce contact points and ease
removal
• Validate orientation and supports with test prints for high-value or complex
parts

Conclusion
• Strategic part orientation and intelligent support generation are pivotal for
achieving fast, cost-effective, and high-quality prototypes.
• By balancing build time, material use, surface finish, and mechanical
performance, engineers can streamline their rapid prototyping workflow
and deliver parts that meet functional and aesthetic requirements.
• Careful planning and iterative refinement of orientation and support
structures yield the best outcomes across diverse 3D printing technologies.
Support Generation
• Types of Support Structures
• Various types of support structures are employed in rapid prototyping, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages:
• Tree-like Supports: These supports feature a trunk-like base branching out to contact the overhanging
features. They often use less material and leave fewer contact points on the final part, making removal easier.
• Linear/Block Supports: These are solid or grid-like structures that provide broad support to large overhangs
or flat bridging sections. They are generally stronger but can be more difficult to remove and may leave more
noticeable marks.
• Web/Lattice Supports: These are lightweight, interconnected structures offering good support with relatively
less material usage compared to solid blocks.
• Rafts: These are flat layers printed beneath the entire part and any supports. They improve bed adhesion and
can provide a more stable base, especially for small or intricate parts.
• Brims: These are single-layer outlines added to the base of the part. They primarily enhance bed adhesion and
are easier to remove than rafts but offer minimal structural support.
• The choice of support type depends on the geometry of the part, the printing material, and the desired surface
finish.
Support Generation
• Software Tools for Support Generation
• Modern slicing software used in rapid prototyping (e.g., Cura, PrusaSlicer, Simplify3D) offers
sophisticated algorithms for automatic support generation. These tools allow users to:
• Customize Support Parameters: Adjust overhang angles, support density, infill patterns, and contact
point settings.
• Manually Add or Remove Supports: Fine-tune support placement for optimal results.
• Utilize Different Support Structures: Select from various support types based on the application.
• Optimize Support Material: In dual-extrusion printers, soluble support materials can be used for
complex internal geometries.
Support Generation
Best Practices for Support Structure Design
• Orient the Part Strategically: Optimizing the part's orientation on the build platform can
minimize the need for supports. Orienting the part so that fewer critical features require support is
often beneficial.
• Utilize Self-Supporting Angles: Design features with self-supporting angles (typically 45 degrees
or less) whenever possible.
• Employ Bridging Techniques: Design features with short, supported spans to minimize the need
for vertical supports.
• Experiment with Support Settings: Test different support densities and contact settings to find
the optimal balance between support strength and ease of removal for specific materials and
geometries.
• Consider Post-Processing: Factor in the time and effort required for support removal when
designing the support structure.
• Leverage Software Features: Utilize the advanced support generation and customization options
available in slicing software.
Support Generation
• Conclusion
• Effective support structure design is a critical aspect of successful rapid prototyping using many additive
manufacturing technologies. By understanding the principles of support generation, considering the various
types of supports, and utilizing the features of modern slicing software, designers and engineers in Surat can
optimize their 3D printing processes to produce high-quality prototypes with minimal material waste and
efficient post-processing. Continuous experimentation and refinement of support strategies are essential for
maximizing the potential of rapid prototyping for innovation and product development in the region.
Model Slicing algorithm
• Introduction to Model Slicing
• Model slicing is a foundational and critical step in the rapid prototyping workflow, specifically for additive
manufacturing (3D printing). It is the process of converting a three-dimensional digital model, typically in an
STL (Standard Tessellation Language) file format, into a series of two-dimensional layers. These layers are
then translated into G-code, a machine language that provides the printer with precise instructions for tool
paths, extrusion rates, and other printing parameters. The efficiency and quality of a slicing algorithm directly
impact the final part's accuracy, surface finish, and overall print time.
Model Slicing algorithm
• Core Principles and Algorithmic Types
• The fundamental principle of slicing is to use a virtual cutting plane to intersect the 3D model
at a specific Z-height, creating a 2D cross-section. This process is repeated for each layer until
the entire model is "sliced." The algorithms used to accomplish this can be categorized into
two primary types:
• Uniform Slicing: This is the most common and simplest method. It involves using equally
spaced horizontal planes to slice the model. While straightforward and fast, this approach can
lead to a "stair-stepping" effect on curved or angled surfaces, which may require post-
processing to smooth. The print time for uniform slicing is directly proportional to the chosen
layer height; a smaller layer height increases resolution but also significantly increases the
number of layers and print time.
• Adaptive Slicing: This advanced algorithm dynamically adjusts the layer height based on the
local geometry of the part. In areas with high detail, such as steep curves or small features, the
layer thickness is reduced to improve accuracy. In contrast, on flat or vertical surfaces, the
layer height is increased to save time and material. This approach offers a powerful trade-off
between print quality and efficiency, reducing both print time and the stair-stepping effect.
Model Slicing algorithm
• Handling Complex Geometries
• Slicing algorithms must be able to manage complex model features to ensure a successful print.
Key challenges include:
• Overhangs: These are parts of a model that extend outward without direct support from the layers
below. Slicers address this by generating support structures. Advanced algorithms can create
different types of supports, such as tree-like or grid-based structures, to minimize material usage
and facilitate easy removal. Some specialized multi-axis printers and their corresponding slicers are
even designed to print overhangs without supports by tilting the print bed or nozzle.
• Curved Surfaces: On curved or angled surfaces, uniform slicing creates the visible stair-stepping
effect. Adaptive slicing is particularly effective here, as it can reduce the layer height at these
specific locations to better approximate the curve, resulting in a much smoother surface finish.
• Non-Manifold Edges and Reversed Normals: A well-designed slicing algorithm also includes
pre-processing functions to identify and fix common issues in the 3D model file, such as non-
manifold geometry or incorrect surface normal vectors, to ensure a successful slicing operation.
Model Slicing algorithm
• Advancements and Future Trends
• The field of slicing algorithms is continuously evolving. Recent advancements include:
• AI-Powered Slicing: Artificial intelligence and machine learning are being integrated
into slicing software. AI-enabled tools can analyze a model and automatically optimize
parameters like layer height, support placement, and print speed. This can lead to a
significant reduction in slicing time and an increase in print quality by predicting and
mitigating potential print failures before they occur.
• Multi-Axis Slicing: Traditional slicing is limited to a 2.5D approach (layers on a flat
plane). However, research is advancing in multi-axis slicing for 5-axis or 6-axis printers.
These algorithms can slice a model on a curved or non-planar surface, which can
dramatically reduce or eliminate the need for support structures and improve the
mechanical properties of the final part.
• Curved Layer Slicing: This is a novel approach where layers are not flat but follow the
curvature of the part's surface. This technique aims to reduce the stair-stepping effect,
enhance part strength, and improve surface quality without extensive post-processing.
Contour Data organization
• The concept of contour data organization for rapid prototyping refers to how a 3D model's cross-sectional
information, generated during the slicing process, is structured and interpreted by the 3D printer's software.
This organization is essential for differentiating between the part's outer walls, internal structures, and infill,
ensuring the printer deposits material correctly.
Contour Data organization
• Core Concept: Inner vs. Outer Contours
• During slicing, a 3D model is intersected by horizontal planes to create a series of 2D slices. Each of these
slices is composed of one or more contours (closed polylines or paths). The key to data organization is
classifying these contours to define the solid and hollow parts of the model.
• Outer Contour: This is the outermost path of a slice, defining the external boundary of the part. The printer's
nozzle follows this path to build the perimeter walls, which give the part its shape and surface finish.
• Inner Contours: These are any closed paths that lie within the outer contour. They are crucial for defining
internal features like holes, internal walls, or cavities. The area between the outer contour and the inner
contours is the solid portion of the layer.
• Infill: The region inside the innermost contours is designated for infill. This is the internal structure, typically
a grid or a honeycomb pattern, that gives the part its strength and reduces material usage. The slicing software
calculates and generates the tool path for this area based on user-defined infill density settings.
• The organization is often hierarchical. The slicer first identifies the outermost boundary, then any internal
holes, and finally determines the areas for infill based on the spaces between these boundaries.
Contour Data organization
• Importance for Rapid Prototyping
• The precise organization of contour data is critical for several reasons:
• Part Integrity: It ensures that the printer differentiates between the part's solid body, empty
spaces, and internal features. Without this clear organization, the printer might fill in holes or leave
the perimeter open, leading to a failed print.
• Print Quality: By following the outer contours, the printer can create a clean, accurate exterior
surface. The inner contours ensure internal features are printed correctly and to the right
dimensions.
• Material Efficiency: This organized data allows the software to calculate and print infill only in
the designated areas, saving significant material and print time. The tool path for the infill is
separate from the perimeters, optimizing nozzle movements.
• G-code Generation: The organized contour data is the direct input for generating the G-code. It
dictates the specific sequence of movements: first, printing the outer perimeters, then the inner
perimeters, and finally the infill, all within the same layer. This order is important for maintaining
dimensional accuracy and ensuring a clean print.
Contour Data organization
• Example:
• Consider a simple hollow cube with a cylindrical hole in the middle.
• Slicing: The slicing algorithm creates a series of square-shaped slices.
• Contour Organization: The algorithm identifies two contours for each slice:
• An outer, square contour defining the external wall of the cube.
• An inner, circular contour defining the hole in the center.
• Printing: The G-code generated from this data will instruct the printer to first trace the outer square
contour, then the inner circular contour, and finally fill the space between the square and the circle with
infill material, layer by layer. The area inside the inner circular contour remains empty, as intended.
Direct Slicing and Adaptive Slicing
• Introduction
• Rapid prototyping (RP) is a transformative technology that enables the fast fabrication of physical models
from digital designs. A critical step in RP is slicing, which converts 3D CAD models into 2D layers for
additive manufacturing. Two prominent slicing techniques are direct slicing and adaptive slicing, each with
unique advantages and challenges.
Direct Slicing
• Definition
• Direct slicing involves slicing the original CAD model directly without converting it into an
intermediate format like STL (stereolithography). This method retains the geometric fidelity
of the model and avoids errors introduced during tessellation.

• Advantages
• Higher accuracy: Maintains original geometry without approximation.
• Reduced preprocessing time: Eliminates the need for STL conversion.
• Improved surface quality: Especially beneficial for curved surfaces.

• Methodology
• CAD models are sliced using algorithms that intersect the model with horizontal planes.
• The intersection contours are extracted directly from the model's boundary representation (B-
rep).
• These contours are then used to guide the RP machine.
Adaptive slicing
• Definition
• Adaptive slicing dynamically adjusts the layer thickness based on the geometry of the model—
thinner layers for complex regions and thicker layers for simpler ones.

• Advantages
• Optimized build time: Reduces the number of layers without compromising detail.
• Enhanced surface finish: Fine layers in high-curvature areas improve fidelity.
• Material efficiency: Minimizes waste by adapting to geometry.

• Methodology
• The curvature of each region is analyzed.
• A slicing algorithm calculates optimal layer thickness for each section.
• Implemented within CAD software like PowerSHAPE for seamless integration.
Comparison Table
Feature Direct Slicing Adaptive Slicing

Accuracy High High in complex regions

Layer Thickness Constant Variable

Processing Time Moderate Optimized

Surface Finish Good Excellent in curved areas

Implementation Complexity Moderate High

Adaptive slicing
• Applications in Industry
• Automotive: Rapid prototyping of aerodynamic components.
• Medical: Custom prosthetics and implants with fine detail.
• Consumer Products: Iterative design of ergonomic devices.

• Conclusion
• Direct and adaptive slicing are pivotal in enhancing the efficiency and quality of rapid prototyping.
While direct slicing offers geometric precision, adaptive slicing introduces intelligent optimization.
Together, they represent the evolution of CAD-to-print workflows, enabling faster, smarter, and more
accurate prototyping.
Tool Path Generation for Rapid Prototyping

• Tool path generation is the final and most critical step in preparing a 3D model for rapid prototyping. It is the
process of converting the 2D slices of a model into a precise set of instructions, known as G-code, that
dictates every movement and action of the 3D printer's nozzle or toolhead. The generated path determines
how the material is deposited on the build platform, layer by layer, to construct the final object.
• Key Components of a Tool Path
• A tool path is not just a single line; it's a sequence of commands that define several actions:
• Extrusion Moves: These are the paths where the nozzle is actively extruding material. The
G-code specifies the coordinates to move to and the precise amount of material to push out.
• Travel Moves: These are movements where the nozzle travels from one point to another
without extruding material. This is typically done to move between different parts of a layer
or to start a new layer.
• Retraction: A brief, reverse movement of the extruder motor to pull the filament back into
the nozzle. This is performed before a travel move to prevent material from oozing out and
creating unwanted strings.
• Speed and Temperature: The G-code also includes commands to set the speed of the
movements and the temperature of the extruder and build plate.
• Tool Path Patterns
• The slicing software uses specific patterns to fill in the contours of each layer. The choice of
pattern affects the final part's strength, print time, and surface finish.
• Perimeter Patterns: These patterns are used to create the outer and inner walls of the part.
• Concentric: The nozzle traces the contours of the slice, moving inwards with each pass. This is
common for perimeters, creating strong walls.
• Infill Patterns: The infill pattern is used to fill the space inside the perimeters, providing structural
integrity.
• Grid/Rectilinear: A simple pattern of lines that cross each other, creating a grid-like internal
structure. It is fast to print but can be weaker than other patterns.
• Honeycomb: A more advanced pattern that uses hexagons to create a very strong, rigid internal
structure. It is often slower to print but provides excellent strength-to-weight ratio.
• Gyroid: A complex, undulating 3D infill pattern that offers great strength and is isotropic, meaning
the part has similar strength in all directions.
• Example: Tool Path Generation for a Simple Cube
• Let's trace the tool path generation for a single layer of a simple, hollow cube with a 20% grid
infill.
• Slicing: The 3D model of the cube is sliced into a series of square-shaped layers.
• Perimeter Generation: For each layer, the software first generates the tool path for the
perimeters. It will instruct the nozzle to trace the outer edge of the square and then one or
more concentric inner paths. The number of perimeters is a user-defined setting.
• Infill Generation: Once the perimeters are complete, the software calculates the tool path for
the infill region. It will generate a grid pattern within the area defined by the innermost
perimeter. The G-code for this will include back-and-forth zigzag movements.
• Travel and Retraction: The software intelligently adds travel moves to connect the different
sections of the tool path. For example, after printing the perimeters, it will command a travel
move to the starting point of the infill, often retracting the filament during this move to
prevent oozing.
1.G-code Output: The final output is a G-code file that combines all these commands for every layer.
The G-code for a single layer might look something like this (simplified):
•G1 F1500 E0.000 (Set print speed)
•G1 X10 Y10 Z0.2 F1500 E2.0 (Extrude material while moving to the first perimeter point)
•G1 X90 Y10 E5.0 (Continue extruding along the perimeter)
•... (more perimeter moves)
•G1 E-0.5 F3000 (Retract filament)
•G0 X20 Y20 (Travel to infill start point)
•G1 E0.5 F1500 (Un-retract and start infill)
•G1 X80 Y20 E... (Extrude infill lines)
This process is repeated for every layer, building the cube from the bottom up, with the Z-coordinate
incrementing for each new layer.