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This is the CMOS op amp that we will build in lab. Look carefully at the
schematic and identify the current sources, reference current,
differential amplifier, active loads, common source 2nd stage with active
load and scope probe. (note: MEG works in spice but M is milli and m
is also milli) Note the current source for the 2nd stage is different than
M8 in that R3 will make the current smaller.
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Start with the DC analysis. In LTSPICE the .op command does the DC
analysis and lists all the node voltages and branch currents in a table
after running the simulation. Some of the results in the table are given
here. The reference current I(R2) is 1.81 mA and is matched with the
current source IM8=IEE=1.77mA. IEE splits in half for the diff amp
transistors giving 0.884 mA each. The current in the 2nd stage is 0.9mA.
The DC output offset voltage is 40mV which is close to zero as desired.
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One way to get the voltage gain (the other is to input sine wave) is to do
a DC sweep near zero volts. In this example we sweep from -40mV to
+40mV is small steps. The output voltage is shown in green. The
derivative of the green plot is shown in dark blue in the top plot plane
and is the overall voltage gain. The derivative of the differential amp
stage output voltage is the gain of the diff amp shown in the middle plot
plane. The maximum overall gain is ~4000V/V and for the diff amp is
~60V/V
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Similar results are found for sinusoidal input.
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This shows two versions of the layout of the op amp shown on the
previous few pages. The upper design is based on L=2um. The lower
design is a L=1um design. They should both work but the larger one
always works when made by RIT students.
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With a 10K load the voltage gain drops from ~4000V/V to ~600V/V.
Obviously this amplifier has little ability to output current to loads less
than 1MEG ohm.
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LTSPICE for CMOS op amp with output stage to drive loads of 100
ohms.
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A few extra transistors allows the op amp to drive 100 ohm loads.
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Please read.
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More from the data sheet.
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This is a plot of the voltage gain and phase vs Frequency for an
inverting amplifier configuration with, Rf and Rin, to give a low
frequency gain to 40 dB or 100 V/V.
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This is a low voltage op amp from Linear Technology that can output up
to 5mA.
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These properties imply in zero current into either of the differential
inputs because the input resistance is infinite.
And very small voltage difference between the two inputs, (we say Vin+
and Vin- are at virtually the same voltage). This is because if the output
voltage is finite the input is output divided by the very high gain,
resulting in a very small voltage difference input.
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These basic op amp circuits should be familiar. Lets apply ideal op amp
fundamentals to the Inverting amplifier. Vin+ and Vin- are virtually at
the same voltage, virtual ground and ground. The current in R1 is
Vin/R1. With infinite input resistance the current in R1 has to go
through R2 creating a voltage at Vo of – I x R2 which is equal to Vo.
Combining these two equations we have Vo/Vin = - R2/R1 the inverting
amplifier gain. You can apply these same concepts to derive the output
equations for each of these circuits. Note the feedback connection
always goes from Vo back to the inverting input.
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Two more basic op amp circuits. You can use the concepts of the ideal
op amp with other circuit analysis techniques to derive the equation for
the output voltage. The concept of superposition for linear circuits can
help with these two circuits. That is find Vout due to V1with V2 equal to
zero and add the result to Vout due to V2 with V1 equal to zero.
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Most op amp circuits use dual power supplies so that the input and
output voltages are referenced to ground. However, it is sometimes
useful to use a single supply instead of two. In the single supply case
the input and outputs should be referenced to a voltage near ½ of the
single supply value. This requires careful consideration of grounds and
analog signal grounds which are not the same for single supply op amp
circuits.
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This is an example of a single supply op amp inverting amplifier for a
small DC input voltage from a thermopile, Vin. If you had a analog
ground at a voltage at ½ way between the +V and ground the output
voltage would be ½ way between +V and ground for no Vin. With Vin
not zero Vout will be –Vin (R2/R1) plus V+/2 volts.
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This shows a single supply amplifier for a sinusoidal input with a DC
offset equal to the analog ground. In this case V+ divided by two. The
output voltage is a sinusoid on a DC offset of V+/2. That is 5/2 =
2.5volts.
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Single resistors can be used to sense temperature, light, strain and are
used in pressure sensors, accelerometers and other applications. With
a dual supply op amp a small change in resistance can be converted to
a change in voltage with a circuit such as the dual supply op amp circuit
shown above. Initially R1 and R2 are identical and vin is zero. If the
sensor resistor R1 increases in response to some physical change vin
will decrease slightly. The amplifier has a gain of Gain = 1 + (R3/R4)
with infinite input resistance. Vout will be a DC voltage relative to ground or
zero volts.
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This is an example of the non linear operation of an op amp because
there is no feedback from output to the inverting input. Because of the
high gain of the op amp any small difference in Vin compared to Vref
will be amplified by the huge gain of the op amp. So the output will be
either +V or –V depending on if Vin is less than or greater than Vref.
The vout vs vin plot is shown for Vin swept from –V to +V. The Vout will
be +V when Vin is less than Vref and –V when Vin is greater than Vref.
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If the reference voltage Vref comes from Vout and a voltage divider
R1/(R1+R2) then the reference voltage will have two different values
one when Vout is high and a different value when Vout is low. If R1 is
equal to R2 for example the reference voltage will be either +V/2 or –
V/2. This will create hysteresis in the Vo vs Vin plot depending on
which direction the Vin is being swept. If Vin is swept from low to high,
Vout will start high, +V, (because the reference voltage is connected to
the non-inverting input) and Vout will switch to low –V when the input
gets to V/2. When sweeping in the negative direction the reference will
be –V/2 and switching Vout to high when Vin reaches –V/2.
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Instead of sweeping the input lets use a RC circuit to charge a capacitor
to what ever the output voltage is at. If the output voltage is high the
capacitor will try to charge up to high. If the RC circuit is used with the
comparator circuit discussed on the previous page the output voltage
will switch to low when the capacitor voltage reaches Vref making the
output low and the capacitor will try to discharge to low but before I gets
to –V it reaches the Vref Low and the output switches to high….. Thus
continually oscillating high and low depending on the RC time constant.
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The voltage across the capacitor charges from –Vref towards +V with
time constant RC at +Vref it triggers and changes to charge toward –V
with time constant RC and continues to oscillate.
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A changing input voltage will charge up the capacitor C to the peak of
Vin. The capacitor will slowly discharge backwards through the diode
with a constant current equal to the reverse leakage current, Is. The
equation shown can be used to calculate the change in voltage on a
capacitor when it is being discharged with a constant current. For
example if Is=10nA and C=1uF the voltage across the capacitor can
decrease at 10 millivolt per second. Adjusting the value of C changes
how quickly Vout can respond to changes in Vin.
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The equations at the top show the relationship for voltage and current in
a capacitor. The equation in the box can be used to calculate the
capacitance for two parallel plates. Other conductor configurations
have different equations for capacitance.
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This shows an approach for an analog circuit design that will indicate
when a capacitor sensor has reached some value. For example a
capacitor used to measure a liquid level and when full turn on an LED
indicator. Each block in the design approach above is converted into a
circuit schematic on the next page.
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This shows the op amps and other components used to realize the
capacitor sensor design.
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The circuit design from the previous page was used with a capacitor
force sensor. Two parallel plates with foam between the plates.
Pressure can push the plates closer increasing the capacitance. The
buffer output shows that the waveform peak is related to the
capacitance value. A bread board for this circuit was built and the
signals were obtained using an oscilloscope. Note: this type of circuit
can detect slowly changing capacitance values or even different steady
capacitance values.
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Microphones have a capacitor sensor that changes with sound
pressures. The capacitor is a thin flexible diaphragm parallel plate
structure. A small microphone, like the one in your smart phone, might
have a capacitance of several pF with changes in capacitance of a few
hundred fF in response to sound pressure waves. The capacitance
changes will be at audio frequencies, say 1KHz to 10KHz range. The
capacitance is shown as C0 + Cm sin (2pft) where Co might be 10pF
and Cm might be 100fF and the frequency might be 5KHz. The
calculation for Vo is shown in this slide. Do the math and find the
amplitude of the output voltage for R of 1MEG. This circuit converts
changing capacitance to changing voltage.
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Photo diodes output current that is proportional to light intensity. The
voltage changes a little but not much, always around .5 to .7 volts. This
circuit is a current to voltage converter not a voltage amplifier. Light will
cause current to flow out of the p-side of the diode. That current flows
through the feedback resistor creating the output voltage relative to
ground, virtual ground.
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Light intensity changes many orders of magnitude from dark to very
bright. A non linear current to voltage converter is shown here where
the feedback resistor is replaced with a diode. The plot shows the
difference between a linear amplifier, R in feedback, and logarithmic
amplifier, diode in feedback, for photo diode currents over many orders
of magnitude. This could be useful to set the exposure time for a
camera based on the brightness.
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The forward voltage drop across a forward biased diode changes by ~ -
2mV/°C. This circuit forward biases a diode operating at approximately
(3.3 -0)/20K = 0.13 mA The plot of Vout has a slope of ~-2mV/°C which
is fairly constant over the temperature range shown on the x-axis of
zero to 100 °C, The I-V curve shifts to the left at higher temperatures.
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These two circuits provide a constant current to the load. The current
value is set by the voltage Vs.
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This figure shows four resistors on a diaphragm use for sensing
pressure. With no pressure all the resistors are equal in value. When
pressure is applied a stress occurs making R1 and R4 longer and
making R3 and R2 wider. The resistors change a little with pressure.
How much they change depends on the how the resistors are made. In
general the could by resistors in single crystal silicon or thin film
resistors on top of the diaphragm. P-type resistors in single crystal
silicon with a specific crystal orientation would result in R1 and R4
increasing in resistance while R3 and R2 decrease in resistance. See
the next page.
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This is a possible comparison of resistor values with no pressure
applied on the left and with a specific amount of pressure applied on the
right. Vo2 increases and Vo1 decreases. The pressure sensors in your
smart phone work like this.
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Op amps have limited output current. I you want a little more output
current you can use power transistors as shown to boost the current
available to the load. This is a unity gain configuration with infinite input
resistance and voltage gain of 1 V/V
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