22 Quantum physics

22.1 Energy and momentum of a photon

• In classical wave theory, electromagnetic (EM) radiation is assumed to behave as

a wave.
• This is supported in that EM radiation exhibit wave like phenomena’s such as
diffraction, interference, refraction and interpolation.
• However, quantum mechanics also assumes that EM radiation behave as
particles.
• An example of this is the photoelectric effect.
• Photons are fundamental particles which make up all forms of EM radiation.
• A photon is a massless “packet” or a “quantum” of EM energy
• Each photo carries a specific amount of energy, and transfers this energy all in
one go.
• A photon’s energy (E in Joules) can be calculated with the following equation

E = hf

Here h is Planck’s constant (6.63x10-34 Js) and f is the frequency (Hz)

• The electronvolt (eV) is a unit usually used for the very small energies in
quantum energies
• Electronvolt is derived from

𝐸
𝑉=
𝑄
Rearranging this you will get

E = VQ

• The electronvolt is defined as the energy gained by an electron travelling

through a potential difference of 1 volt

1eV = 1.6x10-19 J
 • Einstein showed that a photon travelling in a vacuum has momentum (eventhough
photos have no mass!)
• The momentum (p) of a photon is given by

𝐸
𝑝=
𝑐

Here E is the energy of the photon and c is the speed of light (3x108 ms-1).
• The units for p is in Ns.

22.2 Photoelectric effect

• Photoelectric effect, is a phenomenon in which electrons are released from

the metal surface when it absorbs EM radiation.
• Electrons released from photoelectric effect is called photoelectrons.
• Photoelectric effect is evidence that light is quantised (discrete) because each
electron can only absorb a single photon and only at frequencies above a
threshold frequency.
• The threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of the EM radiation that
is needed to remove a photoelectron from the surface of a metal.
• The threshold wavelength can be determined from the wave equation

c = fλ

• Threshold wavelength is the longest wavelength of incident EM radiation that

would remove a photoelectron from the surface of a metal.
• Since energy is conserved, total energy of a photon hitting the surface of the
metal (hf) is equal to the sum of the threshold energy (Φ) with the KE of the
photoelectron (1/2mv2 or KE)

hf = Φ + 1/2mv2
 rearranging you get
KE = hf – Φ

• If you plot the above equation out you get

• From the graph

-the x-axis intercept would represent the reciprocal of the threshold
wavelength
-the slope would equal h
-the y-axis intercept would represent the work function
• If the incident photons do not have a high enough frequency (f) and energy to
overcome the work function (Φ), then no electrons will be emitted
• When hf0 = Φ and f0 = threshold frequency, photoelectric emission just occurs.
• KE depends only on the frequency of the incident photon and not on the
intensity of the radiation (number of photons striking the metal).
• This is because each electron can only absorb one photon to escape the surface
of the metal (if the photon has an energy equal to Φ or higher)
• Different metals will have different Φ.
• Hence KE is independent of intensity.
• Photoelectric current on the other hand is dependent on intensity.
• This is because when more photos strike the metal surface, more photoelectrons
are emitted.
• This is due to each electron absorbing a single photon.
• Hence, an increase number of photons increases the current.
• Photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity.
22.3 Wave-particle duality

• Light waves can be described as either a particle or a wave.

• This phenomenon is called the wave-light particle duality.
• Lights propagates as wave as is evident from Young’s Double Slit Experiment
• Light can also interact with other matter such as electrons as evident in the
photoelectric effect.
• Louis de Broglie discovered that matter such as electrons can behave as a wave.
• His experiment showed that a diffraction pattern is produced when a beam of
electron is direct at a thin graphite film.
• Graphite is used because its structure allows for gaps between planes of atoms
to act as slits.
• The results below show classical model vs actual wave property of electrons.
 • De Broglie’s experimental results were very similar to Young’s Double slit
experiment

• De Broglie suggested that electrons must also hold wave like properties such as
wavelength.
• The faster an electron travels, the larger its wavelength.
• This is de Broglie’s wavelength which can be applied to all particles.
• An electron in a metal has de Broglie’s wavelength around 10nm.
• A particles width would need to be around that size in order to exhibit similar
properties.
• De Broglie suggested that the momentum (p) of a particle can be determined
from

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝

Where h is the plank constant and λ the wavelength (meters).

22.4 Energy levels in atoms and line spectra

• Energy levels (also called electron shells) are fixed distances from the nucleus
of an atom which electrons can be found.
• Energy levels are like staircase.
• You can stand on one step or another but not in-between.
• Electrons are the same thing; they can occupy one energy level or another but
not the space in-between energy levels.

• Electrons usually occupy the lowest energy level available (ground state).
• Electrons can gain energy and move up levels if it absorbs energy by either:
-collision with other atoms or electrons
-absorbing a photon
-a physical source, such as heat
• When a electron gets promoted to a higher level it is said to be in an excited
state.
• This is known as excitation.
• If it gains enough energy to leave the atom, it is called ionisation.
• When an electron returns to a lower energy state from an excited state it
releases the excess energy in the form of a photon.
• A line spectra is a phenomenon which occurs when excited atoms emit light of
certain wavelengths which correspond to different colours.
• The light emitted can be observed as a series of coloured lines with dark spaces
in-between.
• Each element produces a unique set of spectral lines.
• This allows the element to be identified by their line spectrum.
• There are two types of line spectra; emission and absorption spectra.
• When an electron transitions from a higher energy level to a lower energy level,
this results in emission of a photon (emission spectra).
• An electron can be excited by the absorption of a photon.
• When white light passes through a cool, low pressure gas it is found that certain
wavelengths are missing.
• This is line spectrum is called absorption spectrum.
• An absorption spectrum consists of a continuous spectrum containing all the
colours with dark lines at certain wavelengths.
• When photons pass through the gas, electrons are excited to higher levels.
• When these electrons return to their ground state, the photons are emitted in
all directions, rather than in the original direction of the light.
• This makes it appear to the observer that some wavelengths are missing.
• The wavelengths missing from an absorption spectrum are the same as their
corresponding emission spectra of the same element.
• The different between two energy levels (E1 – E2) is equal to the photon energy
emitted (hf)

hf = E1 – E2