Physical Education

1
In modern times, Physical Education is one of the most
Do You Know?
exciting and dynamic subjects. This subject has changed •• Sharir Madhyam Khalu
dramatically during the last 50 years. It has expanded in Dharma Sadhnam means
different areas from school to non-school setting and from physique is the prime source
school-aged children to people of all ages. Earlier, physical of performing all duties.
education was generally understood as physical activities •• Swami Vivekananda and
either in school time table or some free hand exercises, other philosophers like
games, sports, racing, swimming, etc. If we look at the Indian Socrates, Aristotle, and
history of physical education after Independence, a number Plato were of the opinion
of schemes were launched by the Government of India for that physical training was
necessary for the youth.
schools, where every student must participate in physical
activities. We can witness the growing interest in games and
sports exemplified by the fitness boom and the wellness
movement. Sports events receive worldwide coverage. In
schools, students like sports and other forms of physical
activities, which help to achieve and maintain their health
and well-being.

Meaning and Definition

Physical Education is an education which brings improvement
in human performance with the help of physical activities.
Physical activities range from simple walking to jogging,
running, sprinting, hopping, jumping, climbing, throwing,
pushing, pulling, kicking, etc. Education without physical
activities is like body without soul. There is no controversy
in giving due place to physical education and different forms
of exercises in the total set-up of education. All teachings in
human education begin with physical education. Physical
education is also considered as movement education as the life
begins from movement only. In general life is characterised
by movement. The movement starts from the birth of a child,
till the end of life.

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 2 Health and Physical Education - XI

Mental, intellectual, emotional and social development of

a growing child is dependent and closely related to physical
development. A physically fit individual possesses a well-
balanced personality which is, mentally sharp, emotionally
stable and socially well-adjusted.
Physical education teaches how to acquire ability to develop
strength, speed, endurance and coordination abilities. It also
emphasises on achieving social qualities, such as, empathy,
cooperation, friendliness, team spirit, and respect for rules,
which are essential for healthy social relations with others.
In this era of technological advancement, physical education
and sports are considered essential for health, fitness,
wellness, vigour and strength.
The concept of physical education is not new. The fact is
that it has its roots in the ancient period. At various stages in
history, different people have associated different meanings to
the word ‘Physical Education’. Physical Education in simple
words is understood as learning with the help of movements
of body and realising the benefits at mental level. It simply
means education through the use of physique and physical
movements and deriving the advantage for social gain. Some
of the definitions given by well known authors are given here
to understand and for the ready reference of the students.

Fig. 1.1: Children participating in physical activities and excercise

Definitions of Physical Education

In ancient India, a sanskrit adage stated that “Sharir
Servarth Sambhavo Dehe”. The National plan of physical

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 Physical Education 3

education (1956) states that, “Physical education

should aim at making the child physically, mentally and
emotionally fit and developing personal and social qualities
which will help to live happily with others and build a
good citizen”. It further emphasises that the development
of the total personality and achievement of worthy
citizenship motivated for service should be the outcomes of
physical education.
According to the Ministry of Education and National
Planning for Physical Education and Recreation, “The aim of
physical education must be to make every child physically,
mentally and emotionally fit and also to develop in him
personal and social qualities that will help to live happily
with others. Physical education programme should also aim
to build good citizens of the country.”
According to the Central Advisory Board of Physical
Education and Recreation, “Physical education is the
process of education through physical activities. It is the
development of the total personality of the child to its fullness
and perfection in body, mind and spirit.”
Sports and physical education are an integral part
of the learning process, and need to be included in the
evaluation of performance. A nation-wide infrastructure
for physical education, sports and games are required
in the educational field. The infrastructure consists of
playfields, equipments, coaches and teachers of physical
education. Available open spaces in urban areas can be
used for playgrounds. Efforts should be made to establish
sports institutions and hostels where specialised attention
can be given to sports activities and sports-related studies,
along with normal education. Appropriate encouragement
should be given to those who have talent in sports
and games. Due focus should be given on indigenous
traditional games.

Fig. 1.2: Physical exercise

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 4 Health and Physical Education - XI

Charles A. Bucher has defined Physical Education as

Activity 1.1
•• Prepare a chart on the steps an “Integral part of total educational process, is a field of
taken by the Government of endeavour which has its aim — the development of physically,
India to promote games and mentally, emotionally and socially fit citizens through the
sports in India and discuss medium of physical activities which have been selected with
with your classmates. a view to realise these outcomes.”
•• Prepare a chart on the According to American Alliance for health, physical
Importance of Physical education, recreation and dance, “Physical Education is
Activities on health and education through physical activities which are selected and
discuss in the class. carried as with regard to value in human growth, development
•• Discuss Fit India Movements and behaviour”.
and its benefits. Finally, it can be concluded that the development of all
personality traits like, physical, social, mental, emotional,
and moral takes place through various programmes of
physical education.

Aims and Objectives

If you are doing physical exercises or playing any game
regularly, you must have realised their importance. The
aim of physical education is to target the total development
of human personality. In physical education, the final aim
is to make every human being physically, mentally and
emotionally fit and also to provide each kind of opportunity
to them, so that they can develop such personal and social
qualities which will help them to live happily with others and
shape themselves as true citizens of the country.
Efforts are needed to provide adequate facilities and
ample time for the individuals and the groups to participate
in situations that are physically wholesome, mentally
stimulating and socially sound. Through physical education
one can strive to achieve the following aims and objectives.

Motor Development
The objective of motor development refers to the
neuromuscular relationship of nerve or nerve fibre to the one
that connects the central nervous system with muscles. This
in turn enables the movement of the body. To enhance the
ability of the body to act, react and interact, it is necessary
to exercise the muscles and nerves. In other words, physical
development of a person is the foremost objective of physical
education. Physical education is related to physical activities,
which when performed, have an effect on various organ
systems of our body. It leads to the improvement in size,
shape, efficiency, etc., of various organs of these systems.
An individual who is having good motor movements may
perform daily routine work very effectively without undue

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 Physical Education 5

fatigue and laziness and feels confident in life. It also promotes

sound health which enables an individual to become a valuable
asset for the society and nation.

Fig. 1.3: Children participating in physical activities and excercise

Motor development can be possible through participating

in different kinds of physical activity programmes like, games,
sports, yoga, dance, etc.

Mental Development
Mental development refers to the ability to think and solve
problems effectively. Knowledge received by participating in
physical activities about body movement, health, fitness,
sanitation, nutrition, disease prevention and others
may contribute to an individual’s mental development.
A mentally developed person takes wise decisions at
the right time and in a right spirit. Mental development
objectives deal with a person’s ability to think correctly,
act wisely and skillfully in all situations of life. Various
activities conducted in physical education classes not
only require physical strength but also need mental
alertness, deep concentration, and precise movements.
In this manner, physical education also sharpens the mind
and makes it more efficient.

Emotional Development
This refers to a psychological situation of body and mind.
Emotion is a drive to do something. Emotion covers

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 6 Health and Physical Education - XI

experiences, such as, fear, anger, joy, love, sorrow, etc. It

Activity 1.2
Prepare a project on the status is usually a feeling which has specially become intense.
of various facilities available in For example, joy means intense pleasure. A child needs to
your district related to various develop confidence, a feeling of belongingness, and eliminate
games and sports. Critically negative feelings through participating in games, sports,
analyse how these can be shared
yoga, etc.
effectively.

Social Development
This objective of physical education refers to the feeling of
belongingness, adjustment of group living, social poise, social
relationships, and social adjustment. Physical activities
provide such opportunities to the children to fulfil basic
needs like, recognition, self-respect, belongingness, and
love. When these needs are fulfilled, the individual becomes
a well-adjusted social person. While participating in physical
activities including games and sports, an individual acquires
social qualities, such as, cooperation, friendship, courtesy,
empathy, team spirit, democratic living, sportspersonship,
etc. These qualities are essential for social development.

Moral Development
Every game has a set of rules and regulations and it is the
duty of each player to obey them. The players know that
disobedience of any rule is a moral crime that can result in
their expulsion from the team. Therefore, obedience of these
rules becomes the moral duty of each player. Participation
in games helps in moral development and equips them to
differentiate between right and wrong with honesty. Hence,
physical education also plays an important role in the moral
development of a person.

Need andImportance of Physical Education

in the Modern Society
The modern researches have proven that the views of Greek
philosophers Aristotle and Socrates in considering athletics as
complete education is correct. It has been scientifically observed
that adequate exercise of limbs is essential for disciplining
one’s mind in the right spirit. Regular exercises and playing
games help the body and mind to deal with the modern
day silent killers, such as, stress, strain, worry, anxiety and
tension. The need and importance of physical education may be
understood in several ways which describes the different kinds
of requirements for various sections of the society.

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 Physical Education 7

Health and Physical Education must continue to be a

compulsory subject from the primary, to the secondary
stages, and as an optional subject at the higher secondary
stage. However, it needs to be given equal status with other
subjects, a status that is not being given at present. In
order to transact the curriculum effectively, it is essential
to ensure that the minimum essential physical space and
equipment are available in every school, and that doctors
and medical personnel visit school regularly.
It should be possible to organise the utilisation of school
space, at the block level at least, for special sports
programmes both before school hours and after school
hours to enable children with special talents for sports
to come here for special training and during vacation
periods. It should also be possible to develop these sports
facilities so that many more children can avail of these
for leisure-time sports activities and engage with team
games such as basketball, throwball, volleyball, and local
forms of sports.
Source: The National Curriculum Framework 2005

The need and importance of physical education for every

section of people in the modern society can be understood
from the points given below —
•• Optimum development of child’s physical growth
•• Intellectual development
•• Emotional development
•• Social development
•• Personal development
•• Character building
•• Physical fitness
•• Development as a disciplined citizen of the country
•• Neuromuscular development
•• Cultural development
•• Developing leadership qualities
•• Healthy and safe environment
•• Development of national integration
•• Better international understanding
Sports and games play an important role in the
development of human personality. They are no less
important than food and fresh water. It is interesting to note
that there are many nurseries and training centres for games
in most of the developed countries.

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Activity 1.3 Misconceptions about Physical Education

•• Prepare a list of common and Sports
myths prevailing in your
surroundings by discussing Lack of understanding about the importance of physical
with your parents, education results into misconceptions and disbelief.
grandparents, and other There are a number of misconceptions related to physical
community members. education. Some people do not agree that it is a part of the
•• Compare with list given. educational process. The fact is that, skill, fitness, performance,
•• Discuss with your classmates and health are parts of physical education. It addresses the
“How to remove these educational and developmental values that are the results of
myths?” participation in physical activities. The participation in these
activities develops social or co-operative attitude, good character
and a balanced personality. However, when one fails to recognise
this holistic approach of physical education, it results in a
number of misconceptions. People in the society are either less
aware about the advantages of taking part in physical education
activities or are left behind with the pace of modern educational
system. Thus, it becomes important for all of us to understand
what we think and how the modern world is looked at by educated
and disciplined people of the society. Some of the common myths
associated with physical education are given below.

Physical Education
•• is all about physical training only.
•• is only about the participation in games.
•• is about building body.
•• is performing drill.
•• is play.
•• has poor social status.
•• has no job or career prospects.
•• leads to indiscipline.
•• is wastage of money only.
•• has rest periods hence, no physical or mental earning.
•• is taken-up by left out group only.

Terminology used in Physical Education

Game
It is often considered as an
activity played by more than
two people combined as a team.
There are defined objective, time,
space, rules, and limited pattern
of behaviour, the outcome of
which is to determine a winner
or loser. Fig. 1.4: Children playing football

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 Physical Education 9

Sport
Sport is a wider term which acts as an institution involving
all physical activities, individual skills, governed by a set of
rules and often taken competitively.

Sports Training
Planned and systematic process of preparation of sportsperson
or athlete for better performance, which is based on scientific
principles, is called sports training. It improves specific fitness
and sports specific skills, techniques, and tactics.

Gymnastics
Gymnastics include different exercises, without apparatus,
and with apparatus. These exercises involve arm, leg,
hand and trunk movements as well as performing jumping
movements, and maintaining balance. It constitutes agility
exercises done on various kinds of gymnastic apparatus like,
parallel bars, horizontal bar, beam, pommel horse, ring, etc.

Fig. 1.5: Players performing gymnastics

Physical Culture
In some of the countries, physical education is considered as
‘physical culture’. The culture is synonymous to our social
belief, custom, and religious way of treating the body as temple.
It also includes the concept of making the body beautiful
by developing shaped muscles. Weight-training devices, and
sharp and high intensity exercises are some of the means,
used for muscle training so that the body looks muscular
and in good shape.

Drill
Drill includes different kind of body exercises for developing
good posture of standing, walking, fighting, etc., and

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 10 Health and Physical Education - XI

disciplining the body and mind. In games and sports, drill is

the process of repetition of activities done with beats, music,
or verbal order.

Health Education
Health Education includes the knowledge about diseases,
health, rest, sleep, sanitation, pollution and psychosomatic
disorder. A healthy person is an asset for the society whereas
an unhealthy person is a liability.

Recreation
Recreation includes playing, singing, camping, hiking,
reading, gardening, dancing, and many more pleasure-giving
activities. Through recreation one can regain the lost energy,
vigour, and spirit. After hard work one can engage in different
kinds of recreational activities for releasing mental stress
and get rid of fatigue.

Career Options in Physical Education,

Sports and Allied Areas
There are many job opportunities and open career options with
broader choices in Physical Education. A sports career in India,
which was considered less lucrative in the past, has now become
one of the options for students. Sometimes the students take
interest in this profession merely for adventure and a tension
free life. Individuals, who demonstrate peak performance in
sports and physical education, follow a set of mental processes
that allow them to produce excellent results consistently.
These performance strategies translate into a specific set
of mental skills. By learning these skills, effectiveness and
performance can be enhanced. There are key strategies that
lead to high performance in the field of sports—through the
training of mental practices, individuals can accelerate their
development and improve their performance. Self confidence is
one important key to success. For example, physical education
programme helps to boost one’s self confidence. To make a
career in physical education, one should start by setting
modest goals that are meaningful but attainable. Some of the
options given here are broad areas that are often selected by
the students undergoing various physical education courses
as a choice with higher success rate.

Teaching or Coaching
Career in sports has been mainly focused on teaching and
coaching in schools, colleges, and universities. Teachers
are involved in teaching and organising physical activity

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 Physical Education 11

programmes based on theory and practical syllabi of health

and physical education, extramural and preparation of teams.
Coaches are potentially sportspersons or players with talent
in fundamentals, techniques, and rules of competitive sports
or games. Coaches are responsible for overall preparation,
and performance of teams. Coaches are also employed in
government run centres, sporting clubs, holiday resorts,
etc., for special sports. Some may also be self-employed in
their own sports training centres.

Health, Sports and other Related Careers

Nowadays, the interest of youth in health and particularly
fitness has been increasing. The demands for specialists
therefore, in health-related career have also increased. The
major career categories in health are —

Physical fitness instructor

These are better known as gym or aerobics instructors. They
supervise people in games, fitness clubs, sports centre, health
clubs, etc. They prepare the routine of exercise according to
age, gender and level of fitness of the person. Instructors
make sure that the equipment are correctly set up. They
work in consultation with the dieticians, physiologists,
psychologists, doctors, etc.

Dietician
They plan the diet for a player or a team so that they eat
proper and balanced food according to their physical work.
In the present time, dieticians are considered important part
of modern spa, and beauty parlours and also in hospitals
and health centres.

Sports Medicine Physician

The sports related injuries are different in nature. Sport
Medicine Physician can give better treatment to sportsperson
after understanding the seriousness of sports related
injuries. A good sportsperson can become a better physician.
It is the duty of the sports medicine physician to cure the
sportsperson so as to enable him/her to come back in the
mainstream. There is thus, a tremendous scope for this
sports career.

Sports Administration Related Careers

An administrator in sports can be a Sports Director, Sports
Officer, Head of Department, General Manager, Executive
Director, Supervisor, etc. The areas that they take care of
are related to finance, scheduling equipment, facilities,
public relations, and many more. They also undertake the

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responsibility of implementing curriculum, monitoring

Activity 1.4
Collect some more information staff, office, managing sports information, scholarship and
about careers in Health and promotion, supervision of coaches and various competitions,
Physical Education. organising conferences, etc. An administrator must have
leadership qualities, should be well organised, willing to
accept responsibilities, hard working and honest.

Performance Related Careers

Performance related careers in sports are of two types, one
is professional performers in sports, and second is sports
officials. The sports performers play as an individual or in team
for organisations on contract or on pay-roll basis either for
a specified period, or otherwise. Sports officials like, referee,
umpire, judges, etc., officiate the match or tournament on
contract or on pay-roll basis either for a specified period or
otherwise. Every sportsperson wants to be a professional
performer but only a few succeed in earning a living.
The dream of every sports person is to be a professional
performer like Dhyan Chand, Milkha Singh, Sachin Tendulkar,
Mary Kom, Vishwanathan Anand, Mahesh Bhupati, Sakshi
Malik, etc. For officiating, no educational qualification or
degree is required, only a written and practical examination
conducted by the state and national sport organisation of a
specific sport has to be cleared.

Communication Related Careers

A wide range of career opportunities are available in
sports communication as variety in the means and
methods of communication are the demands of the society.
Sports communication includes sports writer, sports
editor, sports publisher, sports photographer, painter/
artist, broadcaster, sports information director, sports
statisticians, etc.

Sports Writers
There is a separate section devoted to sports in all the
newspapers, magazines, periodicals, bulletins, etc. For
writing these sections, sports writers are required. The job
of sports writer is to cover the stories related to the vast
world of sports on the basis of performance, team selection,
policies, management, results, and other related matters to
write sports column.

Sports Publishers
Sports Publishers are responsible for all the publication
units including the quality, content, sales and promotion
of books, etc. As there are various textbooks, coaching

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 Physical Education 13

books, sports magazines, audio-visual material, journals,

periodicals, etc., so publication also has reputed value as a
career in sports.

Photography
As the scope of photography in sports is not very vast, people
may opt for it as a part-time/full-time career in sports.
Individuals with artistic ability, skill and experience in painting
and drawing sports events can choose this profession.

T.V. or Radio Reporters

Sports are a valuable section on broadcast and telecast.
Sports events are broadcasted and telecasted to be heard
on every radio-station and can be seen on T.V. channels
respectively. Because of high demands of sports, provision
of special T.V. sports channels are there. The duties of
broadcasters are to present sports programmes on T.V. or
radio live from the stadium or playfield. They also present
commentary summaries, reviews and sports news on T.V. and
radio. Sometimes they anchor special sports programmes,
do interactions or take interviews of sports personalities.

Sales and Management Related Careers

This profession includes sports marketing executives, sports
events managers and sports competition organisation
associated with sports equipment, material, etc. The ability
to interact with customers and to convince them that the
product or event is suitable to their needs, is the base for
becoming a successful sports manager. Knowledge of the
product and organisation of various types of tournament
and championship are pre-requisite for these jobs. This job
involves high responsibility and alertness, so long hours in
the service are required.
Physical education also helps in opting for other careers
such as defence, para-force, and police service, etc.

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 Assessment
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Define physical education and discuss the importance of
physical education in daily life.
2. What are the main objectives of physical education? Explain
any four in detail.
3. What are the misconceptions about physical education and
sports?
4. What are the career options in physical education?

II. Short Answer Questions

1. Define recreation.
2. What do you understand by the term ‘Drill’?
3. Write the names of apparatus used in Gymnastics.
4. What are the differences between games and sports?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. Games include different teams where the number of players

is______________.
2. In some of the countries physical education is considered
as ____________________.
3. After hardwork, one can engage in any kind of_______________
activities for releasing mental stress and get rid of fatigue.
4. Drill includes different kinds of body______________for
developing good posture of standing, walking and fighting, etc.

IV. State whether True or False

1. The concept of physical education is new.

2. In modern times Physical Education is one of the most exciting
and dynamic subjects in its history.
3. Charles A. Bucher has defined Physical Education as an
“Integral part of total educational process’’.
4. Gymnastics includes different exercises, without apparatus
and with apparatus.
5. Physical education does not promote emotional development
of a person.

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 Understanding Health

2
Health is commonly understood as a state of absence of
disease. This definition of health is focused only on the ability
of the body to function, that may be disrupted from time to
time by diseases. However, this definition of health is partial
and covers only the physical aspect. In this perspective, the
meaning of health has been changing over a period of time.
In 1948, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined it
comprehensively as “a state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity.” Health is now referred to as a state of physical,
mental, intellectual, emotional and social health and well-
being. It is the ability to adapt and manage physical, mental
and social challenges throughout life. Moreover, it is also
the ability of a person to handle stress, acquire skills, and
maintain positive relationships. It is widely acknowledged
that health is influenced by biological, socio-cultural,
economic, and environmental forces. Access to basic needs
like, food, safe drinking water supply, housing, sanitation,
health services and availability of positive socio-cultural,
economic, and environmental settings influence the health
status of a population.

Health and its Dimensions

Health, indicates a sound body and a sound mind. It is
multidimensional — the dimensions being physical, mental,
emotional, social, spiritual and environmental. All these
dimensions are interrelated with one another.

Physical Dimension
Physical dimension refers to the ability of a human body
to function properly. It involves exercises, healthy habits,
balanced diet, bone health, and body mass index. We

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 16 Health and Physical Education - XI

can maintain a healthy body by taking proper nutrition,

exercising, and avoiding harmful habits such as substance
abuse. It is better to consume nutritious foods and beverages
that enhance good health rather than those which impair it.
Physical wellness is the ability to maintain the quality of life
that allows one to get through daily activities without undue
fatigue or physical stress. Optimal physical health consists
of building physical strength, flexibility, coordinative ability,
and endurance while taking safety precautions including
medical self-care and appropriate use of a medical system,
as well as protecting oneself from injuries and harm. It
involves personal responsibility, disease prevention, and
care for minor illnesses and also knowing when professional
medical attention is needed. Being physically fit and feeling
physically well often leads to the psychological benefits of
enhanced self-esteem, self-control, determination and a
sense of direction.

Mental Dimension
Mental health refers to the cognitive aspects of health that
includes thinking, reasoning, remembering, imagining, and
learning words. Cognitive aspect is related to the processes
of perception, memory, judgment, and reasoning, as
contrasted with emotional processes. It refers to the ability of
individuals to use their brain and think, process information
and act properly. It is our capacity to master new skills,
embrace humour, and creativity. A sound mental health
plays an important role in shaping our daily activities. It
helps individuals in making a complete person. To stimulate
our mental health, we can engage in various activities such
as questioning critically, involving ourselves in creative, and
problem solving activities. Mental health leads to an increase
in self-esteem, and thereby leads to confidence in social
situations. A sound mental health depends primarily on
increased physical activities. Engaging in games and sports
regularly keeps us mentally active.

How can we have good mental health?

•• Eat healthy food: There are strong links between what
we eat and how we feel. A ‘healthy diet’ is one that has
enough essential nutrient, and provides the right amount
of calories to maintain a healthy weight.
•• Express your feelings: Whenever we are feeling stressed,
then talking about our feelings helps us to stay in good
mental health.

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 Understanding Health 17

•• Play games and sports you like: What do you love to

play? Playing Hockey, Cricket, Chess or any other game
or doing an activity you enjoy or you’re good at, boosts
your self-esteem. It helps you to concentrate, sleep, look,
and feel better. Enjoying through games helps in beating
stress also.
•• Get enough sleep: Every day our body needs time to
rest and heal. Sleep for about eight hours is must for all,
especially for children.
•• Spend time with friends and family: Friends and family
can make you feel cared for. They can offer different views
to your problems, and the tension you are feeling. This
helps in better understanding of the problem or situation
and thus in solving the problems.
•• Ask for help: None of us is perfect in all aspects. We all
have problems when things go wrong or get tired at times.
If you feel that you cannot cope up with the situation, and
things are getting too much, then do not hesitate to ask
for help.
•• Do not consume tobacco products or alcohol:
Tobacco and alcohol result in illness in proportion to the
consumption. Learn to say ‘No’ to your friends in such
situations.

Social Dimension
This dimension of health refers to the ability of individuals
to interact with others in the socio-cultural environment.
A sound social health helps us in maintaining healthy
relationships with others. Good social health includes not
only having positive relationships but behaving appropriately
and maintaining socially acceptable standards. It focuses
on creating and maintaining healthy, and supportive
relationships with family, neighborhood, friends, peers,
teachers, and community members. Good communication
skills help in establishing sound relationships. These
relationships impact a person’s life the most.
Social health also affects the other dimensions of
health in many ways. A bad social life, many a times, lead
individuals to question their purpose in life or feel isolated
and unwanted. Such feelings can de-motivate individuals
from physical activity and push them towards depression.

Emotional Dimension
Emotional dimension of health is another important ability
to cope, adjust and adapt to our environment. People with

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 18 Health and Physical Education - XI

positive mindset tend to be more successful. It is a commonly

Activity 2.1
•• List actions and activities to used statement that ‘individuals become the type of person
make ‘greener’ lifestyle, at like the friends they have’. It means that the friends and
home and at school. other people who live together in the immediate environment
•• Review and find out how play a very important role in personality development and
far you are able to achieve emotional wellness. Some of the techniques which help in
the objective of becoming having stable emotional health include: reading inspirational
‘greener’.
books, setting goals, learning how to deal with setbacks,
•• Motivate others to adopt
life style which promote
acquiring characteristics such as hope, enthusiasm, and
greening the environment. positive thinking.

Spiritual Dimension
There are different belief systems that exist all around the
world. The spiritual beliefs will help the individuals discover
and pursue their own value and belief and a sense of overall
purpose in life. Generally, people often find their purpose
from a belief or faith system while others create their own
school of worship. A person who has a purpose in life is said
to be healthier than those who do not have it.
Spiritual health easily affects emotional and mental health
as having a purpose in life can help you to apply yourself
to achieving goals. Having a purpose in life can also help
people to maintain a proper perspective of life and overcome
adversity. Often people who are spiritual, meet together
regularly around their spiritual purpose, which helps to
improve their social health also.

Environmental Dimension
Environmental health inspires us to live a lifestyle that is
beneficial for our surroundings. It encourages us to live in
harmony with the nature by taking action to protect it. Our
environment consists of external and internal factors. Our
surroundings such as our habitat, occupation, pollution
levels at the places where we live and work constitute
our external environment. A healthier planet leads to
healthier inhabitants. The internal environment refers to
an individual’s internal structure in the form of genetic
composition, which is very crucial in determining the
health and wellness of human beings. Other environmental
factors which include our family, friends, neighbourhood,
community, habitat, all have an impact on our health.
The core principle of environmental wellness is respect for
nature and all the species living in it. Environmental wellness
does not mandate you to join a movement or organisation,
but it does encourage you to practise habits that promote
a healthy environment. When you become environmentally

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 Understanding Health 19

aware, you will be able to realise how your daily habits affect
the environment. Improving environmental wellness is simple
and results in a more balanced lifestyle.

Health Needs of Children, Adolescents and

Differently Abled
Health of the children is a critical concern for all societies,
since it contributes to their overall development. The age
group category of children includes toddlers, infants,
and kids in the age-group up to 9 years, adolescents in
the age-group from 10 to 19 years, and differently abled
belonging to both the age-groups. Health, nutrition, and
education are important for the overall development of
the children, so that they grow as empowered members
of the society and responsible citizens of the nation.
The criticality of health concerns of all the groups need
multi-dimensional response, depending upon their specific
age, and socio-economic and educational status of the
parents.

Health Needs of Children

Childhood is the stage during which the foundation of healthy
life is laid. The physical, mental and social health needs are
significant for the overall development of the child. The basic
health needs of the children belonging to pre-natal, post-
natal and childhood stages are related to food and nutrition,
immunity, positive family and social environment. Children
in India continue to lose their lives to vaccine preventable
diseases, such as, measles, which remains the biggest killer.
The major cause of mortality and morbidity among children
is a group of disease conditions like, diarrhoea, pneumonia
and fevers which occur due to lack of immediate treatment by
the family and non-availability of adequate health services.
Besides, poor living conditions and lack of response to basic
needs of children are also responsible factors. Even those
who survive these hurdles, by the time they reach school,
they may be underweight, malnourished, and susceptible to
multiple illnesses.
There is an urgent need to adopt a multi-pronged strategy
to ensure adequate response to the health needs of children.
Besides ensuring availability of quality health and nutrition
services, reducing mortality rates, and improving access to
education and skill development should be given priority.
All children must undergo the entire course of vaccination
and this process must continue. To attain these goals,
it is essential to make the people aware about the urgent

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 20 Health and Physical Education - XI

need of all the age-groups and ensure that these needs are
responded well in time and health, and nutrition services
are utilised. The process of governance must make sure that
these services are availed by all including the marginalised
sections of the society.

Health Needs of Adolescents

Fig. 2.1: Snapshot of adolescent health in India

Adolescents constitute about one-fifth of India’s population.
As you have already learnt, adolescence is a period of
transition from childhood to adulthood and a critical period
for the development of self-identity. The process of acquiring
a sense of self-awareness is linked to physical, physiological,
mental, and emotional changes. It is also a phase of learning to
negotiate the social and psychological demands of being young
adults. Responsible handling of issues like, independence,
intimacy and peer group dependence are concerns that need
to be recognised, and appropriate support be given to cope
with them. Adolescents are confused about sudden changes
taking place in their bodies and minds. As a result, they
face many doubts regarding numerous concerns, and health
related uses. Many adolescents experience tension, and
stress and respond differently on different occasions.
There are concerns about growing too tall or not gaining
height, growth and development of body parts, and so on.
Worrying about pimples on the face is a common problem
during adolescence.
Adolescence is also a time when there is a temptation to
experiment, which leads them to indulge in various negative
behaviours. The process of distancing from parents and
dependence on peer group also lands them in confusing
situations. No doubt the peer group provides positive impact
but quite often it leads them to adopt negative behaviour. The
most common is drug abuse. As a result, there are chances of
their becoming addicted to smoking and various kinds of drugs.
Initially, the young people take these for fun, relaxation, or

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 Understanding Health 21

to get out of tension and stress. But later there are higher
Activity 2.2
chances of one becoming addicted to these. Unfortunately, Discuss with your classmates
the earlier one gets into the habit of substance misuse, the —how and why excessive use
greater are the chances of addiction, and serious diseases of social networking site is
like cancer, and heart diseases during adult age. depressing and self harming?
Major health needs and problems among adolescents
include nutritional disorders (malnutrition as well as obesity),
substance abuse, high risk sexual behaviour, stress, mental
disorders, and injuries (including road traffic injuries, Do You Know?
suicides, and different types of violence). Many of these About 2.21 per cent of the total
are precursors of communicable and non-communicable population of India is ‘disabled’.
diseases (including mental disorders), and injuries, which The highest number of disabled
persons in India is from the
inflict high morbidity, mortality, disability, and economic
State of Uttar Pradesh. At all
burden on adolescents, their households, and health India level, 7.62 per cent of the
systems. Moreover, the addiction to internet, especially to disabled persons belong to the
social media, has been increasingly keeping them under age group of 0–6 years. Focus
great stress, leading them to undergo depression and self- today is on inclusive education.
harm. They need help and guidance to pass over this period Source: Census 2011
smoothly. They need counseling and healthcare advice, as
well as treatment.

Health Needs of the Differently Abled

You would have observed that the differently-abled children
are often hidden in their homes. Usually this type of
discrimination starts in the family. It exists at various
levels such as, education centers, work places, and in
healthcare facilities and so on. Due to the stigma associated
with disabilities, the families also become the victims of
discrimination. As a result, the differently-abled children
face chronic ill health, socio-economic burden, and isolation.
According to World Health Organisation, disability is an
umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations,
and participation restrictions. Disability is thus not just a
health problem but is a complex phenomenon, reflecting the
interaction between features of a person’s body and features
of the society in which they live.
The National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (2006)
recognises that the persons with disabilities are valuable
human resources for the country. It seeks to create an
environment that provides equal opportunities, protection of
their rights and full participation in society. The 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development has also highlighted about the
needs and issues of ‘Persons with disabilities’ and ‘Persons
in vulnerable situation’.
Therefore, taking care of physical, social and emotional
well-being of such a population is a major challenge.
Many policies and welfare schemes have been planned in the

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field of education and health to overcome various difficulties

Activity 2.3
•• Prepare a chart on the faced by the differently-abled individuals and their families.
Disability Act 2016. The focus is on ‘inclusive development’ for the welfare of
•• Observe your surroundings differently-abled persons which is an important milestone
and analyse how far the act towards sustainable development.
has been implemented.
•• List the actions you can Health Status of Children in India at a Glance
take and share with your
classmates. •• At all India level, the sex ratio in the age groups 0–6 years
•• Collect information about and 0–14 years are 918 and 916 respectively whereas it
various programmes and is 943 for all ages and also is not favourable to females in
schemes for differently-abled many of the States and UTs.
individuals and share it in the •• As per Sample Registration System (SRS)-2016, there has
morning assembly. been substantial reduction in the Infant Mortality Rate
(IMR) at all India level from 46 in 2011 to 34 in 2016.
Among the bigger States and UTs, IMR varies widely from
10 in Kerala to 47 in Madhya Pradesh. The IMR for female
has been reported at 36 against 33 for male.
•• Under-five Mortality Rate (U5MR) estimated at 39 for 2016
at all India level varies significantly in rural (43) and urban
areas (Data). Among the bigger States and UTs, U5MR
varies from 11 in Kerala to 55 in Madhya Pradesh.
•• At all India level, 28 per cent of children had mild anaemia,
29 per cent had moderate anaemia, and 2 per cent had
severe anaemia in 2015–16.
•• National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) (2015–16) shows
that at all India level, 38 per cent of children under five
years of age are stunted (too short height for their age)
which is an improvement from 48 per cent in 2005–06. It
is higher among children in rural areas (41%) than that of
urban areas (31%).
•• Five states with higher prevalence of stunting in children
under five years age are Bihar (48%), Uttar Pradesh (46%),
Jharkhand (45%), and Meghalaya (44%), whereas it is
lowest in Kerala and Goa (20% in each).
•• At all India level, 21 per cent of children under five years
age are wasted. It varies in the range of 6 per cent in
Mizoram to 29 per cent in Jharkhand.
•• The prevalence of anaemia among children in age group
6–59 months is highest among children in Haryana (72%)
and lowest in Mizoram (19%).
•• At all India level, 62 per cent of children of age 12–23
months received all basic vaccinations at any time before
the NFHS -4, and 54 per cent received all basic vaccinations
by 12 months of age.

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 Understanding Health 23

•• National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data reveals that

the rate of crime against children (below 18 years of age)
has increased to 24 per lakh children in 2016 from 21.1
in 2015.
•• Under Protection of Children from Sexual Offences
Act, 2012 (POCSO) crimes reported are as high as 34.4
per cent of the total crime against children.

Addressing the Health Needs of Children

Institutions, teachers and reviewers play an important role
in addressing the health needs of children. These are
discussed below.
Role of Schools
Schools play a vital role in promoting the health and safety of
young people and helping them to establish lifelong healthy
behaviours. It is easier and more effective to develop healthy
behaviours during childhood than trying to change unhealthy
behaviours during adulthood. Many health risks behaviours
are often established during childhood or adolescence and
continued into adulthood. The following are the leading
causes of diseases, death, disability, and social problems:
•• Inadequate physical activity
•• Unhealthy diet
•• Substance misuse (Tobacco, alcohol and other drug use)
•• Stress
•• Behaviours that contribute to unintentional injury and
violence
•• Risky behaviours that can result in HIV infection, other
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and unintended
pregnancy.
Regular physical education classes can help children to
develop a healthy lifestyle.
Role of Teachers
Teachers have a very important role to play during the period
spent in schools. They need to understand and address the
diverse needs of their students through innovative teaching
methods, counseling and referral to specialists wherever
required. They need to work closely with the parents and
community on sensitive issues and the emerging challenges
being faced by the children. The teacher can plan various need-
based health promotion programmes for the empowerment
of children such as, engaging in games and sports, physical
activities, curricular and extra-curricular activities, nutrition
education programmes, and preventive measures for substance
misuse.

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 24 Health and Physical Education - XI

Role of Adolescent-friendly Health Services

The children during adolescence are usually considered
a healthy cohort. They generally do not have any medical
problem. They just want to have some more information or
knowledge about some of the concerns that may be troubling
their mind. Often they do not get any proper answer for their
concern and get frustrated and feel lost. They can easily be
misled, and hence get into wrong habits and adopt risky
behaviours.
Adolescents are often quite reluctant to share many of
their problems with parents, family members and teachers.
They feel scared, ashamed or shy to discuss their problems
with them since they believe that these people will get upset
and will not be sensitive to their concerns. That is why,
we need to encourage them to speak about their personal
concern to someone whom they trust.
One of the emerging health needs of the adolescents
is accessibility and availability of health services for
various health issues. The healthcare workers can play an
important role in making the services adolescent-friendly
and encouraging them to use the health services more often.
These services are provided by trained healthcare workers in
adolescent-friendly health centres. These centers are being
Activity 2.4 established by the government in the form of adolescent-
Does your school provide
friendly health clinics. The adolescents feel shy and are
training to be a peer facilitator?
If not, please discuss it with
reluctant to use health services. Some of the reasons are lack
your class teacher. Ask your of privacy or confidentiality, lack of patience and sensitivity
school to take up the training of among the health workers, and also lack of friendly behaviour
peer group educator/facilitator. from them.

Role of Peer Educator or Peer Facilitator

Training or providing education to some adolescents who
can help, educate or counsel other adolescents is emerging
as a powerful technique for addressing the health needs of
the adolescents. Such adolescents are called as ‘Peer Group
Facilitator/Educators’. They can help the adolescents to
remove their shyness to talk to their parents, family members
and teachers.
Training is given to the children of senior classes to
understand and guide to the best of their ability to address
the health needs of friends, peers, and other children in the
community. But at the same time, one should be aware of
one’s limitations while giving information regarding sensitive
issues and problems. Refer them to teachers or adolescent
friendly services for appropriate support. As peer facilitator,

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 Understanding Health 25

one can help the teacher in organising various activities

Activity 2.5
related to adolescents’ issues and concerns. You have read about lifestyle
diseases in your previous classes.
To be a peer group educator/facilitator, you should Can you list some of these? Also
discuss about their prevention.
•• be a good listener.
•• have knowledge about various health issues of the children
during adolescence age.
•• be friendly, influential and acceptable to adolescent
children.
•• be trusted and truthful.
•• use creative and innovative approach while dealing with
problems.
•• be non-judgmental.
•• practice confidentiality.
•• be a good role model in the school and society.

Lifestyle and Wellness

Everyone wants to look good and healthy. Maintaining
a healthy lifestyle requires commitment. Strong desire,
dedication and motivation play an important role in
accomplishing a healthy lifestyle.
We all make New Year’s resolution and set a goal to
change some things in a more meaningful manner in our
life. One aspect, which most of us think to modify in our life
relates to our body weight, physical and mental health, or
our personality. Many are able to stick to these goals, but
many of us fail also. It is difficult but not impossible to make
changes in lifestyle especially with regards to engaging in
regular physical activities or games.
With respect to our health, how do we sustain such goals
is the most difficult question. We need to work out many
strategies to motivate us to continue keeping health goals
in sight. So being regular with physical activities, games, or
sports that you wish to play or restricting eating junk food on
a weekly basis or on most of the days is the key to maintain
good physical and mental health.

Healthy Lifestyle and Health Goals

A healthy lifestyle does not become part of our life in an
instant. It is a series of choices we make every day consciously
and continuously. Initially, the changes of opting a healthy
lifestyle and undertaking wellness activities are difficult, but
if we persist, it becomes a part of our new healthy behaviour.
Therefore, it is important that healthy lifestyle activities are

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 26 Health and Physical Education - XI

adopted as part of our life from early childhood and adolescent

period itself. This helps to prevent or reverse the adverse
effects of lifestyle disorders such as, poor eating habits and
physical inactivity. In order to maintain health goals we can
try the following strategies:
Set positive health goals: Having positive health goals keeps
us motivated to follow goals with energy and enthusiasm.
For example, a student may decide, ‘I will skip dinner daily’.
This is a determination with a negative mind. This type of
goal does not train our mind for healthy lifestyle. Instead,
the goal could be, ‘I will eat healthy food’. This helps to make
healthy food choices. Similarly, one can decide, “I will firmly
say ‘NO’ to Tobacco use”. Such goals help us to reinforce
positive behaviours in the long term.
Set realistic goals: You would agree that many times we
set health goals but fail to achieve them. For example, we
may decide to exercise at least five days a week. But we have
not been able to do so for about two weeks now. Gradually
we lose track of our goal and we feel that now it’s difficult
to exercise. We slip into the attitude of either we follow it
every day or none. This is because we give up as we have
not been able to exercise for five days due to lack of time. In
such situations, we should not feel guilty of failure. Rather
we should re-visit and re-plan our goals related to regular
physical activity or playing games, considering the real
situations in our life.

Few Tips for Meeting Health Goals

Decide your health goal. Keep it easy for you to begin the
act. Keep them ‘SMART’. Think what problems could come in
your way and how you can overcome these problems.
S - SPECIFIC: I will do jogging.
M - MEASURABLE: For at least 30 minutes, daily or
three/four days in a week.
A - ACHIEVABLE: For five days in a week.
R - RELEVANT: I will reduce my body weight.
T - TIME BOUND: I will follow this schedule throughout
the year.
Given below are some other aspects related to health.
Write in the table below as per the ‘SMART’ goal to remain
healthy.

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 Understanding Health 27

Health Goals
My Smart Goals are Diet Physical Activity Any other
Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Relevant
Time-Bound
Weight

E fforts for A chieving H ealth G oals at

International Level—Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) 1 2 3 4
The Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) were related to basic development Promote Gender

issues. These were target-based, time Poverty and Hunger

Eradicate Extreme Achieve Universal Equality and Reduce
Primary Education Empower Women Child Mortality

bound and have been among the most

successful global goals. Among the list 5 6 7 8
of eight MDG goals, three were related
to health. These goals stressed the Improve Maternal Combat HIV/Aids,
Malaria, and Other
Ensure
Environmental Global Partnership

importance of health challenges at the Health Diseases Sustainability for Development

global level. Fig. 2.2: Millenium development goals

The SDGs are also, known as ‘Transforming our world:
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’. There are 17
Global Goals having 169 targets. SDGs also carry forward
the unfinished agenda of MDGs for continuity and to sustain
the momentum generated. These also aim to address the
challenges of inclusiveness, equity, and urbanisation.

Fig. 2.3: Global goals for sustainable development

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 28 Health and Physical Education - XI

The third SDG—‘ensure healthy lives and promote well-

being for all at all ages’—is wide-ranging as compared to the
health goals in MDGs that were limited to child and maternal
mortality and communicable diseases. The most important
feature of SDG 3 is universal health coverage which means
to provide ‘access to good quality health services without
financial hardship for people in need’.
The adolescents face challenges to their healthy
development due to a variety of factors. Some of these include
poverty, social discrimination, inadequate education, early
marriage, and child-bearing. It is speculated that investments
in adolescents will have an immediate, direct, and positive
impact on India’s health goals.

Project on Sustainable Development

Prepare a project on any one SDG and focus on the following:
• • Collect information about the targets set by UN for
that goal.

•• Describe what actions have been taken by our Government

related to that goal?
•• How can you contribute towards achieving the goal?
•• You can make a poster related to the theme of this SDG.
Place it in the classroom and discuss.

Contribution of Physical Education for

Promoting Health and Well-being
Physical health and mental health are inseparable. Daily
exercise is important for gaining, reducing, or maintaining
weight. Physical activities are fundamental for energy
balance, and weight control.
These are important lifestyle related health determinants.
Low levels of physical activity pose the greatest public health
problems in India and many countries around the world.
Many lifestyle diseases today are because of lack of
physical activities. Physical activity for a longer duration
leads to deterioration of the essential body functions. A
20–30 per cent increased risk in all-cause mortality was seen
in people with insufficient physical activity as compared to
those who were involved in at least 150 minutes of moderate-
intensity physical activity each week. (WHO, 2010)
Physical activity leads to maintenance or improvement
in the functioning of the organs. It provides essential stimuli
for most organs of the human body, in order to develop and
maintain their structures and functions of life.

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 Understanding Health 29

Physical activity is a key determinant of energy, balance,

and weight control. The beneficial effects of physical activity
go beyond controlling excess body weight. It reduces the
risk for cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, blood pressure,
and cancer. It improves the level of high density lipo
protein cholesterol, improves the control of blood glucose in
overweight people, even without significant weight loss.

WHO recommendations about physical activities

for children and adolescents aged 5–17 years
•• Should do at least 60 minutes from moderate to vigorous-
intensity physical activity daily.

•• Physical activities for more than 60 minutes daily will

provide additional health benefits.
•• Should include activities that strengthen music and bone,
at least thrice in a week.
For age group 18–64 years
•• Should do at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity
physical activity thoughout the week, or do at least 75
minutes of vigorous-intensity physical activity thoughout
the week, or an equivalent combination of moderate and
vigorous-intensity activity.

•• For additional health benefits, adults should increase

their moderate-intensity physical activity to 300 minutes
per week, or equivalent.

•• Muscle-strengthening activities should be done involving

major muscle groups on two or more days a week.

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 Assessment
I. Long Answer Questions
1. What are the common health needs of adolescents?
2. List all the dimensions of health and explain the emotional
and spiritual dimensions briefly.
3. What are MDGs, and SDGs? How are these important for
the world?
4. What are the benefits of engaging in regular physical activity
to the adolescents and the young?
5. Explain the physical and mental dimensions of health.
6. How can we get good mental health? Explain.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. List some reasons due to which the adolescents do not utilise

health services.
2. List important signs of stress and tension among the
adolescents.
3. What are the causes of lifestyle diseases?
4. What are the benefits of setting positive health goals?
5. How much population of India is disabled currently?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. Health is commonly understood as a state of absence of

___________ .
2. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) helped in focusing
global attention and resources towards basic ___________
issues.
3. Health indicates a sound ___________, and sound ___________ .
4. ___________ of health refers to the ability of individuals to
interact with others in the socio-cultural environment.
5. Health of the children is a critical concern for all societies,
since it contributes to their ___________ .
6. Schools play a vital role in promoting the health and safety of
young people and helping them to establish lifelong ___________.
7. ________________ is a key determinant of energy expenditure,
energy balance, and weight control.
8. The SDGs, known as ‘Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development’ is a set of ________________
Global Goals with ________________ targets between them.

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 Understanding Health 31

IV. State whether True or False

1. Health is influenced by biological, socio-cultural, economic,

and environmental factors.
2. Lifestyle diseases are —Typhoid, Malaria, and Tuberculosis.
3. Mental health refers to the cognitive aspects of health that
includes thinking, reasoning, remembering, imagining, and
learning words.
4. Childhood is the stage during which the foundation of healthy
life is laid.
5. Physical health and mental health are separable.
6. Not everyone wants to look good and healthy.

V. Skill based Questions

1. Find out the status of anaemia among the boys and girls in
your State. What schemes have been developed by your State
and the Government of India to tackle anaemia?
2. You have read about healthy diet in previous classes. Make
a diet chart for an adolescent boy in the age group of 14–17
years.
3. Make a project on lifestyle diseases. What are the major
lifestyle diseases? Discuss how one can prevent the lifestyle
diseases.
4. Find out the desired minimum levels of physical activities for
children, adolescents, and adults in different age groups.

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 Physical and
Physiological
Aspects of Physical
Education and
Sports 3
Physical and physiological aspects of physical education
and sports include growth and development, heredity and
environment, and differences between growth and development.
Factors affecting growth and development, and physical and
physiological changes occurring during developmental stages
are also discussed in this chapter. Physiological aspects include
activities like warming up, conditioning and cooling down,
effects of exercises on muscular, digestive, circulatory, and
respiratory systems. These are also the part of this chapter.

Growth and Development

The terms growth and development are used in various
aspects of life. Growth can be explained as becoming bigger
or larger. Growth is termed as a physical change, whereas
development includes physical, social, and psychological
changes. Development also means transformation or
improvement. Growth is related to quantitative improvement.
Development is related to quantitative as well as qualitative
improvement.

Growth
Growth refers to the process through which the body
increases in size and shape. It is a biological process. In
other words, growth means increase in mass. From the time
of conception, the process of growth starts in the mother’s
womb. The fertilised egg continues to grow and after birth
this process goes on till complete physical maturity is
obtained. Growth is thus, a quantitative increase in size
and shape. Physical growth refers to these changes in size
and shape of different organs of the body, each of which
normally proceeds at a different rate. Growth therefore, is a

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 Physical and Physiological Aspects ... 33

tangible biological process in which the organism gains in

terms of size, volume, height, and weight.

Development
Development is related with advancement and a progressive
series of qualitative changes. Development processes have
greater relationship with external factors than growth. Proper
development cannot take place unless external factors such
as nutrition, activity, and protection from diseases, and other
socio-cultural influences are well ensured. More specifically
development can be defined as the emerging and expanding
of capabilities of the individual. Growth forms the basis for
the development of functional capacities of the child. Without
proper growth, probably the required level of development
may not be achieved at a given stage. Acquisition of skills and
knowledge also indicates developmental process. Although
growth comes to end at some stage of life, development
continues till death.

Table 1: Difference between Growth and Development

Growth Development

Growth is visible. Development can be observed.

Growth is quantitative. Development is quantitative as well as
qualitative.
Growth comprises of height, Along with the physical changes,
weight, size, and shape of body cognitive, social, and emotional
and its organs. changes are also included.
It is due to cell division. It happens due to motor and mental
processes and their interplay.
Growth is for limited period. Development is a life long process.
Growth can be measured It can be observed by matured
objectively. behaviour.
Growth tells about one aspect of Development deals with all the aspects
the personality and is limited in of personality and has a vast scope.
scope.
Growth can be measured and Development is more related to
continues up to certain age of an qualitative aspect and difficult to
individual. measure for instance, mental ability,
academic achievement, etc.
The limits of the growth are set by Development is more affected by the
the heredity of an individual. environment available to the person.

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 34 Health and Physical Education - XI

Factors Affecting Growth and Development

The following factors influence the growth and development
of a living organism.

Heredity
Heredity is a biological process that plays an important role
in the transmission of physical and social attributes from
parents to their children. Height, weight and structure
of the body, colour of hair and eyes, intelligence,
aptitudes, and instincts of the child are highly influenced by
heredity.
The behaviour of a living organism is influenced by
two factors — heredity and environment. The biological or
psychological characteristics which are transmitted by the
parents to their children are known by the name of heredity.
It is a biological process of transmission of certain traits
of appearance and behaviour of the parents towards their
offsprings. Heredity traits are innate, they are present at birth.
The essential characteristics inherited by all human beings
are physical structure, reflexes, innate drives, intelligence,
temperament, etc.

Environment
Environment plays an important role in human life.
Psychologically a person’s environment consists of the sum
total of the stimulations (physical and psychological) which
is received from the conception. There are three different
types of environment, such as —
1. Physical: It consists of all outer physical surroundings.
These are both animate and inanimate which have to
be manipulated in order to provide food, clothing, and
shelter. Geographical conditions such as weather,
climate, and physical environment also have considerable
impact on an individual child.
2. Social: It is constituted by the society, individuals,
institutions, social laws, and customs that regulate
human behaviour. It refers to the physical and social
setting in which a child lives. It includes culture,
education, human settlement, etc.
3. Psychological: It is rooted in an individual’s reaction with
an object and situation. One’s love, affection, emotion,
and feeling of friendship and brotherhood will strengthen
human bond with one another.
Environment is the sum total of the surroundings in
which an individual has to live. It is generally divided into
two categories—natural and social. Natural environment

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refers to all those things and forces on, and around the earth
that are natural and influence a person. Social environment
means the environment which one sees around oneself
on acquiring consciousness in the society, i.e., languages,
religions, customs, traditions, means of communication,
means of luxury, family, school, social groups, etc.
Role of Heredity and Environment on Growth and
Development
•• Heredity is responsible for all the inborn traits, in-
stincts, emotions, and physical traits.
•• Environment is responsible for the growth and develop-
ment of the mental and social traits.
•• The two forces heredity and environment are com-
plementary to each other like seed and soil, ship and
wave, etc.
So growth and development are regulated by the surrounding
environment of a child, or where an individual lives.

Gender
Gender acts as an important factor in human growth and
development. Boys in general are taller, heavier in comparison
to the girls but girls demonstrate early physical growth during
adolescence than boys. The body composition and structural
growth of girls are different from boys.

Nutrition
Growth and development of the child depends on food
habits and nutrition. The human body requires an
adequate supply of calories for its normal growth and
this requirement varies with phases of development.
Malnutrition has an adverse effect on the structural and
functional development of the child.

Exercise
Physical exercises have positive impact on growth and
development of the children. The functional activities come
in the form of exercises of the body. It means growth through
use and atrophy (the reverse of growth) through disuse.
The growth of muscles from the normal functioning of
the child is a matter of common knowledge. It is a fact that
repeated physical activity builds the strength of the muscle.
The increase in muscular strength is mainly due to better
circulation and good stimulation supply of nutrients and
oxygen to the muscles. Play and other physical activities
provide for the growth and development of skeletal muscles.

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Hormones
Hormones are chemical substances and play an important role
in regulating the process of growth and development. There
are many endocrine glands present inside our body. Endocrine
glands are ductless glands and are situated in some specific
parts of the body. These glands make internal secretions locally
and produce one or more hormones.
Hormones are physiological substances having the
power to increase or decrease the activity level of the body
or certain organs of the body. For example, thyroid gland
releases thyroxin hormone which influences the skeletal
and muscular growth. In the absence of this hormone in
appropriate proportion, growth and development is affected.
Similarly, the adrenal glands are situated very close to
kidneys. These secrete adrenaline, which is responsible for
strong and rapid heartbeat, release of stored sugar from liver
and controls blood pressure. Gonads are repoductive glands,
which secrete hormones that affect our growth and sexual
behaviour.

Learning and Reinforcement

Learning is the most important and fundamental topic in
the whole science of psychology. Development consists of
maturation and learning. Learning includes much more
than school learning. Learning goes to help the child in the
physical, mental, emotional, intellectual, social, and attitudinal
developments. All knowledge and skill, all good and bad habits,
all acquaintances with people and things, all attitudes built up
while dealing with people and things are learned.
Reinforcement is an important factor in learning. Exercise
or activity is necessary for learning. It may be a motor activity,
as in playing on a musical instrument, or it may be a sensory
activity as in listening to a piece of music. Whatsoever, there
must be activity in some form. ‘Learning by doing’, is an
old psychological proverb. Now it is accepted that, activity
should be repeated till we get the desired results. So the
saying should be replaced as ‘learning by doing and getting
results’.

Pollution
According to studies, air pollution not only affects the
respiratory organs but also has harmful effects on human
growth. Indoor pollution or the pollution from housing
conditions can result in ill health which can negatively
impact human growth and development. For example, lead
exposure from deteriorated lead-based paint in older housing
can be very harmful. Lead is very harmful for children as

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it simply gets immersed into the growing bodies of children

and obstructs the normal development of brain and other
organs and systems.

Socio-economic Status
Socio-economic factors definitely have some effect. It has
been seen that children from different socio-economic
background vary in average body size at all ages. The families
with high income are primarily more advanced. The most
important reasons behind this are better nutrition, better
facilities, regular meals, sleep, and exercise. Family size also
influences the growth rate, as in big families with limited
income, sometimes children do not get the proper nutrition
and hence the growth is affected.

Physical and Physiological Changes During

Developmental Stages
Early Childhood
Early childhood is a time of tremendous growth across all
the areas of development. Physically, between birth and age
of three, a child typically doubles in height and quadruples
in weight. A typical three-year-old might have mastered
many skills, including sitting, walking, toilet training, using
a spoon, scribbling, and sufficient hand-eye coordination to
catch and throw anything. Between three and five years of age,
children continue to grow rapidly and begin to develop fine-
motor skills. By the age of five, most children demonstrate
fairly good control of pencils, crayons, and scissors. Gross
motor accomplishments may include the ability to skip and
balance on one foot. Physical growth slows down between
five and eight years of age, while body proportions and
motor skills become more refined. Physical changes in early
childhood are accompanied by rapid changes in the child’s
cognitive and language development.

Middle Childhood
Middle childhood has not been considered an important
stage in human development as compared to early childhood.
Physical development during middle childhood is less
dramatic than in early childhood or adolescence. Growth is
slow and steady until the onset of puberty, when individuals
begin to develop at a much quicker pace. The age at which
individuals enter puberty varies, but there is evidence of
a visible trend—the age at which puberty begins has been
decreasing over time. In some individuals, puberty may start

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as early as at age eight or nine. The onset of puberty differs

Do You Know?
About 2.21 per cent of the total across gender and begins earlier in females. The cognitive
population of India is ‘disabled’. development of middle childhood is slow and steady. Middle
The highest number of disabled childhood is a time when children can gain enthusiasm for
persons in India is from the learning, and work for achievement can become a motivating
State of Uttar Pradesh. At all factor as children work toward building competence and self-
India level, 7.62 per cent of the esteem.
disabled persons belong to the
age group of 0–6 years. Focus Adolescence
today is on inclusive Education.
The adolescent years are the second period of accelerated
Source: Census 2011
growth. The age between 12 and 18 years is generally
considered as ‘adolescence’. Individuals may gain a total of
15–20 centimeters in height and as much as 8–10 kg in weight.
The timing of this growth spurt is not highly predictable; it
varies across both, individuals and gender. In general, females
begin to develop earlier than males. Sexual maturation is
one of the most significant developments during this time.
Like physical development, there is significant variability in
the age at which individuals attain sexual maturity. Females
tend to mature at about age thirteen, and males mature at
about age fifteen. Adolescence is also an important period for
cognitive development.

Physiological Aspects of Activities

The body’s physiological responses to exercise occur in the
musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine, and
immune systems.
Types of Workout
Different types of
exercises will have
different effects
Warm-up
Sport
Conditioning Cool-down upon the muscles
exercised. Before
performing any exercise, or workout body has to be warmed
up properly for the efficient and effective functioning of
muscles.

Warm-up
Warming up is a short
time activity carried
out prior to any intense
or skilled activity. It
is important to warm
up before exercising,
which is usually done by including 10 to 40 minutes of light
activities, such as, slow jog, calisthenics, and stretching.
Players need warm-up as it increases body temperature and heart
rate, provide stretching, stimulate the entire body and major

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biomechanical functions, provide practice for basic movements,

and finally prepare the player or athlete for rigorous athletic
activity/training. Stretching results in increased blood flow and
prevents injuries to the muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Proper
warm-up exercises are not supposed to be done vigorously.
A warm-up generally consists of a gradual increase in intensity
of physical activity (a ‘pulse raiser’), joint mobility exercise, and
stretching, followed by the main activity. Warming up brings the
body to a condition at which it safely responds to nerve signals
for quick and efficient action. The objectives of the warm-up
are to increase heart rate, blood flow, internal temperature of
the muscles, respiratory rate, perspiration, and decrease the
viscosity of joint fluids.
A warm-up is intended to raise the body temperature and
prepare a player physiologically and psychologically to compete
in a game. Researchers have suggested that the optimum
duration of the warm-up period, should be between 15 to 20
minutes. This should consist of a gradual increase in intensity
until the player is working at 70 per cent of maximal heart rate.
A warm-up at this intensity has the effect of allowing an increase
in the range of movement of the joints and improving aerobic
performance. This means the player becomes more flexible and
movement efficiency improves. A warm-up produces a 2 to 3
degree rise in body temperature that can last for 45 minutes.

Fig. 3.1: General warm-up exercises

General Warm-up
It involves rhythmic movements using large muscle groups.
The general warm-up should consist of a light physical activity

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like walking, jogging, stationary bike, skipping, or easy

aerobics. It is also beneficial in improving neuromuscular
coordination of muscles that results in developing better
control on muscles. This warming up in turn increases the
body temperature resulting in reduced viscosity in muscle
fibres and thus helps in getting better results. Both the
intensity and duration of the general warm-up (or how hard
and how long), should be governed by the fitness level of the
participating athlete.

Specific Warm-up
It consists of specific exercises which are matched to the
main activity. In specific warm-up, some special sets of
exercises need to be performed which have a direct relation
with the activity to be carried out. In this part, the athletes
are specifically preparing their body for the demands of their
particular sport. During this part of the warm-up, more
vigorous activity should be employed. Activities should reflect
the type of movements and actions which will be required
during the sporting event. The set of activities and exercises
in specific warming up differ from sport to sport. These are
especially designed to meet the requirement of different
activities and sports.
For example in weightlifting, the athlete first needs to
perform some exercises with a bar for specific warm-up.
Similarly a basketball player practices layup shots or free
throws before the competition, this helps to improve their
coordinating abilities. Different games have their own specific
warm-up exercises. Some of them are described (along with
the games they concern) as follows:
1. Basketball — shooting, dribbling, lay-up shots, free
throws, shuttle run, dodging, etc.
2. Cricket — bowling, catching, batting, fielding, running,
etc.
3. Lawn Tennis — wall practice, service practice, passing
shots, knocking, etc.
4. Shot put — standing throws, putting the shot with both
hands, gliding practice with or without shot, shifting the
shot from left hand to right hand, and vice-versa.
5. Hockey — dribbling, rotation of stick, short passes, long
hits, scoop, stopping the ball with stick, etc.
6. Weightlifting — warming up rowing, high pull, snatch
squat, shoulder shrug, good morning exercise, etc.

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Fig. 3.2: Different types of warming up drills in basketball

Methods of Warming up
There are various methods of warming up for different games
and sports, the most commonly used are by —
1. exercise
2. massage
3. taking hot water bath
4. sipping some hot beverages.

Exercise
Most sets of warm-up exercises include four to five very
simple movements. The exercises that are included in this
method are walking, jogging, running, jumping, bending,
stretching exercises, etc.

Massage
Massaging of muscles is a good method to gain muscle tone
and is an effective means of warming up. It helps in the
removal of lactic acid and recovery from fatigue and healing
of minor injuries of muscles.

Hot Water Bath

This technique is very helpful in warming up and relaxation
of muscles after competition. A hot water bath is helpful in
raising body temperature which results in the activation of
muscles by increasing blood circulation in them.

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Hot Beverage
A small intake of tea, soup, coffee, or any other hot beverage
stimulates the body functions and helps in preparing the
body for competition. The drink should not be consumed in
large quantities as it may cause discomfort.
Things to take into account when performing the warm-up:
•• Always start with a continuous slow run to prepare the
body and increase temperature. Move all the parts of
your body, from head to toes.
•• Do not get tired; don’t make too many repetitions of each
movement and move the alternate parts of the body.
•• It has to be progressive, from low-intensity to high-
intensity exercises.
•• End up with some sprints or short, and fast races. It
should last for 10 –15 minutes, and your heart rate
should increase until 120 –140 beats/minute.

Sports Conditioning
Sports conditioning offers an edge over the competition.
The purpose of sports conditioning is to complement current
sports training. Sports conditioning is ideal for children
who strive for greater performance in any sporting activity.
It is meant to enhance an individual’s strength, balance,
coordination, flexibility, speed, and power, which can be
carried over into all the sports.
The conditioning programme is an important step in
injury prevention. Proper training can reduce the incidence
of injury in young athletes and also offers the teams a chance
to grow strong together. Sports conditioning helps to prepare
athletes for better application of their sport-specific skills.
Athletes of all levels and abilities need a more sports-oriented
training programme besides general fitness.
Sports conditioning should be directly related to the
type of sport in which the individual participates. A good
conditioning programme includes strength, power, speed,
quickness, agility, movement, skills, deceleration, balance,
reactivity, and anaerobic capacity.
The conditioning programme should be specific to the
sport and should meet the individual needs of the athlete.

Limber down or Cool down

Cool down is a session of light exercises that follows rigorous
physical activities. The session will usually include gentle
exercises, and stretching activities. Stretching is a major
factor in the procedure of cooling down. Stretching allows
the body muscles to build elasticity and repair from aerobic
and anaerobic exercises.

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Faster Faster Reduction

removal removal in the risk
of lactic of carbon of muscle
acid from dioxide from soreness
fast twitch muscle
muscle fibre tissue

Effects of a
cool down

Cooling down is an easy exercise, done after a more

intense activity, to allow the body to gradually transition to a
resting or near resting state.
The main aim of the cool down session is to promote
recovery and return the body to a pre-exercise, or pre-workout
level. During a strenuous workout, the body goes through a
number of stressful processes. For example, muscle fibres,
tendons and ligaments get damaged, and waste products
build up within the body.

Effects of Cooling down

1. Helps heart rate and breathing to return towards resting
levels gradually.
2. Helps avoid fainting or dizziness, which can result from
blood pooling in the large muscles of the legs when a
vigorous activity is stopped suddenly.
3. Helps to remove metabolites (intermediate substances
formed during metabolism) from muscles, such as
lactic acid.
4. Helps to prepare the muscles for the next exercise session,
whether it’s the next day or in a few days’ time.

Effects of Exercise on various Body Systems

Effects of Exercise on Cardiovascular System
Cardiovascular is the system of heart, blood vessels, and
blood. The effects of exercise on cardiovascular system are
summarised as —
Heart rate: The number of beats or contractions of
heart in one minute is called as heart rate. The number
of contractions ranges from 60 to 80 beats/minute.
However, 72 beats/minute is considered as the normal
heart rate. During exercise, the heart rate increases and
may range from 140 to 180 beats/minute depending
on the intensity of exercise.

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Stroke volume: The amount of blood pumped out by

Do You Know?
There are two main types each ventricle in each heartbeat is known as stroke
of muscle fibers; fast twitch volume. At rest, the stroke volume is around 70 ml/beat
muscle fibre and slow twitch for male and 50 ml/beat for female, during exercise the
muscle fibre. stroke volume increases.
Cardiac output: It is the amount of blood pumped
Activity 3.1 out by each ventricle of the heart in one minute.
Record the heart rate from It is the product of stroke volume and heart
radial artery or carotid artery rate. Endurance training results in increased
before and after completing 100 cardiac output through increased stroke volume.
metre sprint. Cardiac output increases directly with increased
exercise.
Cardiac output = Heart rate × Stroke volume
At rest it is around 5 litre/minute; during exercise the
increase may be about 4 to 5 fold.
Cardiac hypertrophy: Hypertrophy is the increase in
the volume of an organ or tissue due to the enlargement
of its component cells. Cardiac hypertrophy is referred
to as ‘athlete’ heart, which may occur after 7–10 years
of vigorous physical training.
Blood volume: The blood is a reddish fluid,
alkaline in reaction and is salty in taste. The
body of an adult contains about 5–6 litres of
blood which weighs 1/3rd of the total body weight.
Exercise produces the following effects.
•• The effect of exercise on blood volume depends on
the type and intensity of exercise.
•• During endurance training, the resting blood volume
increases approximately by 8 per cent.
•• Plasma volume in the blood increases by 12 per cent.
•• Increase in blood volume is known as hemodilution.
•• Increase in the number of blood vessels and their
size too.
•• By continuous and endurance training, capillarisa-
tion takes place.
Effects of Exercise on Respiratory System
The mechanism of inspiration and expiration is known as
respiration. It is controlled by medulla oblongata of the brain.
It helps in adequate supply of O2 and elimination of CO2 from
the body. The effects of exercise on respiratory system are
summarised as follows:
Tidal volume: It is referred to as the volume of air
inspired or expired per breath. During rest, it is around
500 ml; during exercise it increases; during maximal

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exercise, it increases 5 to 6 times above the resting

values.
Respiratory rate (F): It is also known as breathing
rate or breathing frequency. It is defined as the number
of breaths per minute. At rest, it is 12–20 per minute,
during exercise it increases to 2–3 times.
Minute ventilation or Pulmonary ventilation (PV): It
is commonly referred to as the breathing process of lungs
during inhalation and exhalation.
PV = Tidal volume × Respiratory rate
PV = (TV × RR)
During rest = 8 litres/minute
(PV changes with body size, it is smaller in female and
larger in male.)
During exercise: PV increases during exercising. The
initial rise in the ventilation is due to the increased
stimulation of the inspiratory centres caused by muscular
activity. The second phase of gradual increase in the
ventilation occurs due to an increase in the temperature,
and chemical changes in the arterial blood produced by
muscular activity.
Pulmonary diffusing capacity: The rate of diffusion of
gas between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood of the
lung capillaries is called pulmonary diffusing capacity.
During exercise the pulmonary diffusing capacity for
oxygen increases.
Hyperventilation: An increased breathing due to an
increased tidal volume or increasing respiratory rate or
both is referred to as hyperventilation.
Total lung capacity: The volume of air in the lungs at the
end of maximal inspiration is termed as total lung capacity.
During exercise the total lung capacity slightly
decreases.
Vital capacity: The maximal volume of air which is
forcefully expired after maximal inspiration is called
vital capacity.
Effects of Exercise on Muscular System
Muscle is a tissue which has the power of contraction. Skeletal
muscles are the main muscles for physical activities and
exercises. Several changes take place in the skeletal muscles
depending upon the type of training which an individual is
undergoing. The effects of exercise on muscular system are
summarised as follows.

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Muscular hypertrophy: Due to regular exercise,

training muscles become enlarged. Muscle fibers,
diameter and length increases. The total amount of
protein, glycogen and enzymes are increased.
Aerobic changes: By training, the amount of myoglobin
increases which helps for better supply of O2 to the
working muscles of the body. By training, muscles
produce energy by increased oxidation of glycogen. A
trained muscle uses more fat to supply more energy.
Anaerobic changes: These are the changes which help
in supply of energy in the absence of O2.
•• Increased lactic acid tolerance
•• Change in blood flow of the muscles
•• Change in red and white fibres of the muscles
Training and capillary supply: Endurance training
increases the capillary ratio (expressed as capillaries
per fiber). Training increases capillary density as well.
Influence on performance: As muscles become
stronger, they contract with less exertion during a
maximum voluntary force. A greater perfusion occurs,
and the exercise can be continued without involving the
anaerobic metabolism. This would help in delaying the
lactic acid accumulation and increase in the muscular
force. Strength, flexibility and endurance are increased
after the training.
Effects of exercise on Digestive System
There are many effects of exercise on the body that can
positively influence digestive system functioning. Regular
exercise makes our digestive system strong, speeding up
metabolism and preventing constipation. The short term
effects of exercise on the digestive system are —
Blood flow increases: Exercise can improve the blood
flow. Circulation of blood in all the areas of body also
includes the digestive track organs and enhance their
functioning.
Speedup metabolism: Exercise can boost our
metabolism. Exercise can slightly increase our resting
metabolic rate (the amount of calories our body burns
at rest). Metabolism is the process in which the food we
consume is converted into energy that is needed by the
body to survive.
Prevent constipation: Exercise helps in reducing
constipation by decreasing the time taken by food to
move through the large intestine, thus limiting the

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amount of water absorbed from the stool in to the

body. Exercise accelerates our breathing and heart
rate. This helps to stimulate the natural contraction
of the intestinal muscles which prevent constipation
naturally.
Prevent digestive diseases: Regular exercise helps
to prevent digestive diseases. Many diseases are
associated with stomach and if we exercise regularly,
that will strengthen our internal organs, such as liver,
stomach, intestine, various glands, etc., and prevents
us from digestive diseases.

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 Assessment
I. Long Answer Questions
1. What is the difference between growth and development?
Explain.
2. Define growth and development and explain the factors
affecting growth and development.
3. Explain the effects of exercise on muscular system.
4. Enlist and explain the effects of exercise on respiratory system.
5. Explain physical and physiological changes that take place
during different developmental stages.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. What is meant by cardiac output?

2. Write down the full form of MV.
3. What is Muscle Hypertrophy?
4. List the developmental stages of life.
5. What is general warm-up?
6. What is specific warm-up?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. Growth refers to the process through which body increases in

____________ and ____________.
2. There are ____________ major factors which directly or indirectly
influence the growth and development of a ____________.
3. Hormones play an important role in regulating the process of
____________ and ____________.
4. An increased tidal volume, or increased respiratory rate, or
both is referred to as ____________.
5. Heart rate ____________ during submaximal exercise and it is
caused due to increase in ____________ activity.
6. ____________ with high velocity movement develops exploring
strength or power.

IV. Match the Following

1. Stroke Volume a. Lung

2. Residual Volume b. Muscles
3. Lactic Acid c. Heart
4. Snatch d. Basketball
5. Gliding e. Weight lifting

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 Individual Games
4
Games and sports are important parts of our lives. They
are essential to enjoy overall health and well-being. Sports
and games offer numerous advantages and are thus highly
recommended for everyone irrespective of their age. Sports
with individualistic approach characterised with graceful
skills of players are individual sports. Do you like the idea of
playing an individual sport and be responsible for your win or
loss, success or failure? There are various sports that come
under this category. This chapter will help you to enhance
your knowledge about Athletics, Badminton, Gymnastics,
Judo, Swimming, Table Tennis, and Wrestling.

Athletics
Running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal
forms of human physical expression. Track and field events
are the improved versions of all these. These are among the
oldest of all sporting competitions. Athletics consist of track
and field events. In the track events, competitions of races
of different distances are conducted. The different track and
field events have their roots in ancient human history.

History
Ancient Olympic Games are the first recorded examples of
organised track and field events. In 776 B.C., in Olympia,
Greece, only one event was contested which was known as
the stadion footrace. The scope of the games expanded in
later years. Further it included running competitions, but the
introduction of the Ancient Olympic pentathlon marked a step
towards track and field as it is recognised today. There were
five events in pentathlon namely—discus throw, long jump,
javelin throw, the stadion foot race, and wrestling.

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Track and field events were also present at the Pan-

Activity 4.1
Athletics at the 1960 Summer Hellenic Games in Greece around 200 B.C. period and spread
Paralympics consisted of 25 to Rome in Italy. Track and field events began developing
events, 13 for men and 12 for in parts of Northern Europe in the middle ages. The stone
women. Prepare the list of put and weight throw competitions popular among Celtic
these events both for men and societies in Ireland and Scotland were predecessor to the
women. modern shot put and hammer throw events. Pole vault is the
last track and field events which evolved in the eighteenth
century.
In the late 19th century, modern track and field
competitions were separated from general sporting festivals
and were first recorded. These competitions were typically
organised by educational institutions, military organisations,
and sports clubs. Competitive hurdling first came into being,
with the advent of the steeplechase in England around 1850.
The first national body for the sport of athletics, The Amateur
Athletic Association (AAA) was established in England in
1880. Under this grouping, track and field became the focus
of the annual AAA Championships. The United States also
began holding an annual national competition. The USA
outdoor Track and Field Championship was held in 1868 by
the New York Athletic Club.
The establishment of the modern Olympic Games at the
end of the nineteenth century marked a new height for track
and field events. The Olympic athletics programme comprised
of track and field events including a marathon race. These
also contained many of the foremost sporting competitions of
the 1896 Summer Olympics.
The Olympics also consolidated the use of metric
measurements in international track and field events, both
for race distances and for measuring jumps and throws. The
athletics programme greatly expanded over the next decades
and remained most prominent among the games. The
Olympics were the elite competitions for track and field, and
only amateur sportsmen at that time could compete. Track
and field continues to be largely an amateur sport.
The International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was
established in 1912, becoming the international governing
body for track and field.

Indian History of Athletics

In the history of Indian Athletics, the decade of 1940’s to
1950’s is important as a number of Athletics associations
were started in this decade. In 1946, the Amateur Athletics
Federation of India (AAFI) was established for the management
of Indian Athletics. The entire scenario of Indian Athletics
was changed by AAFI as it worked in collaboration with

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 Individual Games 51

the other Athletics associations for improving sports and

Activity 4.2
athletics. Indian Athletics went through many phases. Many Collect information about your
track and field games were played in the grass. favourite athletes and share in
At present synthetic track is used which has made the class.
things easier as there was no need for manual marking
of tracks and associated definitions for throws and jumps
in those tracks. Application of technology has helped the
athletes and improved the status of the sport.
India has so far produced a number of successful
athletes in the international level who have a rich
tradition of winning performances in the international
tournaments.
Some of the most successful athletes in the early history
of Indian Athletics are Milkha Singh, T.C. Yohannan,
Gurbachan Singh, Sriram Singh, etc. Some of the notable
Indian Athletes in the contemporary period include P.T.
Usha, Anju Bobby George, Jyotirmoyee Sikdar, Saraswati
Saha, Soma Biswas, etc.

Classification of Athletics Events

According to the nature of competitions, athletics events are
classified into four types. These are—
Track Events: All running events come under track
events.
Field Events: The jumping and throwing events are
called field events.
Combined Events: There are some other unique events
which are called as combined events. These are also
organised in athletics. In fact, these are the combination
of some track and field events, such as decathlon,
heptathlon, etc.
Events conducted outside the stadium: These events
are held outside the track, on roads or at natural places;
for example, Marathon of 42.195 km and 20 and 50 km
walk.

Classification of Track Events

Track events are classified into three categories. These are—
Table 1: Classification of Track Events

1. Short Distance 2. Middle 3. Long

Races Distance Races Distance Races
100 m 800 m 3000 m
steeplechase

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 52 Health and Physical Education - XI

200 m 5000 m
400 m 10,000 m
110 m Hurdle Race 20 km walking
1500 m
(Men)
100 m Hurdle Race
(Women) Road Events
400 m Hurdle Race
4×100 m relay 50 km walking
4×400 m relay Marathon
(42.195 m)

Classification of Field Events

Field events are classified into two categories — jumping
Do You Know? events and throwing events. Further these are classified as
•• Sebastian Coe from Great
given below:
Britain was one of the world’s
greatest athlete winner of Table 2: Classification of Field Events
four medals at Olympic
Games, and had not taken Jumping Events Throwing Events
a single day rest between his
Long Jump Shot Put
training.
•• Steeplechase — A hurdle High Jump Discus Throw
race with water jumps came
Triple Jump Javelin Throw
into existence in England
around 1850. Pole Vault Hammer Throw

Classification of Combined Events

Combined events are those events which are characterised
as mixed events from the track as well as field events. For
men there are mixed events called ‘Decathlon’ and comprised
of 10 events to be completed within the span of two days.
Combined track and field events for women are called
‘Heptathlon’ and are divided into seven events. These mixed
events are classified below.
Table 3: Classification of Combined Events

Decathlon (Men) Heptathlon (Women)

100 m 100 m
Long Jump High Jump
Shot Put 1st day Shot Put 1st day
High Jump
200 m
400 m

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 Individual Games 53

110 m Hurdle Activity 4.3

Long Jump
Discus Throw Collect the information about
Pole Vault 2nd day Javelin Throw 2nd day the events under ‘Decathlon’
and ‘Heptathlon’, which are to
Javelin Throw be completed on the first day
800 m
1500 m of the competition and on the
second day of competition.
General Rules
These are some of the general rules which need to be followed
by every athlete during the events.
•• The athlete should run with shoes.
•• There should be a number on the chest and back of
every athlete. No athlete can participate without the
number. Only in the games of Pole Vault and High
Jump, an athlete can bear one number.
•• If an athlete runs before the gun is fired, it is considered
as a foul and is expelled from the event. Only in the
combined events, the athlete is given a warning for first
foul, but on the second foul, the athlete is expelled from
the game.
•• The starter speaks in English at the time of start.
•• If any athlete obstructs the other athlete, then the
referee can expel that athlete.
•• In the races up to 400 m, all the athletes have to finish
them in the same lane allotted to them.
•• 800 m race starts in lanes but lanes are changed to
first lane after the first curve.

Athletics Track
A track is formed by two straight lines and two curved lines.
It is oval shaped. Track surface can be of soil, grass, or
synthetic. In the national and international competitions,
the synthetic tracks, which are also known as all-weather
tracks are used. In all races up to and including 400 m, each
athlete has a separate lane, with a width of 1.22 m to 1.25 m
to be marked by lines 5 cm in width.

Methods of starting the Race

Each race is started with a starting gun. The main two types
of start are—
Crouch Start: This type of start is essential for sprint
races. Starting block is used in this start, so the athlete
can better use their reaction, speed, and explosive power.

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 54 Health and Physical Education - XI

Do You Know?

4×100m
400m H
400m
Start
•• Starting line in the track Standing Start: This kind of start is used for middle
events is included and the distance, and long distance races.
Finish line is excluded. Line
on the right hand side of the

800m
Start
lane is included in the width
of each lane.
•• No check marks are permit-

1500m
ted in the track except for
Start

Javelin Throw
relays.

Hammer
Jump
High

Start 400m

4×100m
4×100m
800m

Finish
Line
Pole vault
Triple Jump
Long Jump
&
Steeple Chase
3000m
Start

200m
Start
10,000m
3000m
5000m
Start

Shotput
Discus
throw

100m H
100m
Start
Steeple
Chase

110m
Start
200m
Start

Fig. 4.1: Standard athletics track 400 meters

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 Individual Games 55

Types of Crouch Start

The crouch start is further divided into three types.
Bunch or Bullet Start
In such a start, the distance from the starting line to the
block is between 16 to 19 inches. The distance between both
the blocks (front leg and rear leg) may be 8 to 11 inches. The
athlete sets the body in crouching position in such a way
that the rear toe and the heal of front foot should be in a
straight line. The toes should be behind the starting line like
a bridge but in the line of big toe. In the set position, the hips
should be slightly lifted up and the arms should be straight.
This last position in the bunch start is a little unstable which
helps the athlete in leaving the block quickly.
Medium Start
The distance of the blocks from the starting line is 15 to 18
inches. The distance between both the blocks (front leg and
rear leg) may be 15 to 20 inches. The knee of rear leg and the
arch of front foot should be in a straight line. The shoulders
and hips are almost at the same height.
Elongated start
The distance of the blocks from the starting line is 11 to 14
inches. The distance between both the blocks (front leg and
rear leg) may be 25 to 29 inches. The rear knee is placed
near the front heal. In the crouch start, the distance between
the blocks depends upon the length of the leg, breadth of
the hip, length of torso, strength of arms and time reaction,
etc. Medium start is considered as better than the other two
starts. Most of the athletes, therefore, use this type of start.
The distance between the blocks (front and rear leg) varies
and depends on the height of the athlete.

Fig. 4.2: Types of crouch start

Starting block
An athlete uses starting block in track events for all the sprinting
ability to get a good start. The starting block helps the athlete to
give support during the start of race to expel the body forward.
Starting block needs to be kept in right angle according to

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 56 Health and Physical Education - XI

the height of the athlete. A starting block needs to be strong

and adjustable.
Before starting, the athlete should be calm and composed.
The athlete should wait for the commands while standing
near the assembly line.
On Your Marks
On the command ‘On your marks’, the athlete will move
towards the starting line and will take position at the starting
Fig. 4.3: Starting block block. The head is kept in resting position. In this position,
the hand will be placed parallel to but behind the starting
line and according to the width of the shoulders. The weight
of the body is distributed on the rear knee and hands. In
the starting position, the shoulders can be moved ahead
of starting line. The neck should be in resting position but
the concentration of athlete should be towards the next
command.

Fig. 4.4: Both side views of the ‘on your marks’ position

Set
Athlete keeps the back a
little above the shoulder.
The weight of the body
is equally distributed
over the front foot and
hands. This last position
is usually unstable
and tense which helps
in leaving the block
easily. Head should be
in resting position and
the grip on the block
should be strong. The
Fig. 4.5: ‘Set’ position
athlete should be alert
enough to listen to the
next command.

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 Individual Games 57

Gun shot
Soon after the gun shot, the athlete has to leave the block as
quickly as possible. This helps in a good start. The athlete
should lift his body gradually after taking a start.

Types of Finishing
The finishing of all the races is very important. A little
difference can alter the athlete’s ranking. The following
techniques during training process need to be learned to
finish the race.
Lunging forward
In this technique, the athlete lunges the body forward just
before the finishing line. The athlete needs to spread arms
backward in order to expand the chest forward. While
spreading his arms the athlete needs to balance his body.
Shoulder shrug
In this technique, the athlete needs to bend shoulders
towards the finishing line. The body weight is carried forward
while maintaining the balance of the body. While shrugging
the shoulders, the athlete needs to bend his head as well as
upper body towards the finishing line.
Run through
This technique is usually adopted by new athletes. The
athlete runs through the finishing line after completing the
race. The athlete should not reduce the pace before finishing.

Fig. 4.6: Techniques of finishing the race

Relay Races
Relay races are team events. In this race, four runners complete
a given distance. Each relay team needs four runners. Each
runner runs the quarter of the running track, while holding

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 58 Health and Physical Education - XI

a baton. Two runners will exchange the baton only in a given

Do You Know?
Steeple chase — A hurdle race exchange zone mark in track. If the baton falls in the exchange
with water jumps came into zone, then only the athlete who has dropped it will lift it.
existence in England around Table 4: Types of Relay Races
1850.
Relay Races for Men and Women
4×100 meter
4×400 meter
Members of Relay team = 6
Running members = 4
Length of Baton 28–30 cm
Circumference of Baton 12–13 cm
Weight of Baton at least 50 gms
Baton exchange zone 20 m
Acceleration zone 10 m

Methods of baton exchange

There are three methods of baton exchange, which are—
Downward pass

Fig. 4.7: Method to give the baton from the bottom

In such a pass, the runner who is to run will move his hand
back to take the baton with palms facing upwards. The
thumbs will be towards the inner side and the palm will be
upward. The athlete holding the baton, will hold the baton
from one end and will place the other end of the baton in the

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 Individual Games 59

hands of the athlete who is about to run.

Upward pass
In such a pass, the athlete who is going to hold the baton
will keep the hand in a ‘V’ shape, which will be used to take
the baton near the hip, upside down. The athlete who is
passing the baton will hold the baton in such a way, that
it will get nearer to the other athlete. This pass is easier for
the new runner.

Fig. 4.8: Method to give the baton from the upper side

Push pass
Push pass is exactly similar to the downward pass at the
change over box. The athlete, who is holding the baton,
runs while aiming at the elbow of the other athlete with
the baton. The other athlete takes the baton with his arm
moving backward.

Fig. 4.9: Method to give push pass

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 60 Health and Physical Education - XI

Jumping Events
Jumping Events consist of four events. However, only two
(Long jump and High jump) are discussed below.
•• Long Jump
•• High Jump
•• Triple Jump
•• Pole Vault

Long Jump
Long jump is considered as the main field event. In this
event, the athlete has to jump from the takeoff board to
the jumping pit. The entire group of athletes will get three
jumps to qualify for the final phase of the competition.
Athletes should have speed, power and flexibility for it.
Eight qualified jumpers are selected for the final phase
of the competition. Three more chances are given to the
selected eight jumpers for getting final ranking.
Table 5: Information about Long Jump

Length of runway 40 m – 45 m
Width of runway 1.22 m + 0.01 m
Length of take-off board 1.22 m + 0.01 m
Width of take-off board 20 cm
Thickness of take-off board 10 cm
Distance of the last edge of pit from Minimum 10 m
take-off board
Width of pit 2.75 m – 3.00 m
Distance of take-off board from the pit 1.00 m – 3.00 m
Width of plasticine indicator 10 cm
Degree of plasticine indicator towards 45°
runway

1–3m

Take–off Board
Length of Take–off Board 20cm wide
1.22m + 0.01m
1.22m+0.01m

2.75–3.00m

Landing Pit
20 cm
10 cm

Runway 40m–45m

7–9m
Fig. 4.10: Long jump ground

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 Individual Games 61

Methods of Long Jump

Athletes usually use the following methods for long jump—
1. Sail Technique
2. Hang Technique
3. Hitch-kick Technique
Phases of Long Jump
There are the four phases in long jump.
Runway: The athlete attains his maximum speed by
running on the runway so that he can reach the take
off board with full speed and also to get the maximum
momentum.

Fig. 4.11: The hang technique

Take-off: The athlete takes-off with his strong foot by

pushing it against the take-off board. The athlete raises
both the hands up and as a result his entire body is
raised up. The front leg is lifted upwards and the knee is
bent.
Flight: When the body of the athlete is in the air after
the take-off, it is known as flight. During flight position,
the athlete uses various techniques like hang method or
hitch-kick technique. The momentum gained during the
runway helps the body to move forward in the air.
Landing: Both feet of the athlete simultaneously touch
the ground while landing. During landing, the legs should
be kept straight. Both hands should be raised and taken
towards the feet and the neck should be bent forward.
This posture helps in gaining some more distance in the
air and the body gets balanced while landing.

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 62 Health and Physical Education - XI

Fig. 4.12: Hitch-kick technique

High Jump
This is also one of the major field events. In this, the athlete
crosses the crossbar with a jump. Activeness and flexibility
are important for the athlete.
Table 6: Information about High Jump

Minimum length of runway 15 m

Size of landing area 6 m×4 m

Height of landing pit 0.60 m – 0.70 m

Distance between two poles 4.00 m – 4.04 m

Length of crossbar 4.00 m (±2cm)

Weight of crossbar 2 kg
Diameter of crossbar 29 mm – 31 mm
Length of rectangular edges of crossbar 15 cm – 20 cm
Width of edges of crossbar 30 mm – 35 mm
Gap between the edges of crossbar and 10 mm
poles

Techniques of High Jump

The most popular technique of high jump is Fosbury Flop.
However some other techniques are also used. Which are—
Scissor Jump: To jump over the crossbar with alternate
legs and to land on the feet is called scissor jump.
Western roll : Rolling over the crossbar and landing on
the back is known as western roll.

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 Individual Games 63

Straddle Technique: In this technique, the legs are

taken alternately over the crossbar and the body is rolled
near the bar.
Fosbury Flop: It is a new technique. In this, the bar is
crossed by back after bending the body. The landing is
done on the shoulders.

Fig. 4.13: Fosbury flop

General Rules
Certain general rules of high jump are given below.
•• Jumper needs—to jump on one foot only.
•• It will be a foul, if an athlete—
▪▪ shakes the bar from the support.
▪▪ touches the ground with any part of his body before
clearing the poles.
•• An athlete can jump from any height. Consecutive
three failures from a particular height will disqualify
the athlete.
•• Poles should not be moved during the competition.
•• If there are more than three athletes, the time fixed for
each jump is one minute. If two to three athletes are
there in the competition, time of 1.30 minutes is given.
Whereas a time of 3 minutes is given to a single athlete.

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 64 Health and Physical Education - XI

•• Athlete can mark the runway according to the wish, but

can use only the adhesive tape given by the organisers.

Fig. 4.14: Complete action sequence of fosbury flop

Throwing Events
The following four events are not included in the throwing
events, but only two (Shot put and Discus) are explained in
this book.
•• Shot put
•• Discus

Shot put
Table 7: Information about Shot Put

Diameter of the shot put 2.135 m (±5 mm)

circle
Extended lines on both 75 cm
sides of the circle
Length of stop board 1.21 m (±0.01 m)
Width of stop board 11.2 cm – 30 cm
Height of stop board 10 cm (±0.2 cm)

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 Individual Games 65

Weight of shot 7.260 kg (for men), 4.00 kg (for

women)
Diameter of shot 110 mm – 130 mm (men) 95
mm – 110 mm (women)
The extended lines on both 75 cm
sides of the circle
Angle of the throwing sector 34.92°
within the circle
Shot put is one of the main throwing events. The athlete
who throws the shot is called as shot putter. The athlete
should have qualities like power, flexibility and speed to
throw the shot.
Methods of Shot put
The following are the methods of shot put.
1. Gliding Technique
a) Grip: The shot is held at the base of the fingers, not
the palm. Fingers are slightly spread apart with the
thumb for support. The hand will be bent back in a
cocked position when holding the shot.
b) Shot placement: The shot is placed below the ear. It
needs to be placed near the jaw bone and over the
collar bone.
c) Standing Position: The shot putter places the right
foot on the half way circle line and the left foot along
the back line (towards the direction of throw) of the
circle.
d) Gliding Phase: Keep the right foot exactly straight
and the toe of the left foot touching on the ground
just in front of the stop board. The left foot will
rapidly move forward while bending at the knee to
take thrust from the hip joint. The right foot will be
dragged from the ground.
e) Final Phase: The last phase of the putting shot will
be associated with the turn of body and changing of
rear left foot to right for balancing the body weight.
The hips will be carried forward. This turn is most
vital for the shot putter as it has to be combined with
the throwing of arms to put the shot for distance.
The whole body weight will be maintained on right
foot after the release of shot.

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 66 Health and Physical Education - XI

Centre Line
5cm
34.92º

ne
1.20m-1.22m

Li
te
75cm Min.

hi
W
90º

5cm 2.135m
+5mm

Fig. 4.15: Layout of shot put sector

Fig. 4.16: Gliding technique for throwing shot

2. Rotation Technique for Throwing Shot

a) Initial Position: In the initial position, the athlete will
stand with the back towards the direction of putting
the shot. The left foot will be on central line and the
right foot will be just behind. The right foot will be 5–8
cm behind the iron rim to avoid foul during rotation
of the body.
b) Rotation: The weight of the body will be on the right
foot. Rotation will start after taking just one swing
from the starting position. In this position, the left
arm will be kept parallel to the ground on left side.

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 Individual Games 67

The right foot will be brought over the left foot while
leaning the shoulder when the shot reaches the
middle. Both the shoulders will rotate after leaning
and laying the entire body weight on the toes. The
shoulder and the trunk will fully rotate towards
the right and the body weight will also shift on the
left foot.

Discus Throw
Discus throw is an old and popular event. The athlete should
have power, elasticity, speed and balance for discus throw.
Table 8: Information about Discus Throw
Weight of discus 2 kg (men), 1 kg (women)
Diameter of discus 219 mm – 221 mm (men)
180 mm – 182 mm (women)
Thickness of the rim of discus 12 mm – 13 mm (6 mm at
edge)
Diameter of circle 2.50 m
Extended lines on both sides 75 cm
of circle
Angle of throwing sector 34.92°

Centre Line
0
34.92
ne
Li
te
hi
W

900
75cm wide
51cm

2.50m

Fig. 4.17: Layout of discus throw

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 68 Health and Physical Education - XI

Initial Stage of Discus Throw

Do You Know?
The first national body of At First the athlete will stand in the circle near the ring with
athletics ‘Amateur Athletic the back against the direction of throwing the discus. The
Association, (AAA), was athlete will take one or two swings while rotating the right
established in England.
arm along with the body. In this position, the whole body
weight will shift from one foot to another. The heels will lift
upward. The upper part of the body should be bent towards
right side, while the discus is on the right side. The circle
will start from the lower part of the body, the left foot will be
rotated leftward, and the body weight will rest on it. The right
knee and right foot will also rotate.
In this position, the process of crossing the discus will
start. First of all, the left foot will leave the ground. After
this, the left foot will take the position of throwing the
discus. The right foot (bent at knee) will rotate from left to
right in a semi-circle. Both the muscles will be in front of
the shoulder while rotating and as a result, there will be a
bend in the upper and lower portion of the body. The right
arm holding the discus will be straight and above the head.
The left arm will be in front of the chest and bent at the
elbow. The head will remain straight.
Methods of Discus Throw
A Discus is thrown by three methods.
1. The athlete keeps the right foot at the centre line and left
foot 10 cm behind the circle.
2. In the second method the athletes keep the centre line
between their feet.
3. In the third method, the athletes keep their left foot on
the centre line.
Throwing: Both the feet will be straight at the knees while
rotating at the time of throwing. The shoulder muscles will
move forward. The shoulders and trunk will stop rotating.
Whole of the body’s weight will be on both the toes and feet
will be straight. The left foot will come back at the end but
the right foot will bend from the knee after going forward.
The upper part of the body will be bent forward. It is done to
balance the body.
Last Step: Both the feet will be on the ground, the waist
will be bent backward in rotating position, left foot will be
in straight line and right foot will be bent at knee. The right
knee will be rotating to the left side. The left arm will open
upward. The right arm will be brought forward and upward
while keeping away from the body.

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Fig. 4.18: Technique of throwing discus

Types of Sports Awards

Do You Know?
There are many awards to honor the outstanding coaches Deepa Malik is the lady
and sportspersons. Government of India honors its coaches, Para-athlete who received
and sportspersons with the following awards: Arjuna Award in the year 2012
1. Dronacharya Award for her excellent performance.
2. Arjuna Award
3. Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award Activity 4.4
4. Dhyan Chand Award Make a list of winners of
Dronacharya Award for the last
five years and share with other
Dronacharya Award
students.
Government instituted Dronacharya Award to recognise
the efforts of coaches and trainers who dedicate their lives
for enhancing the performance of athletes and raising the
standard of games. The Dronacharya Award was first given
in 1985. Every year, Dronacharya award is provided to expert
coaches for their consistent outstanding performance. The
cash prize associated with Dronacharya Award is ` 5 lakhs. It
also includes a bronze statue of Guru Dronacharya (the ancient
Indian Physical and weapon trainer in the mythological era of
Mahabharata), a tie, a blazer, a scroll and a suit.
Eligibility for Dronacharya Award
The award is open to coaches who have trained an individual
or a team for at least two years with consistent outstanding
performance at:
1. Global Olympic events
2. Sports disciplines recognised by the government
3. Indigenous sports recognised by the government
Dronacharya Award Winners
Some of the well known coaches of athletics who received
Dronacharya Award in India are — O.M. Nambiar (1985),

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 70 Health and Physical Education - XI

Ilyas Babar (1994), Karan Singh (1995), Joginder Singh Saini

Activity 4.5
Collect information about (1997), Hargobind Singh Sandhu (1998), Kuntal Roy, R.D.
the medal winners of Singh (2006), A.K. Kutty (2010), Ramphal (2011), Mahavir
Paralympics Games in any Singh Phogat (Wrestling, 2016), and Sukhdev Singh Pannu
two athletic events who (Athletics, 2008).
have received Arjuna Award
and prepare a chart on their Arjuna Award
achievements to share on the The Arjuna Award was instituted in 1961 as the highest
school notice board.
national recognition for outstanding performance in Sports
and Games in the Olympics, Asian Games, Commonwealth
Activity 4.6
Collect information about
Games, World Cup, World Championships. As per the revised
the Arjuna award and Dhyan scheme, from April 2002, the objective of Arjuna Awards is
Chand award winners, to recognise outstanding performance of sports persons at
Prepare a chart on their international level. The winners are decided by a Selection
achievements to share on the Committee. The award carries a cash prize of `5 lakh, a
school notice board. bronze statuette of Arjuna, and a scroll. The nominations
for the award are invited by the Ministry of Youth Affairs
and Sports from all recognised National Sports Federations
recognised by the Government of India.
Arjuna Award Winners in Athletics
Some of the well known athletes who received Arjuna Award
in India are Gurbachan Singh Randhawa (1961), Ajmer
Singh, (1966), Vijay Singh Chauhan (1972), Sriram Singh
(1973), T.C. Yohannan, (1974), Hari Chand, (1975), Sabir Ali
(1981), P.T. Usha (1983), Shiny Abraham (1984), Anju Bobby
George, (2002). Hima Das, Neeraj Chopra (2018).

Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award

The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna award is India’s highest honour
given for achievement in sports. The words Khel Ratna in
Hindi literally mean “sports gem” in English. It carries a
medal, a scroll of honour and a substantial cash component
of ` 750,000. The award was instituted in the year 1991–92
for supreme accolade in the field of sports in India. The first
player to receive the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna award was
Anand Viswanathan, World Chess Champion.
Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award Winners in Athletics
Some of the winners of Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna award are
Jyotirmoyee Sikdar (1998–99), K.M. Beenamol (2002–03),
Anju Bobby George (2003–04).

Dhyan Chand Award Winners in Athletics

Dhyan Chand Award is given for lifetime achievement in
sports. The award is named after Dhyan Chand, an Indian
field hockey player who scored more than 1000 goals during
his career from 1926 to 1948. Bobby Aloysius received the

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 Individual Games 71

Dhyan Chand award for his lifetime contribution towards

Activity 4.7
sports from the Government of India. Do you have indoor badminton
hall in your school or nearby? if
Badminton yes, collect the information about
Badminton, one of the world’s fastest racket sports is a popular the game and compare with the
school sport for both boys and girls. It is suitable for children information given in your book.
of all ages and abilities. Badminton activities develop all-round
physical skills important for school age children including eye-
hand coordination, catching and throwing, stability and balance, Activity 4.8
speed and agility — the ability to quickly change direction, Collect information about
jumping and landing skills, and also learn decision-making the Olympic Medalists and
and tactical skills. Badminton was earlier known as Poona or All England winners of your
Poonah when British Army officers started playing the game at country in badminton.
Pune in 1860. The name Badminton derives from the Duke of
Beaufort’s Badminton House in Gloucestershire. International
Badminton Federation (IBF) is the international governing body
for Badminton and was established in 1934. The new name
Badminton World Federation (BWF) was adopted in 2006.
Thomas Cup, a Men’s Team World Badminton Championship,
was first held in 1948, and Uber Cup, a Women’s Team World
Badminton Championship, was first held in 1956. Sudiraman
Cup, a World Mixed Team Badminton Championship, was
first held in 1989. Individual World Badminton Championship
started in 1956. Badminton was a demonstration event in the
1972 Munich Olympic Games and an exhibition sport in the
1988 Summer Olympics. It became an official Summer Olympic
sport at the Barcelona Olympics in 1992.

Types of Events
•• Men’s and Women’s Singles, Doubles, Mixed Doubles
•• Junior Boy’s and Girl’s (Under 17 and 19) Singles,
Doubles, Mixed Doubles
•• Sub Junior Boy’s and Girl’s (Under 13 and 15) Singles,
Doubles, Mixed Doubles

Measurement of Badminton Court and Specification

of Equipment
•• Badminton is an indoor game. It requires a racket, a
net, two posts and a shuttlecock.

Court Measurements
Badminton court is rectangular, 13.40 × 6.10 metre (5.18 metre
for singles) with 4 cm wide white or yellow lines. The height
of the ceiling from the court for International competitions
shall be 12 metre. There shall be at least 2 metre clear space
surrounding the court. The posts shall be 1.55 metre in height

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 72 Health and Physical Education - XI

from the surface of the court and placed on the doubles’ side
lines. Net shall be of dark colour with its height 1.524 metre at
the centre. It is 76 cm in depth and at least 6.10 metre in width.
The shuttle shall have 16 feathers fixed in the base and weigh
from 4.74 to 5.50 grams. The racket shall not exceed 680 mm in
overall length and 230 mm in overall width.
720mm

3.880m

1.950m

1.950m

3.880m

720mm
40mm

40mm

40mm

40mm

40mm

40mm
POST
SIDE LINE FOR DOUBLES 40mm
420mm
SIDE LINE FOR SINGLES 40mm
LONG SERVICE LINE FOR DOUBLES

LONG SERVICE LINE FOR DOUBLES

LEFT RIGHT
ALSO LONG SERVICE LINE

ALSO LONG SERVICE LINE

BACK BOUNDARY LINE

SERVICE SERVICE
BACK BOUNDARY LINE

SHORT SERVICE LINE

SHORT SERVICE LINE

COURT 2.53m
COURT
FOR SINGLES

FOR SINGLES
6.100m

CENTER LINE CENTER LINE

40mm
NET

RIGHT LEFT
SERVICE SERVICE 2.53m
COURT COURT
SIDE LINE FOR SINGLES
40mm
SIDE LINE FOR DOUBLES 420mm
40mm
POST

Singles Play Area

13.400m
Fig. 4.19: Badminton court

How to play Badminton

For playing Badminton, the following process is followed:
•• The toss is conducted before the play starts.

Fig. 4.20: Badminton racket •• The side which wins the toss can choose either to serve
and shuttle or receive first and at which side of the court to play.
•• To start the game, the server delivers the service by
hitting the shuttle with the racket below the waist in
the diagonally opposite service courts.
•• During the service, it is considered as a ‘fault’:
▪▪ if the shuttle is caught on the net and remains
suspended on its top if or
▪▪ after passing over the net, the shuttle is caught in
the net; or
▪▪ if the served shuttle is hit by the receiver’s partner.

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 Individual Games 73

•• It shall be a ‘fault’ during play if;

▪▪ the shuttle lands outside the boundaries of the
court, or
▪▪ it fails to pass over the net, or
▪▪ it touches the ceiling or side walls, or
▪▪ it touches the player or the dress of a player.

Fig. 4.21: Singles game

Singles
•• At the beginning of the game (0–0)
•• When the server’s score is even, the server serves from
the right service court.
•• When the server’s score is odd, the server serves from
the left service court.
•• If the server wins a rally, the server scores a point and
then serves again from the alternate service court.
•• If the receiver wins a rally, the receiver scores a point
and becomes the new server.
•• The player needs to serve from the appropriate service
court — left if their score is odd, and right if the score
is even.

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Fig. 4.22: Doubles game

Do You Know?
During a game of badminton, Doubles
a shuttlecock hit by the player
•• A side has only one ‘service’.
may reach a speed of more than
2000 miles per hour. •• The service passes consecutively to each player.
•• At the beginning of the game and when the score is
even, the server serves from the right service court.
When it is odd, the server serves from the left court.
•• If the serving side wins a rally, the serving side scores
a point and the same server serves again from the
alternate service court.
•• If the receiving side wins a rally, the receiving side
scores a point. The receiving side becomes the new
serving side.
•• Players do not change their respective service courts
until they win a point when their side is serving.

Scoring System
•• A match consists of best of three games of 21 points each.
•• Every time there is a serve, there is a point scored.

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 Individual Games 75

•• The side winning a rally adds a point to its score.

•• At a score of 20 all, the side which gains two-points
lead first wins that game.
•• If the score reaches 29 all, the side scoring the 30th
point, wins that game.
•• The side winning a game serves first in the next game.
•• When the leading score reaches 11 points, players have
a 60 seconds interval.
•• An interval of two minutes is allowed between each game.
•• In the third game, players change ends when the
leading score reaches 11 points.

Fundamental Skills of Badminton

Basic Strokes
A wide range of strokes are used in badminton.
The services are—
(i) High Serve
(ii) Backhand Low Serve
(iii) Backhand Flick Serve
(iv) Forehand Low Serve
(v) Forehand Flick Serve
Fig. 4.23: Stance for backhand
Forecourt Strokes or Net Strokes low and flick serve

It is played from an area between the net and the short

service line. These are named as—
•• Backhand Net Shot
•• Forehand Net Shot
•• Backhand Net Lift
•• Forehand Net Lift
•• Backhand Net Kill
•• Forehand Net Kill

Midcourt Strokes
Played from the middle of the court, these are called—
•• Block
•• Backhand Drive
•• Forehand Drive

Rear Court Strokes

These are played from the back of the court.
•• Forehand Clear
•• Forehand Smash

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Fig. 4.24: Position marked for various strokes

•• Forehand Drop Shot

•• Backhand Clear
•• Backhand Smash
•• Backhand Drop Shot
High Serve
•• High serve travels to the rear of the opponent’s service
court, dropping vertically.
•• It is used in singles to begin the rally, from a neutral/
defensive position.
•• High serve is used in women’s singles and sometimes
in men’s singles.
•• A sideways stance is used with the racket held in
forehand grip.
•• The racket and shuttle are held in elevated position
with weight on the rear leg.
•• Weight is continuously transferred forward towards the
front foot and the shuttle is dropped to the side or in front.
•• The racket is lowered with bent wrist and swung forward
by accelerating the racket head to hit the shuttle in
front and to the side of the body.
•• The racket is carried through high and long in follow
through.

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 Individual Games 77

Backhand Low Serve

•• Backhand Low Serve is used in doubles and men’s
singles to start the rally from a defensive or neutral
situation.
•• In backhand low serve, the shuttle skips the net and
lands at the front of the opponent’s service court.
•• It is used to restrict the opponent’s opportunity to attack
and create attacking opportunities for the serving side.

1. Backhand grip 2. Shuttle hold 3. Trajectory of the shuttle

4. Stance 5. Preparation 6. Execution of backhand low service

Fig. 4.25: Backhand low serve

•• The server stands with the racket, foot forward, close to

the ‘T’ on the court.
•• The racket is held in relaxed backhand grip in front of
the body, with the shuttle placed on it.
•• With the short backswing of the racket, its face is
opened slightly.
•• The racket is swung forward and the shuttle is pushed
out of the hand.
•• Strike the shuttle out of the hand with a continued
pushing action.
•• Quickly recover back by bringing the racket up, to
return the service reply.

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The main difference in high, low and flick service in

badminton is the trajectory of the shuttlecock. Trajectory is
the parabolic path followed by a shuttle when hit at a certain
angle.

High Serve

Flick Serve

Low Serve
Do You Know?
•• The word Gymnastic is
derived from the Greek
word Gymnos meaning
‘naked art’.
•• Modern Gymnastic is
Fig. 4.26: Trajectory of services
regulated by Federation
International de Gymnastique
(FIG), which was founded in Gymnastics
1881, June 23.
•• Khushi Ram and Veer Singh History
represented India for the
first time in Olympics held Gymnastics begun in ancient Greece about 2500 years ago. It
at Helsinki in 1952. was used in training to keep people fit for sporting activities.
In the Greek city of Athens, gymnastic tournaments were
held, including tumbling, rope climbing, and other similar
activities. Plato, Homer and Aristotle strongly advocated the
strengthening qualities of gymnastics. The ‘Federation of
International Gymnastics’ (FIG) was formed in Liege in 1881.

Gymnastics in India
Gymnastics Federation of India (GFI) was initiated in 1951.
It was affiliated by the Indian Olympic Association (IOC)
and Federation International de Gymnastics (FIG) in 1952.
GFI is the founder member of Commonwealth Gymnastics
Confederation (CGC) and Asian Gymnastics Union (AGU) since
these bodies came into existence. The National Gymnastic
Championship for men and women was organised in 1952
and in 1962 respectively. The first national championship for
sub junior girls and boys was organised in 1986 at Karnal in
Haryana. Sports Aerobics was also organised under Gymnastics
Federation of India from 1997 along with gymnastics.

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 Individual Games 79

Apparatus Do You Know?

You have already studied in previous classes about •• Nadia Comaneci was the
gymnastics. In this game, different events are performed first female gymnast who
on different apparatuses like Horizontal Bar, Parallel Bars, received perfect score in
Rings, Vaulting Table, Pommel Horse and some other 1976 at Montreal Olympics.
apparatus specially for female participants like, un-even
bars, balancing beam, etc.

Gymnastics is performed by both men and women. Men have

six apparatus and women have four apparatus on which they
perform their routines. Their apparatuses are as follows:
Women’s apparatus
1. Vaulting Table 2. Balancing Beam
3. Floor exercise 4. Uneven Bars
Men’s apparatus
1. Vaulting table 2. Horizontal Bar
3. Floor exercise 4. Parallel bars
5. Roman Rings 6. Pommel Horse

Uneven Bars

240 cm cm
80
to1
0
13

170 cm
250 cm

20 cm
550 cm 400 cm

Fig. 4.27: Uneven bars

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 80 Health and Physical Education - XI

Specifications
•• Height: Upper bar — 2.50 m (8.2 ft), Lower bar — 1.70
m (5.6 ft)
•• Diameter of the bar: 4 cm (1.6 in)
•• Length of the bars: 2.10 m (7.9 ft)
•• Diagonal distance between the two bars: 1.30 m
(4.3 ft)–1.90 m (6.2 ft) (adjustable)

Horizontal Bars
240 cm

280 cm 280 cm

300 cm 20 cm
500 cm 400 cm

Fig. 4.28: Horizontal bars

Specifications
•• Height: 2.80 m (109 in), including about 30 cm (12 in)
landing mats
•• Length: 2.40 m (94 in)
•• Diameter of the bar: 2.8 cm (1.1 in)

Pommel Horse
40-45 cm 35 cm

12 cm
28 cm

115 cm 115 cm

10 cm

160 cm

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 Individual Games 81

Fig. 4.29: Pommel horse

Specifications
•• Height from top surface to floor: 1.15 m (3.77 ft) ± 1 cm
(0.39 in)
•• Length at top: 1.60 m (5.2 ft) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)
•• Length at bottom: 1.55 m (5.09 ft) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)
•• Width at top: 35 cm (14 in) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)
•• Width at bottom: 30 cm (12 in) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)
•• Height of the pommels: 12 cm (4.7 in) ± 0.5 cm (0.20 in)
•• Distance between the pommels: 40 cm (16 in) – 45 cm
(18 in)(adjustable)

Roman Rings

Min 120 cm
50 cm

Min 280 cm
280 cm

280 cm

300 cm

70 cm

Min 260 cm
400 cm 18 cm
550 cm

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 82 Health and Physical Education - XI

Fig. 4.30: Roman rings

Specifications
•• Inner diameter: 18 cm (7.1 in) ± 0.1 cm (0.039 in)
•• Diameter of profile: 2.8 cm (1.1 in) ± 0.1 cm (0.039 in)
•• Distance from the point of attachment to lower inner
side of the rings: 3 m (9.8 ft) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)
•• Distance between the two points of attachment: 50 cm
(1.6 ft) ± 0.5 cm (0.20 in)

Vaulting Table (Men and Women)

95 cm
75/85 cm

125 cm

135 cm

120 cm

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 Individual Games 83

Fig. 4.31: Vaulting table

Specifications
•• Length: 1.20 m (3.9 ft) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)
•• Width: 90 cm (3.0 ft) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)
•• Height
▪▪ Men: 1.35 m (4.43 ft) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)
▪▪ Women: 1.25 m (4.10 ft) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)
•• Run up area
▪▪ Length: 3.5 m (11.5 ft) ± 10 cm (3.9 in)
▪▪ Width: 1 m (3.3 ft) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)

Balancing Beam

500 cm 13 cm

10 cm
16 cm
125 cm
125 cm

500 cm maximum

Fig. 4.32: Balancing beam

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 84 Health and Physical Education - XI

Specifications
•• Height: 1.25 cm (4.10 ft)
•• Length: 5 cm (16 ft)
•• Width: 10 cm (3.9 in)

Floor

14 m
12 m

Floor

Fig. 4.33: Floor

Specifications
•• Performance area: 12 m (39 ft) × 12 m (39 ft) ± 3 cm
(1.2 in)
•• Diagonals: 1.697 m ± 5 cm (2.0 in)
•• Border: 1 m (3.3 ft)
•• Safety zone: 2 cm (6.6 ft)

Parallel Bar

Min 350 cm
60 cm 60 cm 42 cm 52 cm
200 cm

48 cm 48 cm
Fig. 4.34: Parallel bar

Specifications
•• Bar length: 3.50 m (11.5 ft) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)

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 Individual Games 85

•• Bar rounded profile: 5 cm (2.0 in) ± 1 mm (0.039 in)

vertical by 4 cm (1.6 in) ± 1 mm (0.039 in) horizontal.
•• Bar width: 4 cm (1.6 in) ± 1 mm (0.039 in)
•• Height of bar from floor: 2 m (6.6 ft) ± 1 cm (0.39 in)
•• Distance between bars: 42 cm (17 in) – 52 cm (20 in)
(adjustable)

Advanced skills on apparatus

Cartwheel on Balancing Beam

Fig. 4.35: Cartwheel on balancing beam

•• Stand erect keeping feet slightly apart.

•• With a momentary swing, raise the front leg close to the
chest, and arms by the side of the head, step out.
•• Place one leg ahead of the rear leg and shift the body
weight on the supporting leg.
•• Turn shoulder on the side and place alternate arms on
the beam at sideways.
•• Swing and raise the rear leg first.
•• Move the supporting leg to the direction of the cartwheel.
•• Turn the trunk up to 130 –135 degree angle, keeping
legs straddle as much as possible.
•• Push off the left arm and place the right leg on the
beam surface and vice versa.
•• Keep the head in between arms throughout the
cartwheel.

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 86 Health and Physical Education - XI

Back Handspring or Flic Flac on Balancing Beam

Fig. 4.36: Back handspring or flic flac on balancing beam

•• Keep the feet together in balanced position.

•• Push off from the toes and take off the body up-
backward with swinging arms sharp by the side of the
head.
•• As the body moves in the air, extend chest as well as
pull the upper body from the hip region with the arms
inside towards the beam.
•• Extend the head and spot the place of contact.
•• Place arms slightly on the beam.
•• Now, snap down sharply by bending from the hip and
simultaneously push off the arms from the beam.
•• Land on the beam keeping knees together and hips tight.

KIP Technique on Uneven Bars

Fig. 4.37: KIP on uneven bars

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 Individual Games 87

•• Stand in front of the low bar.

Do You Know?
•• Now jump and grasp the bar with over hand grip by In Rio Olympics 2016, Dipa
extending the arms forward. Karmakar — ‘The Golden Girl’
•• Lead the feet in forward swing and perform a smooth became the first Indian girl
glide under the bar. to qualify for the Gymnastics
and was one amongst the five
•• At the end of the glide, extend hips while forcing the
gymnasts who successfully did
shoulders a little forward. the Produnova at international
•• Now quickly draw the feet on the bar and then extend level, which is the most difficult
the hips. vault. Deepa Karmakar won the
•• During the action, press down the bar, raise the legs to 4th position in Olympics.
the hips, during the rear-ward swing.
•• From this support position, execute a strong beat up action.
•• Raise the body from the bar, pushing the shoulder over
the arm.
•• At the end, flexed from the hips, place the sole of both
feet on the bar by the side of the grip.
•• Circle forward by leading the upper body and shoulders.
•• Straighten legs and arms throughout the circle.
•• As the circle passes through the line of the bar, raise
shoulders and hips, while bending the knees slightly.
•• Rotate the grip as body moves down to the upward.
Forward Scissor on Pommel horse

Fig. 4.38: Cartwheel on balancing beam

Pommel horse skill needs coordinated and synchronised

movements, with continuous and simultaneous change of
hands and legs.
Evaluation Procedure for the above Elements
(Movements): There are four elements on the floor exercises
and two elements each on all the other apparatuses given in
this chapter. The evaluation of these elements will be done
based on the following points.

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 88 Health and Physical Education - XI

(i) Value of each element =5.00 points (each element will

be evaluated out of 5.00 points)
(ii) Value of four elements on floor exercises = 20.00 points
(four elements ×5.00 points each =20.00)
(iii) Value of two elements on pommel horse =10.00 (two
elements ×5.00 points each =10.00)
(iv) Value of two elements on rings =10.00 points
(v) Value of two elements on vaulting table =10.00 points
(vi) Value of two elements on parallel bars =10.00 points
(vii) Value of two elements on horizontal bars =10.00 points
(viii) Value of two elements on balancing beam =10.00 points
(ix) Value of two elements on uneven bars =10.00 points
The total value for the boys’ section comes to 70.00 points
Do You Know? (i.e., 20.00 for floor and 50.00 for rest of the five apparatuses).
•• The word judo is literally The total value for the girls’ section comes to 50.00
explained by ‘Ju’ which points (i.e., 20.00 for floor and 30.00 for rest of the three
means gentle and ‘Do’ apparatuses).
that means path. Thus
this game is considered
as a gentle path of self-
Judo
defense.
•• Judo was first officially
History
taught at the Kōdōkan Judo is considered to have originated from Japan. Jigoro
Judo Institute in Japan Kano invented this game in 1882, and he is considered as
in 1882. the founder father of Judo. It is believed that Judo is the
comprehensive form of another ancient self-defence form
‘Ju Jutsu’. Judo is an art of self-defence and is considered
gentle a way of attack with the help of one’s own body.
Judo is an ideal form of physical exercise and self-defence.
Judo became a system of self-defence in Japan involving
throwing, hitting, kicking, choking, bending and pinning an
opponent. Jigoro Kano reviewed all the principles of attack
and defence and correctly applied these to the game. Judo
in male category was introduced in Tokyo Olympic Games in
1964. Judo in women category was added in the Barcelona
Olympic, 1992.

Emergence of Judo in India

Judo was introduced through the Judo training centre at
Visva Bharati University started by Rabindranath Tagore
in 1905. It is believed that on the suggestion of Okakura
Kakuzo (master of Judo in Japan), Rabindranath Tagore
called a Judo expert from Japan to India in 1905.
Judo Federation of India (JFI) was formed in India in 1965
and thus attained steady growth. Worldwide, Judo is governed

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 Individual Games 89

by the IJF (International Judo Federation). The year 1966

witnessed the first National Judo Championship in Hyderabad.
Judo was included in the Asian Games in 1986 at Seoul
and India got its much needed break in Seoul Asian Games,
where Indians bagged four bronze medals. It was a milestone
for team India and since then, India has been performing
continuously at international Judo events. Several Indian
Judoka (a person who practises or is an expert in Judo)
qualified for the Olympic Games. Several of them received
the prestigious Arjuna Award for their performances. In the
2010 Judo World Cup in Tashkent, Thoudam Kalpana Devi
of Manipur became the first Indian to be included among the
top-three positions in the World Cup.

Basic Techniques
A few basic techniques of Judo given below with the original
terminology and their English version.
1. Tachi-Waza — Standing techniques
2. Koshi-Waza — Hip techniques
3. Ashi-Waza — Leg techniques
4. Te-Waza — Hand techniques
5. Osae-komi-Waza — Ground techniques (Holds)
6. Kensetsu-Waza — Arm lock techniques
7. Shime-Waza — Choking techniques

Basic rules
(i) During international competitions, each match lasts
for four minutes, and points and penalties are awarded
by the match referee assisted by the judges.
(ii) The main objective of the player is to score an ‘Ippon’
(winning point) before the time runs out. Once a player
scores an Ippon or is given a ‘Hansoku-make’ (severe
penalty), the match ends immediately. Otherwise, the
winner of the match is determined by the scored points.
(iii) If the points are equal, then the winner is declared on
the basis of the least number of penalty points known
as ‘Shido’, means minor penalties.
(iv) Judoka are not allowed to employ any of the outlawed
techniques, attacking joints other than the elbows,
punching or kicking, touching the opponent’s face, or
intentionally injuring the opponent in any way.
(v) In a judo bout, Judoka can achieve two types of scores
(Ippon and waza-ari).

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(vi) Ippon is the best, as it results in immediate victory.

Do You Know?
•• Yasuhiro Yamashita is a
Ippon can be achieved by throwing an opponent in
legend of world Judo. such a way as to make them land on their back.
•• Judogi is the formal Japanese (vii) Ippon can also be achieved by trapping an opponent in
name for the traditional an armhold or stranglehold to the extent that it forces
uniform used for Judo the opponent to surrender or immobilising an opponent
practice and competition. on the floor for at least 20 seconds.
(viii) The next best score is waza-ari, which is awarded for
lesser throws than those required for scoring ippon,
and for immobilising the opponent for less than the
time required to score ippon, i.e., 10 seconds.
(ix) There are two types of penalties awarded in judo — shido
and hansoku-make. Awarding hansoku-make to a
judoka automatically gives the match to the opponent.
Hansoku-make is given for major rule breaches or
for the accumulation of three shidos. The third shido
becomes hansoku-make (disqualified).

Specifications of Dress and Belts

Table 9: Judogi (Judo Dress) and Obi (Belt)

(Blue and White)

Rank Senior Junior

Sixth kyu
(beginner)
Light Blue Light Blue
Fifth kyu
Fourth kyu
White White
Third kyu
Second kyu
First kyu Brown Purple

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 Individual Games 91

First dan
Second dan
Third dan
Fourth dan Black
Fifth dan
Sixth dan
Seventh dan
Eighth dan
Red and White
or

Black
Ninth dan
Tenth dan
Eleventh dan

Red or Black

Golden Score
In case there is no score(s) or scores are equal, the contest will
continue till golden score. Any score or penalties from regular
time will remain on the scoreboard and will be extended into
the golden score overtime period. The decision in the golden
score is made by the deference or score or hansoku-make.

Measurements of Contest Area in Judo

A traditional Judo match takes place on tatami mats
measuring 14×14 meters or 16×16 meters, with a combat
area of 9×9 meters or 10×10 meters marked out within
it. Players must wear the designated uniform with an
appropriate knotted belt. The Judo player/athletes who are
called Judoka, must bow before stepping onto the mat, and
must bow to each other before and after the competition.

Competition area
The competition area is a minimum of 14m×14m and is
divided into two zones. The inner zone called the contest area
is a minimum of 8m×8m to a maximum of 10m×10m. The
outer zone is the safety area and is a minimum of 3m wide.
The contesting area is of different colour to the safety area.
When using two or more adjoining competition areas, the
common or shared safety area is 4m. A free zone, a minimum of
50 cm, must be maintained around the entire competition area.

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14–16 metres

8–10m

Contest
Area Blue Competitor

Board
Score
14–16 metres

Scorers
Referee

Timers
White Competitor

Safety area
3m

Fig. 4.39: Competetion area of judo

Tatamis
The competition area is covered by a tatamis or similar material.
The tatamis is made of pressed foam and is 1m×2m or 1m×1m.

Platform
The platform is optional and is made up of solid wood. It
measures approximately 18m×18m. When using a platform,
it is recommended that the safety area is a minimum of 4m
wide around the competition area.

Judogi (Uniforms)
Judoka must wear the appropriate Gi (uniform). Judogi is no
more than 5 cm above the ankle and wrist and is tied with
the correct style of knotted belt.

Referees and Judges

Contest occurs under the supervision of a referee and two
judges. The referee stands inside the contest area, and the
two judges sit at the outer corner of the contest area, diagonal
to each corner.

Contestants
The name of the blue uniform contestant is called first,
followed by the name of the white uniform contestant.

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 Individual Games 93

The contest begins with the blue contestant stands on

the right side of the referee while the white contestant
stands on the left. The referee starts the bouts by saying
Hajime (start). The referee stops the bouts temporarily by
saying Mate.

Commonly used terms in Judo

1. Hajime — Start
2. Sore-mate — time up
3. Mate — temporarily stop a contest
4. Osae-komi — pinned the opponent
5. Toketa — if the pinned opponent successfully breaks the
pin (breaking the hold)
6. Kuzushi — breaking the balance of the opponent

Important Tournaments
1. National School Games
2. CBSE School National Competition
3. Federation Cup
4. International Competitions like, Asian Games,
Commonwealth Games, and Olympics.

Judo weight categories

The following weight categories are classified for the purpose
of competition.
Table 10: Judo Weight Categories List

U-19 Boys U-19 Girls

Below 40 kg Below 36 kg
Below 45 kg Below 40 kg
Below 50 kg Below 44 kg
Below 55 kg Below 48 kg
Below 60 kg Below 52 kg
Below 66 kg Below 57 kg
Below 73 kg Below 63 kg
Below 81 kg Below 70 kg
Below 90 kg Below 70 kg
Below 90 kg ---

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 94 Health and Physical Education - XI

Do You Know? Swimming

In the 1912 Olympic games,
Fanny Durack of Australia History
became the first Female
Olympic Swimming Gold In the early 1800s, swimming emerged as a competitive sport
Medalist in 100 m Free Style. in England. The first indoor swimming pool, St George’s
Baths, was opened for public use in the year 1828. The first
national governing body, the Amateur Swimming Association,
was formed in the year 1880.
The Olympic Games were held in 1896 in Athens, which
was a male-only competition. Six events were planned for the
swimming competition, but only four events were actually
contested — 100 m, 500 m, and 1200 m freestyle and 100 m
for sailors. The first gold medal was won by Alfréd Hajós of
Hungary in the 100 m freestyle.
In 1908, the world swimming body ‘Federation
Internationale de Natation’ (FINA) was formed.
Women were first allowed to take part in swimming
competitions in the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm
competing in freestyle races. In the 1912 games, Harry
Hebner of the United States won the 100 m backstroke.

History of Swimming in India

In the year 1948, the Swimming Federation of India (SFI) was
formed. Since then this body is looking after the promotion
and administration of aquatic sports in India. The SFI is
affiliated to FINA, the world governing body for the sport.
Few not able Indian swimmers are Sachin Nag, Sufyan
Shaikh, Khajan Singh, Nisha Milled, Sikha Tandon, and
Sandeep Sejwal.
Table 11: Dimensions of Swimming Pool

Physical Property Specified Value

Length 50 m
Width 25 m
Depth 2.0 m (6 ft 7 in) minimum, 3.0m (9
ft 10 in)
Number of lanes 10
Lane width 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in)
Water temperature 25 – 28°C (77– 82°F)

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50m
50m 15m
Starting Platform
Lane Rope Lane Markings 5m

Lane 1

Lane 2

Lane 3

Lane 4

Lane 5

Lane 6
25m

Lane 7

Lane 8

Lane 9
2.5m

Lane 10

Backstroke Turn indicator

False Start Rope Backstroke Turn indicator

Fig. 4.40: Aerial view of swimming pool

Starting Platforms
Starting platforms shall be firm and give no springing effect.
The height of the platform above the water surface shall
be from 0.5 metre to 0.75 metre. The surface area shall be
at least 0.5 metre×0.5 metre and covered with a non-slip
material. Maximum slope shall not be more than 10 degrees.

0.5m
ft /1.6
1.6 ft
m/
0.5 100 max

0.5-0.75m/
1.6-2.5ft
above Water

0.3-0.6m/
1-2ft
above Water

Fig. 4.41: Starting platforms

Teaching swimming in early stages

Teaching swimming sounds like a task for those who know
how to swim. But if you are not careful, you can scare people

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 96 Health and Physical Education - XI

away from the water for a good amount of years. So, how you
Activity 4.9
Make a list of the Olympic teach swimming is very important. If swimming is not taught
events of swimming. properly and correctly, children can develop a phobia.

Role of the Teacher

1. Cheerful attitude
2. Understand individual differences
3. Offer plenty of encouragement
4. Recognise the fear of the student
5. Develop self-confidence in students
6. Praise students
7. Have patience

The beginning
Assemble the class at pool side at a given point of time. First,
orient the children with pool surroundings and swimming
environment by taking them around the pool, showing
various equipment, changing rooms, different depths of
the pool, specially the limits of shallow water. Also brief the
safety, health and hygiene rules which are to be followed by
all at the pool. Engage them in talks and bring them closer to
the pool. Make them sit on the deck around the shallow end
with feet hanging and swinging in the water, making waves.
Also encourage them to lean forward and touch the water
with hands.

Entry into the pool

Organise a partner system (spotter system), one acting as a
spotter for the other. If required, air tubes and arm bands
may be used. Various methods of safe entry may be used,
i.e., walking down the steps if provided at the shallow end
facing the pool side, sit on the pool side, grip the railing with
the other hand, try the same method by facing pool side and
jump towards the teacher/partner already into the water to
support.

Movement at the shallow end

Encourage the children to move along the wall, rail or scum
gutter immediately on entering the water. Take support
with one hand and paddle with the support of rail or wall
and paddle with both hands while walking at the shallow
end. Later, introduce hopping and let them sink down up to
shoulder level.
Breathing with the mouth may be introduced by blowing
into the water taken in both hands or by putting the face on
the surface in standing position with feet apart.

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Getting the feet off the bottom

Walking across the pool with shoulders submerged and arms
at stretch for support and holding kick boards with both hands.
Gradually increase the speed and lean forward until the feet
rise from the bottom. Students stand back towards the wall in
forward leaning position, approximately 2 meters away, arms
stretched forward on the surface and shoulder submerged.
From this position, they lean forward on the water, push off
with the feet and glide towards a wall, rail or scum gutter.

Floating
Remember that it is much easier to float on the surface by
keeping the body relaxed than by thrashing about with arms
and legs. After having left the bottom with support, the child
should now be ready to float without any support or help.
Types of Floats
There are many techniques of floating, such as—
1. Tuck float
2. Jellyfish float
3. Prone float
4. Star float
5. Supine float

Pushing off, gliding and standing up again

The beginners should now gain confidence, as swimming is
based on the principle of gliding across the surface of the
water. Stand with your back to the side walls of the pool and
close up against it, leave the shoulders into the water keeping
the head above the surface, now place the foot against the
wall, take a deep breath, lower the face into the water and
kick the wall with the raised foot.
Lift the other leg so that both the legs end up straight and
pointed behind. The body will stretch on the surface and now
glide towards the partner who is standing 4 – 5 meters away.
The partner now holds the out stretched hand, lowers the
hips, pulls the knees under the body, thrust them down to
the bottom placing a little apart, and the beginner stands up
on the floor raising the head and shoulders.
Practice gliding further with a float held in extended
hands. It enables the beginner to stay on the surface and
make him ready to learn the stroke.

Which Stroke First?

There are no set rules regarding the order in which swimming
strokes should be taught to the beginners. There are various

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 98 Health and Physical Education - XI

schools of thought about the stroke best suited to the

beginners. Some suggest back stroke for beginners.
Whatever the merits of any stroke may be, a multiple
stroke approach in the early stages may be preferred
whereby the learner is given an experience of all the strokes
and later the learner allowed to make up one’s own mind.
The butterfly stroke, however, may be introduced at a later
stage as it requires a high degree of swimming proficiency,
strength and co-ordination.

Fundamental rules and regulations

Following rules should be followed by the competitors while
swimming in a race.
(i) A swimmer shall swim the course alone and cover the
whole distance to qualify.
(ii) A swimmer must finish the race in the same lane in
which he started.
(iii) In all the events, a swimmer while turning, shall make
physical contact with the end of the pool. The turn
must be made from the wall, and it is not permissible
to take a stride or step from the bottom of the pool.
(iv) Standing on the bottom during freestyle events or
during the freestyle portion of medley events shall not
disqualify a swimmer, but he shall not walk.
(v) Pulling on the lane rope is not allowed.
(vi) Obstructing another swimmer by swimming across
another lane or interfering the other shall disqualify
the offender. Should the foul be intentional, the referee
shall report the matter to the member promoting the
race and to the swimmer so offending.
(vii) No swimmer shall be permitted to use or wear any device
that may aid speed, buoyancy or endurance during a
competition (webbed gloves, fins, etc.). Goggles may
be worn.
(viii) Any swimmer not participating in a race shall be
disqualified, if they enter the water, in which an event
is being conducted before the preceding team-mate
touches the wall.
(ix) There shall be four swimmers in each relay team.
(x) In relay events, the team of swimmers whose feet lose
touch with the starting platform before the preceding
team-mate touches the wall, shall be disqualified.
(xi) Any relay team shall be disqualified from a race if a
team member, other than the swimmer supposed to

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 Individual Games 99

swim that length, enters the water when the race is

being conducted, before swimmers of all the teams
have finished the race being conducted.
(xii) The member of a relay team and their order of competing
must be nominated before the race. Any relay team
member may compete in the race only once.
The composition of a relay team may be changed
between the heats and finals of the event, provided that it
is made up from the list of swimmers properly entered by
a member of that event. Failure to swim in the order listed,
will result in disqualification. Substitutions may be made
only in the case of a documented medical emergency.
(xiii) Any swimmer having finished his race, or his distance
in a relay event, must leave the pool as soon as possible
without obstructing any other swimmer who has not yet
finished his race. Otherwise the swimmer committing
the fault or his relay team shall be disqualified.
(xiv) Should a foul endanger the chances of success of a
swimmer, the referees shall have the power to allow
him to compete in the next heat or, should the foul
occur in a final event or in the last heat, he/she may
order it to re-swim.
(xv) No pace-making shall be permitted, nor may any device
be used which has that effect.

Swimwear
The swimwear includes swimsuit, cap and goggles, which
shall be in good moral state and suitable for the individual
sports disciplines and should not carry any symbol which
may be considered offensive. The swimsuits shall be non-
transparent. It is permissible to wear two caps.
Table 12: Events Conducted in the
World Championships in 50 m pool

Events Men Women

Freestyle 50m, 100m, 200m, 50m, 100m,
400m, 800m, 200m, 400m,
1500m 800m, 1500m
Backstroke 50m, 100m, 200m 50m, 100m, 200m
Butterfly 50m, 100m, 200m 50m, 100m, 200m
Ind. Medley 200m, 400m 200m, 400m
Relays Freestyle 4×100m, 4×200m 4×100m, 4×200m

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 100 Health and Physical Education - XI

Medley 4×100m 4×100m

Mixed Relays 4×100 Freestyle and 4×100m Medley

Fundamental Techniques
Techniques in swimming are classified into three main
categories —
1. Strokes
2. Starts
3. Turn

Strokes
In swimming, there are four strokes used in the competition
all over the world.
1. Front Crawl or Freestyle
2. Back Crawl
3. Breast
4. Butterfly
Teaching stages of front crawl stroke

Fig. 4.42: Front crawl stroke

1. Body Position: The basic body position for teaching

the front crawl stroke is streamlined prone position.
The swimmer lies flat on his stomach with both arms
stretched out in front, passing by the side of ears and
the water level is at hair line. Both legs are extended to
the back with toes pointed.
2. Arm Action: The arms are pulled alternately from
front to back inside the above. While one arm is
pulling/pushing, the other arm is recovering. The

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arm strokes provide most of the forward propulsion.

The arm action is further divided into entry, catch,
pull, push, release, initial and final recovery.
3. Leg Action: The leg movements in front crawl is
called the flutter kick. The legs move alternatively
up and down. The leg movement originates from the
hip joint. While one leg kicks downward, the other
leg recovers upward. The knees are flexed with toes
pointed during the downbeat and are kept straight
with toes relaxed during the upbeat. Though, the
leg action provides only a small amount of forward
propulsion when combined with arm action, but it
is essential to attain horizontal body position and
reduce the body drag.
4. Lateral Breathing: Breathing in the front crawl stroke
is done on the side, whichever side is convenient to the
swimmer. The swimmer takes the breath through the
mouth by turning the head to the side of the pushing
arm, at the beginning of recovery. Soon the face goes
back into the water and the swimmer breathes out more
through the mouth and only a small portion through
the nose. The mouth goes to the other side also while
breathing out but does not come out of the water. The
swimmer continues exhalation and goes back to the
same side to inhale again. Usually the swimmers take
breath every arm cycle.
5. Body Roll: The body of the front crawl stroke swimmer
rotates around its long axis with every arm stroke so
that the shoulder of the recovering arm is higher than
the shoulder of the pulling/pushing arm. This helps the
pulling arm to sink down and perform a deeper pull, and
on the other hand, it facilitates a high elbow of the other
arm.
Teaching stages of back crawl stroke

Fig. 4.43: Back crawl stroke

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 102 Health and Physical Education - XI

1. Body Position: The basic body position for teaching the

back crawl stroke is streamlined supine position. The
swimmer lies flat on his back with both arms stretched
back over head, passing by the side of ears. Face is out
of the water and both legs are extended back with toes
pointed. Hips are just below the water surface.
2. Arm Action: The arms are pulled alternately from
back to front inside the water and recovers above the
water with straight arm over the body. While one arm is
pulling/pushing, the other arm is recovering. The arm
strokes provide most of the forward propulsion. The arm
action is further divided into various parts, such as, the
entry, catch, pull, push, release, and recovery.
3. Leg Action: The legs move alternately up and down.
The leg movement originates from the hip joint. While
one leg kicks downward, the other leg recovers upward.
The knees are flexed with toes pointed during the
upbeat and are kept straight with toes relaxed during
the downbeat.
4. Lateral Breathing: Breathing in backstroke is very easy,
as the mouth and nose are usually above the water. The
swimmer breathes once in every arm cycle.
Teaching stages of breast stroke

Fig. 4.44: Breast stroke

1. Practise the kick and its movements on dry land of

the water.
2. Practise the kick on the edge of the swimming pool in
the water.
3. Kick back with a board held to the chest in prone
position. Try to keep the knees stable at the surface and
draw both the feet to the buttocks by bending at the

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knee, not at the hip. Allow the swimmer to let their feet
work in a wide arc, if necessary, as the main aim is to get
their feet turned out. Once the swimmer has their feet
ready to kick back, it is advisable to get them to pause
at this point and consciously turn their feet out before
kicking back, and pause again while the legs are fully
extended.
4. Kick on front, holding the board on the back and with
thumbs underneath and arms fully extended. Place the
face in water and proceed to do three kicks and then
breathe. Stretch and glide after each kick. Keep the head
very stable with the eyes looking to the front at all times.
Rocking movements of the head are best avoided as they
affect the body position and the swimmer can lose track
of where their arms and legs are. A stable head helps
maintain a reference point. The breathing is performed
by raising and lowering the head as one unit.
5. Repeat Step 4 by doing two kicks and one round of
breathing.
6. One breath and one kick. Holding the board (as above)
with eyes looking directly ahead and arms and legs
fully extended. Ask the swimmer to lift their head and
shoulders (by contracting their back muscles), then lift
their feet, lower their head and shoulder, then kick and
glide. Repeat this sequence over and over—stressing to
the swimmer that the first movement in the sequence is
raising of the head and shoulders.
a. The Pull: Swimmers have a lot of difficulty with
learning the pull because they achieve very little
propulsion. This causes difficulty in teaching the
stroke as the swimmers modify the pull incorrectly,
in order to gain propulsion. To avoid this temptation,
the use of fins is employed to enable them to propel
themselves while they develop the correct stroke
mechanics. As the swimmers become more proficient,
the fins are removed.
b. The Complete Stroke: By following the above
progression, the swimmer has learned to kick and
breathe, and pull and breathe with the correct
timing. All that remains to do now is, to connect the
two skills together and the timing should look after
itself – as it has already been taught.

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(i) Three kicks with arms extended and one pull.

Breathe only on the full stroke. Glide after each
kick and look straight ahead at all times.
(ii) Two kicks with arms extended and one pull. Breathe
only on the full stroke. Glide after each kick.
(iii) Normal breast stroke with a long glide—
beginning the next stroke after exhalation has
been completed. The above three skills are
important for consolidating the stroke. Try to
develop power in the pull and the kick whilst still
holding a glide in the stroke. By doing this, you
will develop speed and strength without running
the risk of losing the timing. Only when the
swimmer is swimming strongly and correctly,
should the glide be reduced for faster swimming.
Fast breast stroke swimming is achieved with
minimum glide but with the maintenance of
maximum arm and leg extension. Teaching
breast stroke is an exercise of patience but if you
follow the process outlined above, you will find
it as an effective way for teaching breast stroke
with good technique from the earliest stages.
Teaching stages of butterfly stroke

Fig. 4.45: Butterfly stroke

1. Body Position: The body must be horizontal and

streamlined. The teacher/coach must make sure that
the swimmer can push off the wall in a streamlined
position initially on the surface and progress to dropping
down under the water and pushing off under water while
maintaining a streamlined body position. This takes time
and must be worked on continually. Apart from teaching
the swimmer the position needed for their body, it also

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develops the leg muscles needed for the push off in their
turns and eventually the leg drive needed for their dives.
Body should be either in the prone position. Legs together,
toes pointed, arms extended in front of the shoulders, head
positioned between the arms, ears squashed between the
arms, and one hand on top of the other. There should be no
gap between the arms and the ears. The top hand must be
locked over the bottom hand with, no gaps.
2. Dolphin Kick: The swimmers lie on the tummy, in a
streamlined position and push the chest down into the
water and let their bottoms rise and then vice versa, i.e.,
chest up and bottoms down. They can do this with the
hands by the side, to begin. They continue the movement,
trying to get to the other side of the pool. They must
do 3 – 4 movements without breathing and push the
chin forwards to grab a quick breath and then the head
returns to the streamlined position with the eyes looking
towards the bottom. Once this has been established, try
to extend the arms in front of the head in the streamlined
position and perform the same movement while breathing
at every fourth kick. Slowly build up the strength in the
kick by doing short distances with short to moderate rest
intervals. The goal is for a quick movement from the legs
and this takes strength and practice. Goal should be to
execute three kicks per second. All kicking practices can
be done with and without fins.

Starts
All four competitive strokes are to be started in the
competition by using a pair of techniques known as the start.
The swimmer emphasises on the quickest technique which
allows him a stinger push off from the starting position. The
popular starting techniques are—
1. Grab start
2. Circular start
3. Racing start
4. Conventional start
5. Track start
Teaching Stages of Start
For teaching the ‘start’ to the beginners, the following
sequence is followed—
1. Position on the block
2. Take off

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3. Flight (position in the air)

4. Entry into the water (glide first stroke)
However, back stroke uses almost a uniform technique,
which does not have any special name and is known as
backstroke start.

Turns
During the race, the swimmer must take a turn from the
end of the wall to complete the full distance of the race. The
swimmers try to use such techniques which are quicker
and gives strong push off from the wall within the
permissible rules of the stroke. The various turns used by
the swimmers are:
1. Simple
2. Throw away
3. Summersault
4. Flip
5. Roll over
6. Breast stroke
7. Butterfly
Teaching Stages of Turn
1. Approach to the wall
2. Turn or touch
3. Push off
4. Glide First

Table Tennis
History
Table tennis, also known as ‘Ping-Pong’, is a popular indoor
recreational sport in India. The International Table Tennis
Federation (ITTF) was founded in 1926. Table tennis made its
Olympic debut at the 1988 Seoul Games. At present, there are
226 member nations affiliated to International Table Tennis
Federation. Table Tennis Federation of India is one of the
founder members of ITTF and officially started playing table
tennis with the establishment of Table Tennis Federation of
India (TTFI) in 1926. Table tennis has been contested at the
Asian Games since 1958. Table tennis competition has been
in the Commonwealth Games as an optional sport since 2002.
World Team Table Tennis Championships, which include
men’s team and women’s team events, started in the year
2000. World Table Tennis Championships have been held since

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 Individual Games 107
1926, and biennially since 1957. Earlier the game was played
Do You Know?
up to 21 points, which was changed to 11 points effective from
Sharath Kamal is a famous
September 2001. The change of rule made the game faster. Table Tennis player of India,
The ITTF also changed the rule of five services by one player who was conferred Padma Shri
at a time to two services effective from 2002. All the table by the Government of India.
tennis events since 2014 are now being played with a new poly
material ball.

Facilities and Equipment Required

Table tennis is an indoor game requiring a racket, net, net
posts, a table and a ball.

2.74 m
1.
52
5
m

76 cm

Fig. 4.46: Table of table tennis

•• Surface of the table shall be rectangular, 2.74 m long

and 1.525 m wide, and shall lie in a horizontal plane 76
cm above the floor.
•• The playing surface may be of any material and shall
yield a uniform bounce of about 23 cm when a standard
ball is dropped on to it from a height of 30 cm.
•• The playing surface shall be uniformly dark coloured
and matt, but with a white side-line, 2 cm wide, along
each 2.74 m edge and a white end line, 2 cm wide,
along each 1.525 m edge.
•• For doubles, each court shall be divided into two equal
half-courts by a white centre line, 3 mm wide, running
parallel with the side lines; the centre line shall be
regarded as a part of each right half-court.
•• The net shall be suspended by a cord attached at each
end to an upright post 15.25 cm high, the outside limits
of the post being 15.25 cm outside the side line.

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 108 Health and Physical Education - XI

Do You Know?
Manav Thakkar of India secured
top position in the junior world
ranking of International Table
Tennis Federation during the
first month of 2018.

Activity 4.10
Check the Table Tennis tables of
your school by bouncing a Table
Tennis ball as per the rules.
Fig. 4.47: Net used in table tennis

•• The top of the net, along its whole length, shall be 15.25
cm above the playing surface.

Ball
•• The ball shall be spherical, with a diameter of 40 mm
and weigh 2.7 g.
•• It shall be made of celluloid or similar plastics material
and shall be white or orange in colour.
Fig. 4.48:
Table tennis ball
Racket
•• Racket may be of any size, shape or weight, but the
blade shall be flat and rigid.
•• At least 85 per cent of the blade by thickness shall be of
natural wood; an adhesive layer within the blade may
be reinforced with the fibrous material, but shall not be
thicker than 7.5 per cent of the total thickness or 0.35
mm, whichever is the smaller.
•• A side of the blade used
for striking the ball shall
be covered with either
ordinary pimpled rubber,
with pimples outwards
having a total thickness
including adhesive, of
not more than 2.0 mm,
or sandwich rubber,
with pimples inwards
or outwards, having a Fig. 4.49: Table tennis
total thickness including racket
adhesive of not more
than 4.0 mm.

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 Individual Games 109

Playing conditions
The playing space shall be rectangular and not less than 14
meter long, 7 meter wide and 5 meter high. The four corners
may be covered by surrounds of not more than 1.5 meter
length. For para event, F.O.P. (Field of Play) shall not be less
than 8×6 meter. In an international event, the light intensity
equally measured at the height of the playing surface shall
be at least 1000 lux uniformly over the whole playing area.

Definitions
•• A rally is the period during which the ball is in play.
•• The ball is in play from the last moment at which it is
stationary on the palm of the free hand before being
intentionally projected in service until the rally is
decided as a let or a point.
•• A let is a rally of which the result is not scored.
•• A point is a rally of which the result is scored.
•• The racket hand is the hand carrying the racket.
•• The free hand is the hand not carrying the racket; the
free arm is the arm of the free hand.
•• A player strikes the ball if he or she touches it in play
with his or her racket, held in the hand, or with his or
her racket hand below the wrist.
•• A player obstructs the ball if he or she, or anything
he or she wears or carries, touches it in play when it
is above or travelling towards the playing surface, not
having touched his or her court since last being struck
by his or her opponent.
•• The server is the player due to strike the ball first in a rally.
•• The receiver is the player due to strike the ball second
in a rally.
•• The umpire is the person appointed to control a match.
•• The assistant umpire is the person appointed to assist
the umpire with certain decisions.
•• Anything that a player wears or carries includes
anything that he or she was wearing or carrying, other
than the ball, at the start of the rally.
•• The end line shall be regarded as extending indefinitely
in both the directions.

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 110 Health and Physical Education - XI

Do You Know? Functional Rules of Table Tennis

India has won a total of •• The right to choose the initial order of serving, receiving
five medals in the 19th and starting at a particular end shall be decided by
Commonwealth Games. toss and the winner may choose to serve or to receive
first or to start at a particular end.
•• When one player or pair has chosen to serve or to
receive first or to start at a particular end, the other
player or pair shall have the other choice.
•• After 2 points have been scored, the serving player or
pair shall become the receiving player or pair. This
will continue until the end of the game, unless both
the players and pairs score 10 points or the expedite
system is in operation, when the sequence of serving
and receiving shall be the same but each player shall
serve for only 1 point in turn.

Fig. 4.50: Player playing table tennis

•• In each game of a doubles match, the pair having the

right to serve first shall choose which of them will
do so and in the first game of a match, the receiving
pair shall decide which of them will receive first; in
subsequent games in the match, the first server having
been chosen, the first receiver shall be the player who
served to him or her in the preceding game.
•• In doubles, during the change of service, the previous
receiver shall become the server and partner of the
previous server shall become the receiver.
•• The player or pair serving first in a game shall receive
first in the next game of the match and in the last
possible game of a doubles match, the pair due to
receive next shall change their order of receiving when
the first pair scores 5 points.

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 Individual Games 111

Fig. 4.51: Left arm service in table tennis

•• The player or pair starting at one end in a game shall

start at the other end in the next game of the match
and in the last possible game of a match, the players or
pair shall change ends when the first one player or pair
scores 5 points.
•• If a player serves or receives out of turn, play shall
be interrupted by the umpire as soon as the error is
discovered and shall resume with those players serving
and receiving who should be server and receiver
respectively at the score that has been reached,
according to the sequence established at the beginning
of the match and, in doubles, to the order of serving
chosen by the pair having the right to serve first in the
game during which the error is discovered.
•• If the players have not changed ends when they should
have done so, play shall be interrupted by the umpire
as soon as the error is discovered and shall resume
with the players at the ends at which they should be
at the score that has been reached, according to the
sequence established at the beginning of the match.
•• In any circumstances, all points scored before the
discovery of an error shall be reckoned.
•• The expedite system shall come into operation after 10
minutes’ play in a game or at any time when requested
by both the players or pairs except that expedite system
shall not be introduced in a game if at least18 points
have been scored.
•• If the ball is in play when the time limit is reached and
the expedite system is due to come into operation, play
shall be interrupted by the umpire and shall resume

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with service by the player who served in the rally

Activity 4.11
Play doubles and mixed that was interrupted; if the ball is not in play when
doubles in Table Tennis with the expedite system comes into operation, play shall
your classmates by following resume with service by the player who received in the
the laws of the game. immediately preceding rally.
•• Thereafter, each player shall serve for 1 point in turn
until the end of the game, and if the receiving player or
pair makes 13 good returns in a rally, the receiver shall
score a point.
•• Introduction of the expedite system shall not alter the
order of serving and receiving in the match.
•• Once introduced, the expedite system shall remain in
operation until the end of the match.

Scoring System
•• A match shall consist of the best of any odd number
of games.
•• A game shall be won by the player or pair first scoring
11 points unless both the sides score 10 points each,
when the game shall be won by the first player or pair
subsequently gaining a lead of 2 points.

Fundamental Techniques of Table Tennis (Grip)

The racket can be held with two different types of grip.
•• The penhold grip mainly used by Chinese and
Japanese.
•• Most commonly used grip is called ‘shakehand’ grip.

Fig. 4.52: Pen hold grip and shakehand grip (left to right respectively)

Service
There are different kinds of services that may be done from
forehand or backhand such as long service, short service,
flat service, spin service (side spin, back spin, top spin) low
toss and high toss service.

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 Individual Games 113

Activity 4.12
Revise the fundamental skills of
Table Tennis game.

Fig. 4.53: Backhand low toss service

Fig. 4.54: Forehand service sequence (left to right repectively)

Types of Strokes
•• There are offensive and defensive strokes played by a
table tennis player including backhand and forehand.
•• The offensive strokes in table tennis include drive, loop
drive, loop, loop kill, hook, counter drive, flip and smash.
•• The defensive strokes in table tennis include push, slice,
block, drive, lob, drop shot and spin (side backhand top).
Most commonly used skill is forehand push, which
can be played in the following way—
•• This stroke is mainly used if a player cannot play a
more aggressive attacking stroke.
•• It is used when the opponent plays the ball short to the
forehand with back spin. Right foot is the leading foot
to return the ball with body weight transferred onto the
right foot.
•• The racket moves in a downward forward direction to
contact the ball just in front of the body with slight
follow through.

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 114 Health and Physical Education - XI

•• The ball travels in upward direction from the racket.

•• Initially the stroke is practised when there is little back
spin on the ball from the opponent.

Wrestling
Do You Know? History
Vinesh Phogat is the first Wrestling has a prominent place in the Olympic Games
woman wrestler of India to win and considered as one of the oldest forms of combat. It is
gold at Asian Games.
believed that pictures of combating sports like wrestling
were depicted in 15,000-year-old cave drawings found
Activity 4.13 in France. Early Egyptians and Babylonians were also
Collect information about the believed to be using the same techniques for the purpose of
wrestlers of India and their
exhibiting their superiority over others. Wrestling was also
achievement at international
wrestling.
very popular in Greece. It was developed by ancient Greeks
as a way to train soldiers in hand-to-hand combat and
military exercises. As per records found in the history of
wrestling, it was year 1888 when the first national wrestling
tournament was hosted at New York City. During the first
Olympic Games, only one event in free style wrestling was
introduced. It was until Saint Louis Olympic Games in
1904, where the free style wrestling competition was hosted
in five categories. In 1908 Olympic Games, Greco Roman
wrestling was also introduced in five weight categories but
the number was increased up to eleven categories in later
years. The International Federation of Associated Wrestling
Styles (FILA) was founded in the year 1912 at Antwerp,
Belgium. Norway hosted the first world women’s wrestling
championship in the year1987 and women wrestling was
included in the Olympic Games 2004.

Wrestling in India
Wrestling has been popular in India since ancient times; it
was mainly an exercise to stay physically fit. The wrestlers,
traditionally, use to wear a linen cloth called Langota. The real
name which was used for the technique similar to wrestling
in India was Malla Yuddh. One of the premier characters of
the epic Mahabharata was Bhima, he was considered to be a
great wrestler of that time. Jarasangha, Duryodhana, Karna
and Balarama were included as other great wrestlers during
Mahabharata. In an other Indian epic Ramayana, Hanuman
is described as one of the greatest wrestlers of all time.

Governing Body
The governing body of the wrestling game at international level
is known as United World Wrestling (UWW). Earlier, wrestling

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 Individual Games 115

game was governed by International Amateur Wrestling

Federation, meant basically for the amateur wrestlers. Wrestling
game in India is governed by a controlling body named Wrestling
Federation of India (WFI), which was registered on 27th January, Do You Know?
1967 under the Society Act 1960 of the Government of India. Sakshi Malik won a bronze
The Wrestling Federation of India is the national governing body medal at Summer Olympic
Games in the year 2016.
for the regulation of wrestling in India.

Types of wrestling

Free style
Free style is a type of wrestling in which holds on whole body
parts are allowed. Free style wrestling was one out of total
nine events that were included in the first Olympic Games
1896.

Fig. 4.55: Free style wrestling

Greco-Roman
The Greco-Roman type of wrestling forbids holds below the
waist; this is the major difference between Greco-Roman and
freestyle wrestling. Greco-Roman is an international sport
that was contested at the first modern Olympic Games in
1896 at Athens as an exhibition sport. Greco-Roman style of
wrestling has been included in every edition of the summer
Olympics held since 1908. Two wrestlers are scored for their
performance in two minutes bout for three periods. A wrestler
can also win by pinning down (or fall) the opponent without
completing the full time bout or periods. Women’s wrestling
was added to the summer Olympics, in 2004, at St. Louis
(Missouri), USA.

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 116 Health and Physical Education - XI

Fig. 4.56: Greco-Roman wrestling

Fundamentals of Wrestling

Weight Categories
There are different weight categories in wrestling for various
age groups, at school level as well as at senior level. Wrestlers
in the junior age category are allowed to participate in the
competitions at senior level. However, in order to take part at
senior level competition, wrestlers aged 18 in the concerned year
must provide a medical certificate and parental authorisation.
Wrestlers aged 17 in the year in question may not participate
in senior competitions. Weight categories are classified for
the purpose of giving equal opportunity to every wrestler
competing in the competition. Wrestling competition organised
at international level for different age groups are:
School Boys: 14 –15 years
Cadets: 16 –17 years
Juniors: 18 –20 years
Seniors (Under 23): 19–23 years
Seniors: Above 20 years
Table 13: Weight Categories up to Junior level
S. School School Cadet Cadet Junior Junior
No. Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
1. 29 – 32 28 – 30 39 – 42 36 – 38 46 – 50 40 – 44
2. 35 32 46 40 55 48
3. 38 34 50 43 60 51
4. 42 37 54 46 66 55
5. 47 40 58 49 74 59

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 Individual Games 117

6. 53 44 63 52 84 63 Activity 4.14
7. 59 48 69 56 96 67 Collect information about
8. 66 52 76 60 96 –120 67 – 72 Arjuna award winners in
wrestling and discuss about the
9. 73 57 85 65 participation of Indian women
10. 73 – 85 57 – 62 85 – 100 65 – 70 in wrestling.
Table 14: Weight Categories up to Junior level
S. Senior Olympic Senior Olympic Women
No. (Freestyle) (Freestyle) (Greco- (Greco- (Freestyle
Roman) Roman) Olympic)
1. 57 57 59 59 48/48
2. 61 65 66 66 53/53
3. 65 74 71 75 55
4. 70 86 75 85 58/58
5. 74 97 80 98 60
6. 86 125 85 130 63/63
7. 97 98 69/69
8. 125 130 75/75
Table 15: New weight categories (boys) described by School
Games Federation of India (SGFI) (from 2018–19)
Under 14 Under 17 Under 19 Under 19
(Freestyle (Freestyle (Freestyle) (Greco-
Boys) and Greco- Boys Roman)
Roman Boys) Boys
35 41–45 57 55
38 48 61 60
41 51 65 63
44 55 70 67
48 60 74 72
52 65 79 77
57 71 86 82
62 80 92 87
68 92 97 97
75 110 125 130
Costume of a Wrestler

Singlet
Contestants must appear on the edge of the mat, wearing
an approved one-piece singlet of the colour assigned to them
(red or blue). It is forbidden to have a mixture of red and blue
colours on the singlet.

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 118 Health and Physical Education - XI

Ear protectors
If the wrestlers want, they can wear ear protectors, which
must be approved by United World Wrestling (UWW) and
must not contain any metal or have hard shells. The referee
can oblige a wrestler whose hair is too long, to wear ear
protectors.

Wrestling shoes
Contestants must wear wrestling shoes, providing firm
support for the ankles. The use of heels in shoes, nailed
soles, shoes with buckles or any metallic part is prohibited.

Measurement of Wrestling Arena

The following measurements and wrestling terms are used to
designate the various parts of the wrestling mat:
•• The central circle indicates the middle of the mat, which
is one meter in diameter.
•• The orange circle in the central surface of wrestling
mat is called central wrestling area and is 7 meters in
diameter, from the inside measurement.
•• The orange strip is 1 meter wide.
•• The area outside the orange circle is called protection
area, which is 1.5 meter wide.
•• In all cases, the colour of the protection area will have
to be different from the one of the mat.
The coach of each athlete will be present in the same side
of the mat. The red wrestler will be placed on the left side and
the blue wrestler on the right side.
Corner Corner
12 m
Protection Area

Central Wrestling
Area
1m 7m
1.5 m
12 m

Passivity Zone

Fig. 4.57: Wrestling mat

Rules
The rules for wrestling usually change with the type of
wrestling game being played. For instance, in Greco-Roman

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 Individual Games 119

Wrestling, players cannot hold an opponent below the waist,

but holding legs is generally allowed in Freestyle Wrestling.

Prohibitions Activity 4.15

Collect information about
•• Wrestling styles forbid the use of martial arts’ tactics.
Dronacharya awardees and
Strikes and kicks aren’t permitted.
their contribution to Indian
•• It is prohibited to wear the emblem or abbreviation of Wrestling.
another country in the wrestling costume.
•• It is prohibited to apply any greasy or sticky substance
to the body.
•• It is prohibited to arrive at the mat perspiring at the
beginning of the match and at the beginning of each
period.
•• It is prohibited to wear bandages on fingers, wrists,
arms or ankles except in the case of injury and on
doctor’s orders. These bandages must be covered with
elastic straps.
•• It is prohibited to wear any object that might cause
injury to the opponent, such as rings, bracelets,
prosthesis, piercing, etc.
•• It is prohibited to wear under-wired bras for women
wrestler.

Classification of points
•• The prime objective of Olympic Wrestling is to put
your opponent on their back or to pin the opponent
to the ground. This is only applicable if any part of
the shoulder or both shoulder blades of the opponent
contact the mat for at least a period of two seconds.
•• To encourage risk-taking during bouts, a wrestler who
may unsuccessfully try to execute a hold but ends
up in the ‘parterre’ position (hands and knees on the
ground), the wrestler on above will not be awarded any
point. However, during a hold, if a defending wrestler
initiates a counter-attack successfully, points would be
awarded for the action.
•• Three points are given to the near fall position for the
player who gets the opponent to fall down but can’t
pin down completely. These points are given when
shoulders of the opponent are within 4 inches of the
mat (for at least 2 seconds) or when one shoulder
touches the mat and the other is at 45 degree angle or
when the wrestler is in high bridge.
•• An offensive wrestler can also get a point in ‘danger
position’. A ‘danger position’ is the position when a
defensive wrestler’s body assumes bridge position
in order to be avoided being pinned down. A ‘danger

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 120 Health and Physical Education - XI

position’ is considered when the wrestler’s line of the

Do You Know?
The first wrestler of India to win back or shoulder is vertical or parallel to the mat,
a medal at Olympic Games was forming an angle of less than 90 degrees, but the
Khashaba Dabasaheb Jadhav in position is assumed only to resist the fall.
1952. •• Points are awarded for the following—
Takedown: Up to 2 points are awarded if the
Activity 4.16 opponent is taken down on the mat and the other
Collect information about player is controlling them.
budding wrestlers through Escape: Up to 1 point is given to a player who gets
Khelo India Programme. away from the mat or gets into a neutral position
when pinned down.
Reversal: 2 points are given to the player who
gains control of the opponent from underneath
them.
Near fall: 2 points if the fall lasts for two seconds
or 3 points if it lasts for 5 seconds.
Penalty Points: Up to 2 points for illegal holds,
and technical violations like going off the mat,
grabbing clothing, locking or overlapping hands.

Caution to a Wrestler
Caution is given to the wrestler for the following actions
during the competition—
•• For fleeing the mat, fleeing a hold, refusal to start, and
illegal hold be noted by awarding (0).
•• After each caution (0), the opponent will automatically
receive two points in Greco-Roman wrestling.
•• After each caution (0), the opponent will automatically
receive one or two technical points in Freestyle wrestling
depending on the gravity of the infraction.
•• In Greco-Roman wrestling, no point is granted to the
opponent when a wrestler is warned for the second
time for passivity.
•• Offensive wrestler can get a penalty to lock hands (except
cradles) around the torso of the defensive wrestler.
•• It can only be done if the opponent is standing on their
feet or close to the fall count.
•• A referee will consider overlapping fingers as locked hands.

Technical Violation
The referee can penalise the wrestler for the technical
violation of the following rules—
•• Going off the mat or forcing your opponent off the mat
to avoid wrestling.
•• Leaving the mat during the match without the referee’s
permission.

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 Individual Games 121

•• Reporting to the mat not properly equipped or not ready

to wrestle, or with the illegal equipment at the time of Activity 4.17
starting the match. Collect information about all
•• Bringing roughness in the game unnecessarily. the Indian wrestlers who won
medals at Olympic Games.
•• Conducting oneself indecently.
•• Incorrect starting position or false start.

Points on Technical Violation

•• The first and second time wrestler is penalised, the
opponent is awarded point.
•• The third time wrestler is penalised, the opponent is
awarded 2 points.
•• The fourth time the wrestler is penalised with
disqualification from that bout.

Duration of the Bout

•• For school boys and cadets — two periods of 2 minutes
with a 30 seconds break.
•• For juniors and seniors — two periods of 3 minutes with
a 30 seconds break.
•• For all the competitions, the timing should be displayed
on the scoreboards and shall start from 0 to 6 minutes
for seniors and 0 to 4 minutes for schoolboys and
cadets.

Criteria to Win
•• A bout may be won by fall, withdrawal by injury,
default, disqualification of the opponent, or by technical
superiority through points.
•• In case of tie by points, the winner will be declared by
successively considering — the highest value of holds;
the least amount of cautions; and the last technical
point(s) scored.
•• If nobody gets pinned, the wrestler who scored the most
points during the match is declared as a winner.

Match Officials
In all competitions, the refereeing for each bout shall consist
of—
•• Mat Chairman
•• Referee
•• Judge
Some of the great wrestlers produced by India are Master
Chandgi Ram, Satpal, Kartar Singh, Ombir Singh, K.D.
Yadav, Palwinder Singh Cheema, Sushil Kumar, Yogeshwar
Dutt, Geeta Phogat, Narsingh Yadav, Babita Kumari, Vinesh
Phogat, Babita Kumari, Sumit Malik, etc.

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 Assessment
Athletics
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the meaning and history of athletics.
2. Describe the events organised in athletics.
3. Describe the classification of track events in athletics.
4. Describe the classification of field events in athletics.
5. Enlist the different types of throw events. Explain shot put
throw in detail.
6. Enlist the different types of jump events. Explain high jump in
detail.
7. Explain the types of crouch start in short distance running.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. What is the distance of runway in long jump and triple jump?
2. What is the size of landing area in high jump?
3. Name any four throwing events.
4. Name the famous technique used for high jump.
5. What is relay?
6. What is the weight of discus for men and women?
7. Which type of track is called a standard track?
8. What is the weight of the shot in shot put for men and women?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. The thickness of the take-off board in long jump and triple

jump is ___________.
2. Maximum weight of the crossbar in high jump is ___________.
3. The ___________ of shot put in women is 4 kg.
4. 28 hurdle jumps and 7 water jumps are there in ___________.

IV. State whether True or False

1. 400 m track is known as standard track.

2. 5 runners participate in a relay race.
3. Bunch start is a throwing technique.
4. Disco put style is applied in discus throw.
5. There are two types of tracks.

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 Individual Games 123

Badminton
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Write the history of Badminton in Olympics.
2. Write various types of events played in Badminton.
3. Write the dimensions of the Racket.
4. Draw a labelled badminton court.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. Who won India’s first Olympic medal in Badminton?

2. What is the legal height a badminton player is allowed to serve
from?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. Weight of a shuttle should be ___________.

2. Height of the badminton court for international competitions
shall be ______________.
3. The colour of the lines of badminton court should be
______________.

IV. State whether True or False

1. Thomas Cup was first held in 1956.

2. In badminton, doubles A side has only one service.
3. A 60 seconds interval between each game is allowed.
4. A player can win a game with a score of 30–28 points.
5. High serve is used sometimes in badminton men’s singles.

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 124 Health and Physical Education - XI

Gymnastics
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the history of gymnastics in Olympics.
2. Explain the evolution of gymnastics in India.
3. How many types of gymnastics are there? Enlist the men’s and
women’s apparatus used in artistic gymnastics.
4. Write down the specifications of uneven bars and pommel horse.
5. Enlist some advanced skills in gymnastics and explain the
process of ‘Cartwheel on Balancing Beam’.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. When was the gymnastics introduced in the Olympic Games?

2. Who is considered as the father of modern gymnastics?
3. How many events are there in Artistic Gymnastics for men?
4. What is the full form of F.I.G.?
5. When did women compete for the first time in Olympics?
6. In which year did Nadia Comaneci received the first perfect
score in Olympics?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. Gymnastics begun in ancient Greece about __________ years ago.

2. Today, gymnastics is often termed as the ultimate combination
of ______________.
3. Nadia Comaneci was the first female gymnast who received
perfect score in 1976 at ________________ Olympics.
4. Like any other sport, gymnastics is a physical exercise that
develops agility, coordination and ______________.

IV. State whether True or False

1. Gymnastics is an Olympic sport.

2. There are three events in women Gymnastics.
3. Roman rings is a men’s apparatus.
4. Balancing beam is an apparatus for men.
5. Floor exercise is an apparatus for both men and women.

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 Individual Games 125

Judo
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the history of Judo.
2. Describe the basic rules of Judo.
3. Explain about the emergence of Judo in India.
4. Explain the measurement and specifications of the contest
area in Judo.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. Where did Judo come from?

2. What is the difference between Judo and Jujutsu?
3. What are the working principles of Judo?
4. What is Kuzushi?
5. What is Kiai?
6. What are the Judo ranks?
7. Who created Judo?
8. What are the main types of Judo techniques?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. The two types of penalties awarded in Judo are ____________

and ____________.
2. The competition area of Judo is a minimum of ___________.
3. Judo was introduced in Olympic Games in __________ in Tokyo
only in female category.

IV. State whether True or False

1. Judo was included in the Asian Games in 1986.

2. Judo was introduced in Olympic Games in 1964 in Tokyo only
in male category.
3. The contest area is of different colour from the safety area.
4. Contest occurs under the supervision of a referee and two
judges.

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 126 Health and Physical Education - XI

Swimming
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the world and Indian history of swimming.
2. Write about the most renowned swimmers of India.
3. Explain the teaching stages of front crawl stroke.
4. Explain the teaching stages of back crawl stroke.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. When was the first swimming association formed?

2. Discuss about SFI within 50 words.
3. Explain the dimensions of a standard swimming pool?
4. What is the difference between freestyle and breast stroke?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. ________ºC to ________ºC is the normal range of temperature

for water in swimming pool.
2. In a standard pool, there are ________ lanes.
3. Grab is a type of ________ in swimming.
4. Jellyfish is a type of ________ in swimming.

IV. State whether True or False

1. During the relay, we can change the swimmer of a team.

2. During breast stroke, if the swimmer is tired he/she can use
freestyle swimming.
3. Back stroke in swimming starts from the water level.
4. During one’s turn, the swimmer is allowed to touch the floor.

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 Individual Games 127

Table Tennis
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Briefly write the history of Table Tennis.
2. Briefly write the scoring system in Table Tennis.
3. Write about the expedite system in Table Tennis.
4. How many types of strokes are there in table tennis?
Explain.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. How does a standard Table Tennis game end?

2. Besides the green colour? Which colour table can be used for
the table?
3. What should be the height of the ball when tossed for the
service?
4. Which country has won the most international titles in the
20th century?
5. What is the size of Table Tennis table?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. In Table Tennis, penhold grip is used by ____________ players.

2. Diameter of the Table Tennis ball shall be ________ mm.
3. Table Tennis became an Olympic sport in ___________.
4. Height of the table from the floor is _________.

IV. State whether True or False

1. Table Tennis was included in Asian Games in 1958 in Tokyo.

2. Table Tennis racket may be of any size, shape or weight. .
3. Table Tennis Federation of India was established in 1924.
4. Table Tennis is an indoor game.

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 128 Health and Physical Education - XI

Wrestling
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Differentiate between freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling in
detail.
2. Draw the labelled diagram of a wrestling playing mat.
3. Discuss different age and weight categories in wrestling for
male and female.
4. Discuss the various ways of winning points by a wrestler.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. List down the match officials in wrestling.
2. Who was the first wrestler to win an Olympic medal?
3. What are the two types of wrestling styles?
4. What is the name of the governing body of wrestling in India?
5. What does WFI stands for?
6. What is the term used for wrestling costume?
7. What is the major difference between Greco-roman and free
style wrestling?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. The first national wrestling championship under WFI was
held in __________________.
2. Passivity zone is of ____________ m in width.
3. First Indian male medallist in Olympics was ___________.
4. First Indian woman medallist in Olympics was ____________.
5. ____________ is the only Indian wrestler to win two medals at
the Olympics Games.

IV. State whether True or False

1. The registered office of wrestling federation of India is located

in UT of Delhi.
2. Women wrestlers participated first time in Olympics after the
gap of 100 years of their male counterpart.
3. In freestyle wrestling, the techniques are used only above the
waist.
4. Wrestling is a combat sports originated from Martial Arts.
5. Weight categories in Greco-Roman and freestyle are same.

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 Team Games
5
Any game which provides opportunities to two or more
players working together towards a shared objective is called
a team game. A team game is an activity in which individuals
are organised in a team to compete with the opposing team,
in accordance with a set of laws/rules to win. Games like
Basketball, Cricket, Football, Handball, Hockey, Volleyball,
etc., are some of the classic examples of major team games.
However, over a period of time, the popularity of team
games has grown continuously. These games have positively
influenced not just the players, but also their fans, local and
national economies. All over the world, the impact of team
games can be seen resulting in professional players to live
out their dreams. Star players have become role models to
youth. Young athletes/players develop life skills which are
followed as footsteps of their role models.
In this chapter, some of the team games like Basketball,
Cricket, Football, Handball, Hockey, Kabaddi, Kho-Kho, and
Volleyball are explained.

Basketball
Basketball is a team game played between two teams
of five players each, on the court. Very high amount of
energy (calories) expenditure is there in this game. It also
helps in building bone and muscle strength and boosts the
immune system. This game also develops self-discipline and
concentration among young players.

History
Basketball originated in the United States of America and
was invented by Dr. James Naismith in December, 1891, who
was a Physical Educator at the International Young Men’s
Christian Association Training School (YMCA) (now known

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 130 Health and Physical Education - XI

as Springfield College of Physical Education) in Springfield,

Massachusetts.

Do You Know?
On January 15 1892, the first
set of rules of the Basketball
game were published by
Dr. James Naismith in the
college magazine, “Triangle”,
under the title “A New Game”.

Fig. 5.1: Dr. James Naismith

Naismith sought a vigorous indoor game to keep his

students occupied and at proper levels of fitness. But after
rejecting many ideas, he obtained a soccer ball and two
wooden peach baskets. He hung the baskets on the railing of
the balcony at the height of 10 ft above the floor at the opposite
ends of the gym hall. The objective of the game was to toss
the soccer ball into the peach baskets. The first basketball
game was played among physical education students with
nine players on each side, of Springfield secretarial training
class of Physical Education (PE) College in December, 1891.
The International Basketball Federation FIBA (French
acronym: Federation Internationale de Basketball) association
was founded in Geneva in 1932. Basketball was featured in
the St. Louis, Missouri, United States, III Olympic Games
in 1904. It was officially recognised as an Olympic game in
1936 in Berlin. Due to the wide popularity, Basketball was
played in the first Asian Games in 1951 held at New Delhi.

History of basketball in India

Basketball was introduced in India by American missionaries
towards the end of the first decade of 20th century. It was
presumed that in the year 1905, the game of basketball was
started at the YMCA Calcutta by H. Peterson and J.N. Guaj.
The credit of starting and popularising this game goes to
YMCA College of Physical Education, Madras in the year 1920.
The first National Basketball Championship was organised
in 1934 by the Indian Olympic Association and later after the

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 Team Games 131

constitution of Basketball Federation of India (BFI) in 1950 at

Do You Know?
Mumbai, the First National Basketball Championship under •• Late C.C. Abraham,
the banner of BFI was held at Ludhiana (Punjab) in 1951. professional Physical
Education Leader, from
Measurement of playgrounds, and field and Y.M.C.A. College of Physical
specifications of equipment Education, Chennai and
Meher Singh of Rajasthan
Playing court were the founder, president
and secretary of Basketball
The playing court shall have a hard and flat surface, free Federation of India (BFI).
from obstructions with dimensions of 28 m in length and
•• Wheelchair Basketball was
15 m in width measured from the inner edge of the boundary
developed in USA by a
lines and free space atleast 2 m on all sides. badly injured army person
after the Second World War
Boundary lines around 1946. The rules are
These lines are not part of the playing court. The centre approximately similar to
line is marked parallel to the endlines from the mid-point Basketball.
of the sidelines. The extended centreline at sidelines (5 cm)
divides the court in two halves. It consists of a Back court
(team’s own basket area) and a Front court (consists of the
opponents’ basket). All lines are drawn 5 cm in width and in
clearly visible white colour. The centre circle shall be marked
in the centre of the playing court and have a radius of 1.80
m measured to the outer edge of the circumference. If the
inside of the centre circle is painted, it must be the same
colour as of the restricted areas.
28m

0.90m Sideline
Throw-in line

8.325m
0.15m
Endline

1.575m
3.6m
6.75m
Restricted
Semi-Circle
No-charge

Centre
Circle

Area
15m

Th
Endline

ree

Centre line
Po
in

tL
in
e

Sideline

Fig. 5.2: Basketball court

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 132 Health and Physical Education - XI

Free-throw lines, restricted areas and free-throw

Do You Know?
•• Side line and end line of The free-throw lines are drawn parallel to each end line.
Basketball court is 28m in It shall have its farthest edge 5.80 m from the inner edge of
length and 15m in width the end line and shall be 3.60 m long. Its mid-point lies on
respectively. the imaginary line joining the mid-point of the two end lines.
•• Back support poles are 2 m The restricted areas are the rectangular areas marked on
away from the end lines. the playing court limited by the end lines, the extended free-
•• The height of the ring from throw lines and the lines which originate at the end lines.
floor is same as it was when Their outer edges being 2.45 m from the mid-point of the end
Basketball was originated. lines, terminate at the outer edge of the extended free-throw
lines. These lines, excluding the endlines, are part of the
restricted area. The inner side of the restricted areas must
be painted in one colour. The freethrow semi-circles marked
on the playing court with a radius of 1.80 m measured to the
outer edge of the circumference and with their centres at the
mid-point of the free-throw lines.
•• 3 points can be scored by shooting the ball into the op-
ponents’ basket from the entire court but from outside
of the 3 point line.
•• 2 points can be scored by shooting the ball into the
opponents’ basket, if the shot is taken from inside the
3 point line.
•• Only 1 point can be scored by single free shots.
1.8m

0.83m
No-charge
Semi-Circle area 0.83m
Neutral
0.4m
5.8m

Zone
0.375m

1.25m 0.85m

1.2m 1.75m
4.9m

Fig. 5.3: Restricted area in basketball

Equipment
The following equipment will be required—Backstop units
(backboards, comprising rings and nets, backboard support
structures including padding), basketballs, game clock,
scoreboard, shot clock, stopwatch or suitable (visible) device
(not the game clock) for timing and time-outs, two separate

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 Team Games 133

distinctly different and loud signals, one each for the shot
clock operator and scorer/timer, scoresheet, player foul
markers, and team foul markers.

Backboard
The backboards (1.80 m horizontally and 1.05 m vertically)
shall be made of a suitable transparent material, made in
one (1) piece, non-reflective, with a flat front surface. All lines
on the backboards shall be white, 50 mm in width. The rings
shall be made of solid steel and shall have an inside diameter
of a minimum of 450 mm and a maximum of 459 mm. The
nets (400 mm to 450 mm in length) shall be made of white
cord with 12 loops to attach it to the ring.

182.9cm

7.6cm 61cm 121.9cm

45.7cm 5cm

30.5cm

Fig. 5.4: Basketball backboard

182.88cm
106.68cm
3.05m from the ground

18inch
wide Diameter

Fig. 5.5: Basketball backboard and rim dimensions

Basketball
The ball shall be spherical, with black seams not exceeding
6.35 mm in width and, either of a single shade of orange or of

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 134 Health and Physical Education - XI

International Basketball Federation (FIBA) approved colour

combination and made of leather/artificial/composite/
synthetic leather/rubber. For all men’s and women’s
competitions, the basketball specifications are given in the
following table and diagram.
Do You Know?
First time Indian women’s team Table 1: Basketball dimensions according to category
participated in Bangkok Asian
Game in 1978.
Category Size Circumference Weight
Men 7 749–780mm 567–650g
Women 6 724–737mm 510–567g

Functional Rules of Basketball

Basketball is governed by FIBA official rules. The aim of each
team is to score in the opponent’s basket and to prevent the
other team from scoring. The team that has scored the greater
number of points at the end of playing time is declared as the
winner.

Team
In a match, two teams compete with each other. Each team
shall consist of not more than 12 team members entitled
to play, including a captain who represents his team on
the playing court. During playing time, five players from
each team shall be on the playing court, without this a game
cannot begin. Teams may use as many substitutions as.
A maximum of five team support staff members who may
sit on the team bench and have special responsibilities,
e.g., manager, doctor, physiotherapist, trainer, statistician,
interpreter, etc., besides a coach and, if a team wishes, it can
have an assistant coach also. Player’s positions are given in
the diagram below.

Fig. 5.7: Players, position (right), attack, defence (left)

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 Team Games 135

Opponents’ Own Basket

The basket that is attacked by a team is the opponents’
basket and the basket which is defended by a team is one’s
own basket.

Uniforms
The ‘All-in-ones’ uniform of the team members shall consist
of—Jersey of the same dominant colour on the front and back
and numbered on the front and back atleast 10 cm high
in front and 20 cm high in back with atleast 2 cm width.
All players must tuck their Jersey into their playing shorts.
Shorts end above the knee, of the same dominant colour at
front and back, but not necessarily of the same colour as the
jersey. Socks of the same dominant colour for all players of
the team. Teams must have a minimum of two sets of jersey
(light/dark). Chest number will be from 0 to 99 or 00.

Officials, table officials and commissioner

The officials shall be a referee and 1 or 2 umpire(s). They
shall be assisted by the table officials and by a commissioner,
if present. The table officials shall be a scorer, an assistant
scorer, a timer and a shot clock operator. Different signals
are used to run the game by officials. Each foul and goal
shall be mentioned in the scoresheet.

Playing time, tied score and extra periods

The game shall consist of 4 periods of 10 minutes each.
There shall be intervals of 2 minutes between the first and
second quarter (first half), between the third and fourth
period (second half) and before each extra period. There shall
be a half-time interval of play of 15 minutes. If the score is
tied at the end of playing time for the fourth period, the game
shall continue with as many extra periods of 5 minutes as is
necessary to break the tie.

Beginning and end of a period or the game

The first period begins when the ball leaves the hand(s) of
the referee on the toss for the jump ball and followed. All the
other periods start when the ball is disposed to the players
by the officials for the throw in.

How the ball is played

A game of basketball is played with hand(s) only and may be
passed, thrown, tapped, rolled or dribbled in any direction,
subject to the restrictions of the rules.

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 136 Health and Physical Education - XI

Goal
A basket scored from inside the three-point area (also called
2 point field goal area) is worth of 2 points. A basket scored
from beyond the three-point area (3 point field goal area) is
awarded 3 points. A basket scored for the free-throw is worth
of one point for each successful attempt.

Time-out
Each time-out shall last 1 minute. Each team may be granted
two time-outs during the first half, three time-outs during
the second half with a maximum of two of these time-outs in
the last 2 minutes of the second half. One time-out during
each extra period is also given.

Substitution
A team may substitute a player(s) during a substitution
opportunity when the game clock is stopped and the ball
becomes dead.

Game Lost by Forfeit and default

The game is lost by a team if the team is absent or unable to
present with five players on the court, or by their action to
prevent the game in scheduled time, or if they refuse to play.
In this situation, the opponent team is declared winner by
20–0.
The game may be lost by default when a team has fewer
then two players during the running game at the playing
court. The opponent team is declared winner by 2–0.

Violations
A violation is an infraction of the rules. There are different
types of violation that occurs during the game.
1. Player out-of-bounds and ball out-of-bounds: A
player is out-of-bounds when any part of his body is
in contact with the sideline or endline.
2. Dribbling: A dribble starts when a player, having
gained control of a live ball on the playing court,
throws, taps, rolls, dribbles it on the floor or
deliberately throws it against the backboard and
touches it again before it touches another player. A
dribble ends when the player touches the ball with
both hands simultaneously or permits the ball to
come to rest in one or both hands.
3. Time Rule: Three seconds—A player shall not hold
the ball in the opponents’ restricted area with live ball
for more than continuous 3 seconds.

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 Team Games 137

•• Five seconds—A player may not hold the ball for

Activity 5.1
more than 5 seconds. Find out the information about
•• Eight seconds— A team has to go into the opponents’ Wheelchair Basketball and
court within 8 seconds. share it with classmates.
•• Twenty four seconds—When a team gains possession
of the ball, they have to attempt the shot within
maximum of 24 seconds.
4. Back court: A team which is in control of live ball in
its front court may not cause the ball to be illegally
return to its back court.

Fouls
A foul is an infraction of the rules concerning illegal personal
contact with an opponent and/or unsportsmanlike behaviour.
A number of fouls may be called against a team. Once a team
has made four fouls in a period, each next foul will award two
free throws to the opponent team. Fouls categorised as personal
foul, technical foul, unsportsmanlike foul, disqualifying foul
and noted as individual player foul or team fouls.

Fig. 5.8: An offensive foul

1. Personal foul: A personal foul occurs when there is

illegal contact between two opponents. A player shall not
hold, block, push, charge, trip or impede the progress
of an opponent by extending the body part, neither in
an ‘abnormal’ position nor shall the player indulge in
any rough or violent play. A player who commits more
than five personal fouls is excluded from the game.
(a) Charging: An offensive foul that is committed
when a player pushes or runs over a defensive
player. The ball is given to the team upon which
the foul was committed.

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 138 Health and Physical Education - XI

(b) Blocking: It is an illegal personal contact, which

impedes the progress of an opponent with or
without the ball.
2. Technical Foul: It is a non-contact foul of a
behavioural nature (disregarding warning,
disrespectful, foul language, delay, etc.).
3. Unsportsmanlike foul: It is a foul where spirit of the
game or the hard contact is made.
4. Disqualification Foul: It is any unsportsmanlike
(violence) action by players, coaches or delegation
members.
Irrespective of the penalty, each foul shall be charged,
entered on the score sheet against the offender and penalised
accordingly. All the possible foul penalties against players on
the playing court involved in fighting or any situation which
leads to a fight shall be dealt with in accordance of rules.

Basic Skills of Basketball

Basketball is played with the help of different skills and
techniques like stance, footwork, ball holding and handling,
dribbling, passing-receiving, shooting and rebounding.
Few are mentioned here.

Dribbling
It is important to move the ball across the court, get away from
defensive players, make or find a good passing line, make use
of faking action, 1 on 1 and of course to penetrate the ball
to score the goal. There are different types of dribbling which
may be learnt and developed with the help of different drills in
stationary and moving positions with or without the defensive
player.

Fig. 5.9: Dribbling

•• Stationary dribble
•• Low dribble
•• High dribble

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 Team Games 139

•• Change of pace dribble

•• Crossover dribble
•• Behind the back dribble
•• Between the legs dribble
•• Speed dribble
•• Reverse spin dribble

Passing and Receiving

A good offensive attack requires accurate passing and
receiving. It helps to speed the ball, find an open man, to find
a good shooter or to get away the ball from the defender. Fake
and feint are used to increase the quality of passing. There
are different types of passing using one or both hands during
different stationary and moving group and team drills.
•• Chest pass
•• Overhead pass
•• Push pass
•• Bounce pass
•• Shoulder pass
•• Hook pass
•• Off the dribble pass
•• Baseball pass

Fig. 5.10: Passing and receiving

Shooting
The objective of the game is to win by scoring maximum
points. Therefore, improving the team’s shooting is important
to win a game. Shooting by either one or both hands may be
done in the following ways:
•• Jump Shot
•• Dunk Shot
•• Free Throw
•• Layup
•• Three point shot

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 140 Health and Physical Education - XI

Fig. 5.11: Shooting

Rebounding
The objective of rebounding is to successfully gain possession
of the basketball after a missed field goal or free throw, as it
rebounds from the ring or backboard. This plays a major role
in the game, as most possessions end when a team misses
a shot. There are two categories of rebound—offensive
rebound, in which the ball is recovered by the offensive side
and does not change possession, and defensive rebound, in
which the defending team gains possession of the loose ball.
The majority of rebound is defensive, as the team on defence
tend to be better positioned to recover the missed shots.

Fig. 5.12: Rebounding

Defence
The game of basketball allows a variety of defences to be
deployed in an effort to disrupt and combat the offensive
plays. Here are examples of the three basic categories of team
defence. In addition, each category consists of an assortment
of different variations.

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 Team Games 141

1. Man to man defence: Man to man defence is usually

Do You Know?
assigned to be matched up with the defenders against Basketball is also played by
specific offensive players. Defenders are usually three players on each side.
assigned to be matched up with the offensive players
by size and ability.
Activity 5.2
2. Zone Defence: In zone defence, defenders are •• What is the air pressure of a
assigned to guard specific areas on the court. Zones Basketball?
are named or designated by their player alignments.
•• When and where was the
first Basketball match in
Olymic Games played?
•• Who invented Basketball?
•• Why is the colour of
basketball orange?
•• What is the size and weight
of a basketball?

Fig. 5.13: Zone defence

3. Combined Defence: The third type of defence

that can be deployed is the combination defence.
With combination defence, some of the players are
assigned to play man to man while the rest of the
defenders play zone defence. Combination defences
are usually deployed in an effort to stop or neutralise
great individual offensive players.

Awards in Basketball
To motivate the extraordinary achievements of the player
and coaches, the Government of India honours players with
different awards along with cash prizes and certificates.
Prasanthi Singh was honoured with Arjuna Award in
2017 and she is the first basketball player who received the
prestigious civilian award Padma Shri in 2018.

Famous Indian Basketball Players

Paramjeet Singh, Sarabjit Singh, Vishesh Bhriguwanshi,
Tridep Rai, Suman Sharma, Divya Singh, Anitha, I.V.
Chairian, Satnaam Singh, Jagdeep Singh, Gurvinder Singh,
and Shri Khusi Ram.

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 142 Health and Physical Education - XI

Cricket
Playing any game need strength and vice versa helps in
building strength. Cricket also, through the constant running
across the field, helps in increasing the stamina, balance,
hand-eye coordination, flexibility and ball-handling skills.
Cricket includes a lot of throwing and sprinting across the
field, which is a good cardiovascular activity.

History
A reference of a game resembling to cricket is there in the
records of King Edward I, in 1300 being played at Kent. Cricket
as a game was first recorded in 16th century in England.
Researches show that the game evolved from a very old,
widespread game to pass time in which one player served a
small piece like a ball made up of wood or any other material
and another player hit it with a suitable item. The first
recorded cricket match took place in Kent in 1646. Cricket
was popular and widely documented in England during the
1700s. After 1760, the game saw the evolution of over arm
bowling by replacing under arm bowling. The Marylebone
Cricket Club (MCC) was formed on 31st May, 1787. After a
year, it laid down a code of laws regarding the game. Its laws
were adopted throughout the game. MCC today remains the
custodian and arbiter of laws relating to cricket around the
world. Thereafter, cricket recognisably became the game that
is played today. In the 1800, cricket had reached the West
Indies and India and in the 19th century cricket was played
in South Africa and New Zealand. The first international
cricket game was played between the USA and Canada in
1844. The match was played at the grounds of St George’s
Cricket Club in New York. In 1877, an England touring team
in Australia played two matches against full Australian XIs
that are now regarded as the inaugural test matches.

History of Cricket in India

Cricket is undoubtedly one of the most popular games in
India since its inception. The first Indian Cricket club, named
the Parsee Oriental Cricket Club, was founded in the year
1848 and they played their first match in Bombay (Mumbai).
From this point, the journey of Indian cricket began. The
first international exposure in the history of Indian Cricket
came in the year 1926. In the same year, a team from the
Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) toured India. Though it was
an unofficial tour, Indian people were quite interested and
enthusiastic about the matches that MCC played during
the tour.

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 Team Games 143

The legendary Indian cricket player, C.K. Naidu played

Do You Know?
brilliantly during that tour and he also scored a century India won the 60 over World
against the MCC in Bombay. Imperial Cricket Conference Cup beating West Indies in
(ICC), now International Cricket Council, was formed on 1983, 50 over World Cup
30 November, 1907. At present there are 105 countries as defeating Sri Lanka in 2011
members of ICC. The Board of Control for Cricket in India and 20 over World Cup beating
Pakistan in 2007.
(BCCI) was established in the year 1928. India played its first
test match against England in 1932. Now cricket is played
to cover all the three formats, ranging from 5 Day tests, to Activity 5.3
the exciting one-day 50 over format, and the 20 over format Gather and share information
which is called as T20. about the first Indian team of
test match, one day match and
T20 match in male and female
categories.

Fig. 5.14: Cricket in the early ages

Functional Rules

Cricket has many laws, more than any other game. Cricket is
played with a bat and ball on a large field, known as ground.
It is played between two teams having 11 players each. There
is also a reserved player called a ‘twelfth player’, who is used
if any player is injured during the play. The twelfth player is
not allowed to bowl, bat, or to act as wicketkeeper or captain
of the team. The twelfth player is only to act as a substitute
fielder.
The objective of the game is to score runs with the bat
by the batsman, or dismiss the opposing batsman when in
the field by the bowlers. The cricket laws are for the traditional
form of cricket which is called ‘Test Cricket’. However, there
are separate rules for one day and T20 format game also.

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 144 Health and Physical Education - XI

Activity 5.4 Field positions

Find out the details about one
day and T20 format of Cricket.

3rd Man Fineleg

Slips Leg Slips

Gully
WK
Point Square Leg Deep
Square
Cover Point

Cover Mid Wicket

Extra Cover
Bowler
Deep
Mid Wicket
Deep Extra Mid Off Mid On
Cover

Long Off Long On

Fig. 5.15: Fielding positions on the cricket ground

Fig. 5.16: Cricket players and equipment

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 Team Games 145

Number of Players in a team 11 (Playing) + 05 (Extras) = 16

Number of Officials 03 Umpires, 01 Match Referee, 02 Scorers
Length of the Bat 38 inches (965 mm)
Width of the Bat 4.25 inches (108 mm)
Weight of a Cricket Ball 155.9 gms – 163 gms
Circumference of a Ball 22.4 cm – 22.9 cm
Colour of a Ball Red (Day Matches and Test Matches)
White (Day Night Matches)
Length of the Pitch 22 yds or 20.12 mts or 66 feet
Width of the Pitch 3.05 mts or 10 feet
Height of the Stumps 28 inches (With bails 28.5 inches)
Width of the Stumps 9 inches (22.9 cm)

Fig. 5.17: Cricket pitch measurements

There are two ground umpires and a third umpire.

Their role is to ensure in the ground that the game is played
as per the preambles and laws. The third umpire is in charge
of the video decisions.
Game Structure: Test cricket is a game that spans for
two or more innings. This means that one team needs to
bowl and the other would do batting. If a team is out twice or
scores less runs in two innings, than that team is the losing
team.
Before the game begins, an umpire tosses a coin.
The captain who guesses the correct side of the coin will then
choose whether to bat or field first.

How to play Cricket

•• One team will bat while the other team will field.
•• If the bowler bowls the ball from the wrong place or
the ball is either dangerous or bounces more than
twice or rolls before reaching the batsman or if fielders
are standing at illegal positions, it is called ‘No Ball’.

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 146 Health and Physical Education - XI

The batsman can hit a no ball and score runs and also
cannot be declared out from a no ball except if the
player is run out or hit the ball twice, or obstruct the
field. A no ball will add one run to the batting team.
•• A ‘Wide Ball’ is declared if the batsman did not have a
reasonable opportunity to score off the delivery. As if
the delivery is bowled over the batsmen’s reach. A wide
delivery will add one run to the batting team.
•• A ‘Bye’ run is scored when a batsman is trying to hit
(a)
the ball but could not hit it and is miss-field by the
fielder or wicket keeper.
•• A ‘Leg Bye’ run is scored if while hitting, the batsman
misses to hit the ball by bat and is deflected by striker’s
body or protective gear.

(b)

Fig. 5.18: (a) No ball

(b) Wide ball

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Fig. 5.19: (a) Bye (b) Leg bye (c) Out (d) Short run (e) Six
(f) Four (g) Decision change (h) Dead ball

When is a Batsman declared ‘out’ as per cricket rules?

There are 11 ways through which a batsman can be given
“out” in the game of cricket.
•• Bowled: If the ball is bowled and hits the striking bats-
man’s wickets, the batsman is given out (as long as
at least one bail or stump is dislodged by the ball).

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 Team Games 147

It does not matter whether the ball has touched the

Activity 5.5
batsman’s bat, gloves, body or any other part of the •• Draw and discuss the
batsman. different positions of the
•• Caught: If a batsman hits the ball or touches the ball fielders in cricket.
at all with the bat or hand holding the bat and the
fielders, or wicket keeper or bowler catches the ball, it Do You Know?
is called as caught out. There is no fix measurement for
•• Stumped: A batsman can be given out when the cricket’s outer bounderies.
wicketkeeper puts down the wicket while the player
is out of the crease and not attempting a run (while
attempting a run it would be a run out) but trying to
play the ball and misses it.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.20: (a) Bowled (b) Caught (c) Stumped

•• Leg Before Wicket (LBW): If the ball is bowled (not a

No Ball) and it hits the batsman first without touching
and the bat and umpire thinks and decide that the
ball would have hit the wickets if the batsman was not
there, then the LBW decision is possible. However, if
the ball hits the batsman outside the line of off stump
while the player was attempting to play a stroke then
the player is not out.
•• Run Out: A batsman is out if no part of the bat or body
is grounded behind the popping crease while the ball is
in play and the wicket is fairly put down by the fielding
side.
•• Hit Wicket: If a batsman hits the wicket down with the
bat or body after the bowler has entered the delivery
stride and the ball is in play, then the player is out.
•• Handled the Ball: If the batsman willingly handles
the ball with the hand that is not touching the bat
without the consent of the opposition, then the player
is declared out.

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 148 Health and Physical Education - XI

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.21: (a) Hit wicket (b) Run out

Do You Know? •• Obstructing the Field: A batsman is out if he willingly

After Jim Leker of England, obstructs the opposition by word or action.
only Anil Kumble from India in
1999 took all 10 wickets in one
inning (74/10 in 26.3 overs).

(a) Fig. 5.22: (a) Handled the ball (b) Obstructing the(b)
field

•• Timed Out: The time for an incoming batsman to face a

ball or be at the non-strikers end within three minutes
of the outgoing batsman being dismissed. If this is not
done, the incoming batsman can be given out.
•• Hit the Ball Twice: If a batsman hits a ball twice other
than for the purpose of protecting his wicket, he is out.
•• Retired: If a batsman retires without the umpire’s
consent and also doesn’t have the consent of the
opposition captain to resume his innings, then
technically he is out.
There are many other cricket laws. Many of the more
advanced rules and laws can be learned along the way and
are not vital to general play.

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 Team Games 149

Awards in Cricket Do You Know?

To motivate the extraordinary achievements of the players •• Football was essentially
and coaches, the Government of India honours players with rugby until 1882.
different awards along with cash prizes and certificates. •• Football is the most watched
and most played sport on
earth.
In the year 2018
Virat Kohli received Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award in 2018.
Smriti Mandhana was honoured with Arjuna Award. Tarak
Sinha has been honoured with Dronacharya Award for an
excellent contribution as a Coach.

Football
The history of football is over more than 1000 years old.
Today, football is world’s most favourite sport played in
almost every country. Studies reveal about various games
similar to the modern football being introduced in different
parts of the world by different cultures for different purposes.
Oldest version of football game is believed to be played in the
villages of Chinese dynasty.

History of the Game

Both rugby and football have a common root. There were
many who instead of kicking believed in running with
the ball in their hands. Kicking the ball included tripping
the legs without any legislation or rules to govern. On the
contrary, many people stood for football with kicking as it
involved greater mastery of ball. In football, high level of skill
precision was required to control and manoeuvre the ball
with foot. The rules of play were subsequently smoothed
down and smartened to create organised sports at Britain
and Scotland. It was at this point that the people spoke out
against rough customs as tripping, shin-kicking and so on.
As it happened, the majority also expressed disapproval at
carrying the ball with hand. It was in 1863 in England that
the Rugby football group withdrew and formed a separate
branch. This further led to the development modern-day
sports of ‘Association Football’, ‘Rugby Football’ and ‘Gaelic
Football’ in Ireland. Later the Football Association in England
was formed becoming the sports’ first governing body. In
1904, ‘Federation International de Football Association’
(FIFA) was founded in Paris as an international governing
body of football. The game of football in today’s scenario is
called ‘Soccer’.

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 150 Health and Physical Education - XI

Do You Know? Modern football

Durand Cup started in the Britain is regarded as the home to modern association
year 1888 in Shimla and it is football. Within Britain and Scotland, the game was popular
the second oldest tournament from eight century and again played with different variations.
in the world. Presently, this In medieval times, towns and villages played against the
tournament is being organised rival towns and villages — and kicking, punching, biting and
in New Delhi every year with gouge were allowed. Hundreds of people took part and the
the help of Indian Defence
games could last all day. It was same until the game started
Services.
being promoted in schools in England as an integral part of
the school curriculum. The need for uniform standards and
Activity 5.6 rules acceptable to everyone was the need of the hour. This
Collect information about the led to the role of Cambridge University in unifying the schools
various types of free kicks in and the clubs to a meeting in 1863 for establishing common
football. acceptable rules. Football Association Challenge Cup was
started in 1872, which is regarded as the world’s oldest
football championship. In the year 1888, ‘Durand Cup’ was
started in Shimla (India) and in modern time Durand cup for
football is regarded as second oldest football tournament in
the world. Later in 1904, FIFA (Federation International de
Football Association) was formed with France, Netherlands,
Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain and
Germany as the founder members.

History of Football in India

Football in India has been a popular sport introduced in
nineteenth century by the British army, from the capital
at Calcutta. Durand Cup started in 1888, founded by the
then India’s Foreign Secretary, Mortimer Durand at Shimla.
Durand Cup is the third oldest football tournament after
Football Association (FA) Cup and Scottish Cup. Clubs like
Mohan Bagan, which is the oldest current team, was formed
in 1889. Indian Football Association (IFA) Shield is the fourth
oldest tournament in the world which was founded in 1893
and is still being played. Durand Cup was shifted to Delhi.
Since 1950, every year it is organised under the supervision of
Indian Army.
Before the birth of the All India Football Federation (AIFF)
in 1937, India was lacking a constituted national organisation
for football. Since, football gained immense popularity year
after year, a need for the proper administration of the game
was considered. The association that governed football in
West Bengal, Indian Football Association (IFA), was given the
status of the de-facto governing body of football. That time
all the foreign tours of Indian football team were organised
by IFA. AIFF was affiliated to FIFA (international governing
body of football) in 1948 and to Asian Football Confederation
(AFC) in 1954. AIFF has played a key role in promoting

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 Team Games 151

football in India. To serve the purpose, it has taken the

Activity 5.7
responsibility of Indian national football team. National Football Find out the measurements
League (I-League), Federation Cup and National Football of the football ground in your
Championship for Santosh Trophy are some of the prominent school or nearby school in your
football tournaments being organised by the AIFF. vicinity.

Fig. 5.23: A football ground

Laws of football Do You Know?

In the game of football, rules are called Laws and there Neil Armstrong wanted to take
are 17 Laws of football that govern the game. FIFA is the a football to the moon, but
NASA refused it as nothing
governing body of football around the world. It governs the
extra was allowed.
rules for playing the sport. The referees are being trained for
consistent interpretation and quality enforcement of the 17
laws of the game. There are 17 laws of the game which are
the codified rules of help define association football.

Law 1
The Field of Play: It mentions about the field surface along
with the dimensions for field marking. The field of play should
be rectangular in shape and the width should not exceed the
length of the field.
Table 2: Dimensions

Length (Touch Minimum 90 mt 100 yds

Line) Maximum 120 mt 130 yds
Minimum 45 mt 50 yds
Width (Goal Line)
Maximum 90 mt 100 yds

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 152 Health and Physical Education - XI

Table 3: International Matches

Minimum 100 mt 110 yds
Length (Touch Line)
Maximum 110 mt 120 yds
Minimum 64 mt 70 yds
Ball Width (Goal Line)
Maximum 75 mt 80 yds
FIFA defines minimum dimensions of 45m × 90m and
maximum dimensions of 90m × 120m for a standard football
ground. FIFA has also set measurements for minimum
football ground for the official matches or international
Shin guards competitions as 64m × 100m and maximum to 75m × 110m.

Law 2
Ball: The football must meet the following criteria as per the
FIFA laws—
(a) The ball shall be spherical in shape.
Football boots or Studs
(b) It should be made of leather or any other suitable
Fig. 5.24: Football equipment material approved by the governing body.
(c) Ball circumference shall be 68 to 70 cm which is equal
to 27 to 28 inches.
(d) The weight of the ball shall be between 410 to 450g
which is equal to 14 to 16 oz at the start of the match.
(e) Air pressure should be equal to 0.6–1.1 atmosphere
(600–1,100 g/cm2) at sea level.
Law 3
Number of Players: A match is played by two teams. Each
team shall consist of not more than 11 players during the
match, one of whom shall act as goalkeeper. A match may
not start if either team consists of fewer than seven players.
Substitutions: Up to a maximum of three substitutes may be
used in any match played in an official competition organised
under the auspices of FIFA or the member associations. For
all other competitions, the rules of the competition must
state how many substitutes may be nominated, it can vary
from three up to a maximum of twelve, before the tournament
begins.
Law 4
Players’ Equipment: The basic compulsory equipment of a
player comprises the following items:
(a) A jersey or shirt with sleeves: If undergarments are
worn, the colour of the undergarments must be of
same colour as the sleeve of the jersey or shirt.
(b) Shorts: If undershorts or tights are worn, these must
be of same colour as the shorts.

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 Team Games 153

(c) Stockings: If tape or similar material is applied

Do You Know?
externally, it must be of same colour as that part of Soccer is the universal name of
the stocking to which it is applied. the Footbal game. It is governed
(d) Shin guards by the rules formed by FIFA.
(e) Shoes
Law 5
Referee: Each match is controlled by a referee, who shall
enforce the Laws of the Game. Duties of a Referee:
(a) Enforces the Laws of the Game.
(b) Controls the match in cooperation with the assistant
referees (Line Judges) and, wherever applicable, with
the fourth official (Table Official).
(c) Ensures that the ball used meets the requirements of
Law number 2.
(d) Ensures that the player’s equipment meet the
requirements according to Law number 4.
(e) Acts as timekeeper and keeps a record of the match.
(f) Stops, suspends or abandons the match, for any
infringements of the Laws.
(g) Stops, suspends or abandons the match because of
outside interference of any kind.
(h) Stops the match if, in his opinion, a player is seriously
injured and ensures that player is removed from the
field of play. An injured player may only return to the
field of play after the match has restarted.
(i) Allows the play to continue until the ball is out of play
if a player is, in his opinion, only slightly injured.
Law 6
Assistant Referees: The decision of the assistant referee
is always subject to the decision of the referee. However,
two assistant referees are appointed, whose duties, are to
indicate:
(a) when the entire ball leaves the field of play.
(b) which team is entitled to a corner kick, goal kick or
throw-in.
(c) when a player may be penalised for being in an offside
position.
(d) when a substitution is requested.
(e) when misconduct or any other incident occurs out of
the view of the referee.
(f) when offences have been committed whenever the
assistant referees have a better view than the referee
(this includes, in certain circumstances, offences
committed in the penalty area).

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 154 Health and Physical Education - XI

(g) Whether, at penalty kicks, the goalkeeper moves off

Activity 5.8
Collect information about the the goal line before the ball is kicked and if the ball
kick off in football. crosses the line.

Law 7
Duration of the Match: The match lasts two equal periods
of 45 minutes, unless otherwise mutually agreed between
the referee and the two teams. Any agreement to alter the
duration of the periods of play (e.g., to reduce each half to 40
minutes because of insufficient light) must be made before
the start of play and must comply with competition rules.
The half-time interval must not exceed 15 minutes.

Law 8
Start and Restart of Play: A kick-off is a way of starting or
restarting play—
(a) At the start of the match.
(b) After a goal has been scored.
(c) At the start of the second half of the match.
(d) At the start of each period of extra time, wherever
applicable.
A goal may be scored directly from the kick-off. The
procedure for the kick-off is by pushing the ball in any
direction by one of the team mates but all the team members
must be in their own half before the kick-off. The team
winning the toss chooses the side to attack while the losing
team gets the kick-off. In the second half, the team that won
the toss gets the kick-off.

Law 9
Ball In and Out of Play: The ball is out of play when:
(a) It has wholly crossed the goal line or touch line
whether on the ground or in the air.
(b) Play has been stopped by the referee.
The ball is in play at all other times. Ball will also be in
play when:
(c) It rebounds off a goalpost, crossbar or corner flag post
and remains in the field of play.
(c) It rebounds off either the referee or an assistant
referee when they are on the field of play.

Law 10
Method of Scoring: A goal is scored when the whole of the
ball passes over the goal line between the goalposts and
under the crossbar, provided that no infringement of the

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 Team Games 155

Laws of the game has been committed previously by the team

scoring the goal.

Law 11
Offside: It is not an offence in itself to be in an offside position.
However, players in offside position cannot make themselves
on-side until the course of the ball changes.
A player is in an offside position if—
(a) The player is nearer to the opponents’ goal line than
both the ball and the second-last opponent.
A player is not in an offside position when:
(i) The player is in their own half of the field of
play, or
(ii) The player is level with the second-last opponent, or
(iii) The player is level with the last two opponents.
(b) There is no offside offence if a player receives the ball
directly from—
(i) a goal kick
(ii) a throw-in
(iii) a corner kick

Law 12
Fouls and Misconduct: For not following the Laws of the
game, the referee can penalise the team members through a—
(a) Direct Free Kick
(b) Penalty Kick
(c) Indirect Free Kick
The referee may caution the player, substitutes or
substituted players with a ‘Yellow Card’. The referee may
suspend the team members with a Red Card leading to
suspension from the current match along with a second
match suspension.
(a) A direct free kick: It is awarded to the opposing team if
a player commits any of the following seven offences
in a manner considered by the referee to be careless,
reckless or using excessive force.
(i) Kicks or attempts to kick an opponent
(ii) Trips or attempts to trip an opponent
(iii) Jumps at an opponent
(iv) Charges an opponent
(v) Strikes or attempts to strike an opponent
(vi) Pushes an opponent
(vii) Tackles an opponent

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A direct free kick is also awarded to the opposing team if

a player commits any of the following three offences.
(i) Holds an opponent
(ii) Spits at an opponent
(iii) Handles the ball deliberately (except for the
goalkeeper within the player’s own penalty area)
(b) A penalty kick: A penalty kick is awarded if any of the
above ten offences is committed by a player inside
their own penalty area, irrespective of the position of
the ball, provided it is in play.
(c) An Indirect Free Kick: An indirect free kick is awarded
to the opposing team if a goalkeeper, inside their own
penalty area, commits any of the following four offences:
(i) Controls the ball with hands for more than six
seconds before releasing it.
(ii) Touches the ball again with hands after the ball
is released from his possession and before it has
been touched by another player.
(iii) Touches the ball with hands after it has been
deliberately kicked to the player by a team-mate.
(iv) Touches the ball with hands after receiving it
directly from a throw-in taken by a team-mate.
An indirect free kick is also awarded to the opposing team
if, in the opinion of the referee, a player—
(i) Plays in a dangerous manner
(ii) Impedes the progress of an opponent
(iii) Prevents the goalkeeper from releasing the ball
from the player’s hands
(iv) Commits any other offence, not previously
mentioned in Law 12, for which the play is stopped
to caution or send off a player.
The indirect free kick is taken from the place where the
offence occurred.
Cautionable offences (Yellow Card): A player is
cautioned and shown the yellow card if he commits any of
the following seven offences:
(i) Unsporting behaviour
(ii) Dissent by word or action
(iii) Persistent infringement of the Laws of the game
(iv) Delaying the restart of play
(v) Failure to respect the required distance i.e., 10
yards away from the ball, when play is restarted
with a corner kick, free kick or throw-in

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 Team Games 157

(vi) Entering or re-entering the field of play without

the referee’s permission
(vii) Deliberately leaving the field of play without the
permission of referee.
A substitute or substituted player is cautioned with a
Yellow Card if commits any of the following three offences:
(i) Unsporting behaviour
(ii) Dissent by word or action
(iii) Delaying the restart of play
Sending-off offences (Red card): A player, substitute or
substituted player is sent off by showing a ‘Red Card’ if they
commit any of the following seven offences:
(i) Serious foul play
(ii) Violent conduct
(iii) Spitting at an opponent or any other person
(iv) Denying the opposing team a goal or an obvious
goal scoring opportunity by deliberately handling
the ball (this does not apply to a goalkeeper within
their own penalty area)
(v) Denying an obvious goal scoring opportunity to an
opponent moving towards the player’s goal by an
offence punishable by a free kick or a penalty kick
(vi) Using offensive, insulting or abusive language and
gestures
(vii) Receiving a second caution (yellow card) in the
same match
A player, substitute or substituted player who has been
sent off, must leave the vicinity of the field of play and the
technical area.

Law 13
Free Kicks: Free kicks are of two types.
(a) Direct free kick
(b) Indirect free kick
Direct free kick: If a direct free kick is taken and it enters
the goal:
(a) If a direct free kick is kicked directly into the opponents’
goal, a goal is awarded
(b) If a direct free kick is kicked directly into the team’s own
goal, a corner kick is awarded to the opposing team.
A score cannot be made through an indirect free kick if
taken straight way into the goal without touching any other
player.

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Do You Know?
A direct free kick, if kicked
directly into the team’s own
goal, a corner kick is awarded
to the opposing team.

Fig. 5.25: Free kick

Law 14
Penalty Kick: A penalty kick is given against a team that
commits one of the ten offences inside its own penalty area
while the ball is in play. A goal may be scored directly from
a penalty kick.
During the penalty kick, all the players other than the
kicker are located—
(a) inside the field of play.
(b) outside the penalty area.
(c) behind the penalty mark.
(d) at least 9.15 m (10 yds) away from the penalty mark.

Fig. 5.26: Penalty kick

Law 15
Throw-in: It is a method of restarting play. A throw-in is
awarded to the opponents of the player who last touched the

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 Team Games 159

ball when the whole of the ball crosses the touch line, either
on the ground or in the air. A goal cannot be scored directly
from a throw-in.

Law 16
Goal Kick: A goal kick is a method of restarting play. A
goal kick is awarded when the whole of the ball passes over
the goal line, either on the ground or in the air, having last
touched a player of the attacking team. A goal may be scored
directly from a goal kick, but only against the opposing team.
If the goal kick is kicked into the team’s own goal, a corner is
awarded to the opposing team.

Law 17
Corner Kick: It is a method of restarting play. A corner kick
is given when the whole of the ball passes over the goal line,
either on the ground or in the air, having last touched a
player of the defending team. A goal may be scored against
the opposing team directly from a corner kick.
Measurements of playgrounds and specifications of
equipment:
All lines in the playground must be of the same width and
must not be more than 12 cm (5 inch).
Goal area: Two lines are drawn at right angles to the goal line,
5.5 m (6 yds) from inside of each goalpost. These lines extend into
the field of play for a distance of 5.5 m (6 yds). These extended
lines are joined by a line drawn parallel with the goal line. The
area bounded by these lines and the goal line is the goal area. A
goal kick is taken from the goal area only.
Penalty area Fig. 5.27: Flag post
•• Two lines are drawn at right angles to the goal line,
16.5 m (18 yds) from inside of each goalpost. These
lines extend into the field of play for a distance of 16.5
m (18 yds). These extended lines are joined by a line
drawn parallel with the goal line. The area bounded by
these lines and the goal line is called the penalty area.
•• Within each penalty area, a mark is made at a distance of
11 m (12 yds) from the midpoint between the goalposts or
equidistant to them. This is called penalty mark.
•• An arc with a radius of 9.15 m (10 yds) from the centre
of each penalty mark is drawn outside the penalty area
known as penalty arc.
Flag posts: A flag post, not less than 1.5 m (5 ft) high, with
a non-pointed top and a flag must be placed at each corner.
Flag posts may also be placed at each end of the halfway line,
not less than 1 m (1 yd) outside the touch line.

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 160 Health and Physical Education - XI

Goals: A goal must be placed on the centre of each goal

line. A goal consists of two upright posts equidistant from
the corner flag posts and joined at the top by a horizontal
crossbar. The goalposts and crossbar must be made of wood,
metal or other approved material.
They must be square, rectangular, round or elliptical in
shape and must not be dangerous to players. The distance
between the posts is 7.32 m (8 yds) and the distance from
the lower edge of the crossbar to the ground is 2.44 m (8 ft).
Both goalposts and the crossbar have the same width
and depth, which do not exceed 12 cm (5 inches). The goal
lines must be of the same width as the goalposts and the
crossbar. Nets may be attached to the goals and the ground
behind the goal. These are properly supported and do not
interfere with the goalkeeper. No part of the goalpost shall be
projected towards or inside the playing area. The goalposts
and crossbars must be white in colour.

Fig. 5.28: Goalpost

Famous Indian Football Players

P.K. Banerjee, Chuni Goswami, Sunil Chhetri, I.M. Vijayan,
Baichung Bhutia, V.P. Sathyan, Sandesh Jhingan, Sasmita
Mallick, Aditi Chauhan, etc.

Handball
History
At the end of the nineteenth century, somewhere in Northern
Europe, it became necessary to unify the rules, which was

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 Team Games 161

done by Karl Schelenz. The new game rules came in force in

Do You Know?
Berlin, in 1917. The sports international governing body was In India, Handball was founded
first formed in 1928 as the Federation International Handball by Jagat Singh Chauhan who
Amateur. It took its current name in Copenhagen, Denmark in was Physical Education teacher
1946 as the International Handball Federation (IHF). The first and hailed from Haryana.
president of IHF was Avery Brundage—an American who went He was the first secretary of
on to become president of the International Olympic Committee Handball Federation of India.
(IOC). The first Field Handball World Championships were
played in Germany in 1938, following its appearance at the Activity 5.9
1936 Berlin Olympic Games and then it made a comeback Make a list of the famous
handball players in male and
into the games in the 1972 Munich Olympic games.
female section.
The women’s version of the game was added in the 1976
Montreal Olympic games. Indoor Handball was invented in
the 1940s in Denmark. The International Handball Federation
which was established in 1946, oversees the game, and at
present it has 175 member countries associated with it. The
first International Handball Federation (IHF) World Men’s
Handball Championship commenced in 1954. The IHF World
Women’s Handball Championship commenced in 1957.
The Asian Handball Federation (AHF) is the governing
body of handball in Asia. The Asian Handball Federation
had begun when the Martyr Sheikh Fahad Al-Ahmad Al-
Sabah of the Kuwait initiated a motion to the Executive
Committee of the Asian Games requesting recognition of the
handball game and also formation of the Asian Handball
Federation during seventh Asian Games, Tehran, Iran in
1974. Accordingly, the Asian Games Federation during its
meeting on 26th of August 1974, had recognised Handball
as an official game. The headquarters is located in Kuwait
City, Kuwait.
The Handball federation of India was established in
1972. The first senior National Handball Championship
was held at Rohtak (Haryana) in 1972. Haryana won the
gold medal and Vidharbha got the silver medal. First time in
India, Handball Team participated in Asian Games held in
India in 1982.

Functional Rules

Playing Area
The handball court measures 40 meters in length and 20
meters in width which is divided by the centre line. The goal
area line, or 6-meter line, is the most important line. No one
except the goalkeeper is allowed to stand in the goal area.
Opponent players may not jump or enter into the goal area
without releasing the ball for goal.

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 162 Health and Physical Education - XI

Handball Tournaments and Championships

World Championship, Olympic Games, Summer Olympics,
Asian Olympics, Commonwealth Games are the tournaments
organised by international sports organisations. Whereas,
Handball Federation of India organises Federation Cup,
National games and Indian Handball Super League, etc.

20 yds 20 yds

3 yd
s
2 yds
ds
20 y

6 yds

9 yds
Substitution

Fig. 5.29: Playing area and players, position in handball

Fig. 5.30: Specifications and rules regarding handball

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Number of Players
A team consists of 16 players and substitutes in each team.
There are seven playing members on each team (six court
players and one goalkeeper). Substitute team member may
enter the game at any time repeatedly through the team’s own
substitution area as long as the player they are replacing has
left the court. Player positions and nomenclature are given
in the diagram.

Fig. 5.31: Players’ attacking and defensive positions in handball court

Uniform of the Players

Player chest numbers range from 1 to 99. Uniform shirts and
shorts are of the same colour. The goalkeeper must wear a
different coloured shirt from the teammates and opponents.
No jewellery is allowed.

Referees
There are two referees, a court referee and a goal line referee.
Referees have complete authority and their decisions are
final. The referees are assisted by a timekeeper and a scorer.

Duration of the Game

The duration of the match for different age groups is allotted
as mentioned in the following table:

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Table 4: Duration of the game

Age Group Playing time with 10 minutes of interval
8–12 years Two halves of 20 minutes
12–16 years Two halves of 25 minutes
16 and above Two halves of 30 minutes

This is running time except for injury or one team time-

out. The teams have to change bench/side after half-time.
Overtime consists of two halves of 5 minute/period with 1
minute half-time break. If the game is still tied, the winner will
be determined in accordance with the rules of the particular
competition.

Team Time-out
One minute time-out can be taken by each team in every
half.

Throw-off
A throw-off is given to the team that wins the toss. Both the
teams must be in their own side of the court with the defense
3 meters away from the ball. On a whistle, the ball is passed
from centre court to a teammate and the play begins. Throw-
off is repeated after every goal scored and after half-time.

Throw-in
When the ball goes out of bounds on the sideline or when the
ball is last touched by a defensive player (not goalkeeper), a
throw-in is awarded and goes out of bounds over the endline.
The throw-in is taken from the nearest spot where the ball
crossed out. The thrower must put either foot on the sideline
to perform the throw-in. All opponents must stand 3 meters
away from the ball.

Scoring
A goal is scored when the entire ball crosses the goal line
inside the goal. A goal may be scored from any type of throw,
i.e., free-throw, throw-in, throw-off, and goal-throw.

Playing the Ball

A player is permitted to throw, push, stop, catch, or hit the
ball, by using hands (open or closed), head, arms, torso,
thighs, and knees.
(a) A player is allowed:
(i) to run with the ball for 3 steps.
(ii) to hold the ball for 3 seconds.

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 Team Games 165

(iii) unlimited dribble with 3 steps allowed before and

after dribbling (no double-dribble).
(iv) to take a maximum of 3 steps with the ball.

Defending the Opponent

A player may use the torso of the body to defend an opponent
with or without the ball. However, using the outstretched arms
or legs to obstruct, push, hold, trip or hit is not allowed. The
attacking player is not allowed to charge into a defensive player.

Passive Play
A ball possession team cannot delay the game without
making a recognisable attempt to attack and to shoot or goal.
Referee Throw: A referee throw is awarded simultaneous
infringement of the rules after simultaneous possession of
the ball. The referee throws the ball vertically between two
opposing players at centre court. The jumping players may
tap the ball to a teammate or grab the ball. During this, other
players must be 3 meters away from the ball.

Free-throw
Free-throw is awarded to the opponent against a minor
foul or violation at the exact spot of the foul. If the foul or
violation occurs between the goal area line and the 9 meter
line, the throw is taken from the nearest post outside the 9
meter line. The thrower must keep one foot in contact with
the floor.
A Player is NOT allowed to
•• endanger an opponent with the ball.
•• pull, hit or punch the ball out of the hands of an
opponent.
•• contact the ball below the knee.
•• dive on the floor for a rolling or stationary ball.

7 Meter Throw
The 7 meter throw is awarded when:
•• Illegally demolish a clear chance to goal
•• The goalkeeper carries the ball back into his/her team’s
own goal area
•• A court player intentionally plays the ball to his or her
own goalkeeper in the goal area and the goalkeeper
touches the ball
•• A defensive player enters his or her goal area to gain
an advantage over an attacking player in possession of
the ball.

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•• All players must be outside the free-throw line when

Activity 5.10
•• Differentiate the yellow and the throw is taken. The player taking the throw has 3
red card penalties. seconds to shoot after referee’s whistle.
•• Any player may take the 7 meter throw.
•• What is the name of broken
line as displayed in the
figure? Goal-throw
When the ball rebounds off the goalkeeper over the end
line, a goal-throw is given. The player of the attacking team
throws over the ball from the end line. The goalkeeper takes
the throw inside the goal area and is not limited by the
3-step/3-second rule.
Progressive Punishments: These pertain to the fouls that
require more punishment than just a free-throw. ‘Actions’
directed mainly at the opponent and not the ball (such as
reaching around, holding, pushing, hitting, tripping and
jumping into an opponent) are to be punished progressively.

Warnings (Yellow Card)

The referee gives only one warning to a player for rule
violations and a total of three warnings to a team. Exceeding
these limits results in 2 minute suspension thereafter.
Warning is not required prior to giving 2 minute suspension.
2 minute suspension is awarded to a player for serious or
repeated rule violations, like non-sportsmanship conduct,
illegal substitution, etc.

Disqualification and Exclusion (Red Card)

A disqualification is equivalent to three 2 minute suspensions.
A disqualified player must leave the competition arena. The
team has to continue play for rest of the time with one player
short due to player’s disqualification.

Measurement of Playground and Specifications of

Equipment

Playing Court
The playing court in Handball is a 40 meter long and 20
meter wide rectangle, consisting of two goalposts. The longer
boundary lines are called side lines, and the shorter ones
are called goal lines (between the goalposts) or outer goal
lines (on either side of the goal). There should be a safety
zone surrounding the playing court, with a width of at least 1
meter along the side lines and 2 meters behind the goal lines.
• All lines on the court are fully part of the playing area
that they enclose. The goal lines shall be 8 cm wide
at the goalposts (see diagram), whereas all the other

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 Team Games 167

lines shall be 5 cm wide. Lines between two adjacent

areas may be replaced with a difference in colours
between the adjacent areas of the floor.
• In front of each goal, there is a goal area. The goal
area is defined by the goal area line (6 meter line),
which is drawn with the following dimensions.
(a) A 3 meter long line directly in front of the goal;
this line is parallel to the goal line and 6 metres
away from it (measured from the rear edge of the
goal line to the front edge of the goal area line).
(b) Two quarter circles, each with a radius of 6 metres
(measured from the rear inner corner of the
goalposts), connecting the 3 meter long line with
the outer goal line.
The free throw line (9 metre line) is a broken line, drawn 3
metres outside the goal area line. Both the segments of the line
and the spaces between them measure 15cm (see diagram).
The 7 meter line is a 1 meter long line, directly in front of
the goal. It is parallel to the goal line and 7 meters away from
it (measured from the rear edge of the goal line to the front
edge of the 7 meter line) see diagram.
The goalkeeper’s restraining line (the 4 meter line) is a 15cm
long line, directly in front of the goal. It is parallel to the goal line
and 4 metres away from it (measured from the rear edge of the
goal line to the front edge of the 4 meter line). The center line
connects the midpoints of the two side lines.
The substitution line (a segment of the side line) for each
team extends from the center line to a point at a distance
of 4.5 meters from the center line. This end point of the
substitution line is enhanced by a line which is parallel to
the center line, extending 15cm inside the side line and 15cm
outside the side line (see diagrams).

Specifications of equipment
A goal (see diagrams) is placed in the center of each outer
goal line. The goals must be firmly attached to the floor or the
walls behind them. They have an interior height of 2 metres
and a width of 3 metres.
The goalposts are joined by a horizontal crossbar. The rear
side of the goalposts shall be in line with the rear edge of the
goal line. The goalposts and the crossbar must have an 8cm
square cross section. On the three sides which are visible from
the court, they must be painted in bands of two contrasting
colors, which also contrast clearly with the background. The
goals must have a net, that should be attached in such a way
that a ball thrown into the goal normally remains in the goal.

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Fig. 5.32: Specifications of goalpost in handball (all dimensions indicated in cm)

The Ball
Activity 5.11
What is substitution area and Handball is played with a 32 panel leather ball. The ball sizes,
why is it used? to be used by different categories of teams are as follows:
Table 5: Ball Sizes According to Age Group
Ball Size Age Group
58–60cm and 425–475g Men and Male youth of over
(IHF Size 3) age 16
54–56cm and 325–375g Women, Female youth (over
(IHF Size 2) age 14), and Male Youth (12–
16 years)
50–52cm and 290–330g Female youth (8–14 years) and
(IHF Size 1) Male youth of age (8–12 years)
Table 6: Measurement Specifications
Terms Units
Size of Playfield 40m × 20m
Shooting Circle 6m Goal Area Line and 9m free throw
line/outer circle

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 Team Games 169

Penalty Point 7m Activity 5.12

•• What is the air pressure of a
Goalpost 2m × 3m
handball?
Ball Weight: 425–475g (M), 325g–400g (W) •• What is the size and weight
Circumference: 58–60cm (M), 54cm– of a handball?
56cm (W) •• Who invented Handball?
•• Which two countries played
the first handball match in
No. of players 12 (7 court players and 5 substitutes) Olympic Games?
Duration of game 2 Halves of 30 minutes (10 min break
in each half)
Time Out in game 1 time out/half/team

Extra Time 2 halves of 5 minute each

Hockey
History
Historical records indicate that the crude form of hockey
was played in Egypt around 4,000 years ago. Evidence also
shows that a form of this game was played by Romans and
Greeks. The modern game of hockey evolved in England in
the mid-eighteenth century, primarily around the schools.
The first Olympic Hockey Competition for men was
held in London in 1908. Ireland and Scotland competed
separately. After having made its first appearance in 1908
games, hockey was subsequently dropped from the 1912
Stockholm Olympic Games. It reappeared in 1920 at Antwerp
(Belgium) before being omitted again in Paris in 1924. The
Paris organisers refused to include hockey in the Olympics,
stating that the sport had no International Federation.
Hockey had made its first step towards an International
Federation in 1909 when the Hockey Association in England
and the Belgium Hockey Association agreed to recognise each
other to regulate international hockey relations. The French
Association followed soon after, but this was not considered
sufficient to recognise this game at the international level.

Federation International de Hockey (FIH)

The International Hockey Federation, the world governing
body was founded in Paris in 1924, initiated by Paul Leautey,
a Frenchman. Paul Leautey became the first President of the
FIH.
In many ways, the FIH serves as the ‘guardian’ of the
sport. It works in co-operation with both the national and

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 170 Health and Physical Education - XI

continental organisations to ensure consistency and unity in

hockey around the world.
The Federation International Hockey (FIH) not only
regulates the sport, but is also responsible for its development
and promotion so as to guarantee a secure future for hockey.
FIH comprises a network of five continental federations
(CHFS), 12 National associations (NHAS), an executive board
and 7 expert advisory committees, with a Head Office in
Brussels. The FIH retains overall responsibility for hockey
worldwide, including the rules of hockey, umpiring and
coaching.

Measurement of Playground and Specifications of

Equipment

Field and field equipment

The field of play is rectangular, 91.40 metres long, bounded
by sidelines and 55 metres wide, bounded by backlines.

1. Markings

(a) The lines are 75 mm wide and must be clearly

marked along their entire length.
(b) All the marks must be made in white.

2. Lines and other marks

(a) Side-lines: 91.40 metres long perimeter lines

(b) Back-lines: 55.00 metres long perimeter lines
(c) Goal-lines: the parts of the back-lines between the
goal-posts
(d) Centre-line: across the middle of the field
(e) 22.90 metre lines across the field 22.90 metres
from each backline as measured between the
furthest edges of each line.
(f) 300 mm long lines marked outside the field on
each sideline with the further edge of the lines
14.63 metres from and parallel to the outer edge
of the backlines.
(g) 300 mm long lines marked outside the field on each
backline on both sides of the goal at 5 metres.
(h) 10 metres from the outer edge of the nearer goalpost,
as measured between the furthest edges of each line.

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 Team Games 171

Fig. 5.33: Hockey playground

3. Goals
(a) Two vertical goalposts joined by a horizontal cross-
bar are placed at the centre of each backline on
the external marks.
(b) The goalposts and crossbar are white, rectangular
in cross section, 50 mm wide and between 50 mm
to 75 mm deep.
(c) The goal posts must not extend vertically beyond
the crossbar and the crossbar must not extend
horizontally beyond the goalposts.
(d) The distance between the inner edges of the goalposts
is 3.66 metres and the distance from the lower edge
of the crossbar to the ground is 2.14 metres.
(e) The space outside the field, behind the goalposts
should be enclosed by the net, side-boards and
backboard is a minimum of 0.90 metres deep at
the crossbar and a minimum of 1.20 metres deep
at ground-level.
4. Sideboards and backboards
(a) Sideboards are 460 mm high and a minimum of
1.20 metres long.
(b) Backboards are 460 mm high and 3.66 metres long.
(c) Sideboards are positioned on the ground at
right angles to the back line and are fixed to the
back of the goalposts without increasing their
width.

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 172 Health and Physical Education - XI

(d) Backboards are positioned on the ground at right

angles to the side boards and parallel to the
backline, and are fixed to the end of the sideboards.
(e) Sideboards and backboards are of dark colour on
the inside.

Fig. 5.34: Specifications of net

5. Nets
(a) The maximum mesh size is 45 mm.
(b) Attachment to the back of the goalposts
and crossbar is at intervals of not more than
150 mm.
(c) The nets are hanged outside the sideboards and
backboard.
(d) The nets are secured so as to prevent the ball from
passing between the net and the goalposts, cross
bar, sideboards and back-boards.
(e) The nets are fitted loosely to prevent the ball from
rebounding.
6. Flagposts
(a) Flagposts are between 1.20 and 1.50 metres in
height.
(b) Flagposts are placed at each corner of the field.
(c) Flagposts must not be dangerous.
(d) If unbreakable, flagposts must be attached to a
spring base.
(e) Flagposts carry flags, not exceeding 300 mm in
width or length.
7. Stick
(a) The head must be a ‘J’ or ‘U’ shape.
(b) The head must be flat on the left hand side only.

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(c) Any curvature along the length of the stick (the

bow or rake) must have a continuous smooth
profile along the whole length, and must occur
along the playing side or the back of the stick but
not both and is limited to a depth of 25 mm.
8. Ball
(a) is spherical.
(b) has a circumference between 224 mm and 235
mm.
(c) weighs between 156 grams and 163 grams.
(d) is made of any material and coloured white (or
an agreed colour which contrasts with the playing
surface).
(e) is hard with a smooth surface but indentations
are permitted.

Fig. 5.35: Goalkeepers equipment

Goalkeeper’s equipment
1. Hand protectors
(a) each has a maximum width of 228 mm and length
of 355 mm when laid flat, with palm upwards
(b) must not have any addition to retain the stick
when the stick is not held in the hand.
2. Leg guards
(a) each has a maximum width of 300 mm when worn
on the leg of the goalkeeper.
(b) The dimensions of the goalkeeper’s hand protectors
and leg guards are measured using gauges with
the relevant internal dimensions.

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Do You Know? Functional rules of Hockey

In Hockey, rolling substitution The rules of the hockey game are developed and modified
is allowed and any number time to time only by International Hockey Federation to add
of times a player can be glamour and excitement in the match. These rules can be
substituted. understood as given below.

Teams
Each team consists of 16 players, out of which 11 players
play on the field at a time, which includes ten regular players
and one goal keeper. Five substitution players remain on the
sideline. In rare circumstances, a team will choose to pull its
goal keeper off the field in exchange for an extra field player.
The players on the sideline can be used as substitutes for
any of the players on the field at any given time.

Coin Toss
Before the start of the match, the umpire tosses a coin. The
home team gets to choose whether it wants heads or tails. The
team that wins the toss gets its choice of either possession of
the ball at the start or the side of the field to defend.

Positions
Positions in field hockey are not absolute. Generally, teams
arrange players for defence, midfield, and attack. Many teams
include a single player as the last defender called sweeper.
Sweeper acts as a last line of defense in front of the goal
keeper. The minimum number of players needed for a game
is nine, including the goal keeper.

Goal Keeper
Goal keeper is the last defender of a team and shall have
distinguished jersey colour than that of teammates. A full
protected goal keeper cannot leave the side’s defensive
25 yards (23m) line during play, unless the goal keeper is
defending a penalty stroke.
The player who is substituted as a goalkeeper must wear
a helmet, a thigh pad and sometimes a shoe protector. If the
team wants an additional player in the place of a goal keeper,
then the goalkeeper designated player must wear different
coloured jersey and cannot use their feet or hands outside
the 23 meter mark.

Handling Hockey Stick

The head part of a hockey stick is hooked. The right-hand
side of the stick is rounded, while the left-hand side is flat.
The ball can be played only with the flat, left-handed side

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 Team Games 175

of the stick, or with its edge. The ball cannot be played with
Activity 5.13
the rounded side of stick. This is natural for right-handed Collect information about
players and unnatural for left-handed players. Left-handed the world governing body for
sticks are not allowed to be used in games. hockey.

Hitting the Ball

To make a legal hit to the right without using the rounding
side of the stick, a player must turn the stick over the ball
and use the flat side. Taking a hit by reversing the stick head,
turning the handle approximately 180 degrees over the ball
and striking the ball with a left-to-right swing with the flat
side of the stick is called reverse hit.

Dribbling
Keeping the ball under close control is called dribbling.
Dribbling is used while running with possession of the ball.
It helps a player to move away from the opposing players for
a chance to pass or to hit on goal. Other essential skills for
playing field hockey are the ability to control, pass, push,
stop, and shoot the ball with the stick.

Foot Foul
Field Hockey players are not allowed to use their feet, or any
other body part, to control the ball. If the ball hits a player’s
foot, the umpire will either award the other team a free hit or
let the game continue if the other team gains an advantage.
Only the goalkeeper is allowed to use hands, feet, and body
to stop or strike the ball.

Air Ball
The ball is allowed to be lifted in the air as long as the referee
does not consider the play to be ‘dangerous.’ The umpire will
make a call if the ball could potentially hit or injure another
player. The general rule is that the ball should not be lifted
above the knee within five meters of another player. An
exception to this rule is when the ball is raised by using a
scooping or long-pushing action of the stick, or when there
are no players in the same proximity as the ball. The ball
cannot be hit into the air unless it is a direct shot on goal.

Scoring
There are three different ways to score a goal in field hockey.
1. Field goal: A goal can only be scored if the shot is taken
within the ‘shooting circle’, a semi-circular area in front of the
opponent’s goal. The shooting circle is also known as the ‘D’
for the defensive team. The ball must be touched by a player
of either team inside the circle for it to count as a goal.

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2. Penalty Corner: A penalty corner is awarded when

the defensive team breaks certain rules inside the ‘D’, or
when a defender commits an intentional offense outside
the circle but within the 25 yards (23 metres) area. Teams
generally have a set play for short corner. A short corner is
the best opportunity to score a goal in field hockey, because
the offensive team attacks with more number of players than
the defensive team.
The following procedure should be applied to execute a
penalty corner during the match.
•• Play is stopped for a penalty corner to allow time for
both teams to set up its respective attack and defense
positions.
•• Defensive team is allowed to put five defenders including
the goal keeper on the end line.
•• The rest of the defensive team must stay behind the center
line until the ball is pushed out by the offensive player.
•• One of the attackers will stand on the end line 11 yards
(10 meters) away from the goal called ‘pusher’, and who
pushes the ball out to the attackers on top of the shoot-
ing circle.
•• The ball is stopped by one of the waiting attacking
team players called ‘stopper’, standing on the 16 yards
circle. The stopper will stop the ball for the team mate
to either hit or to drag the ball into goal.
•• In order to count a goal during a penalty corner, the ball
must travel outside the shooting circle before hitting the
ball into the goal. The receiver will then push the ball back
into the circle for a shot to be taken. The shot has to be
taken from inside the marked circle for the goal to count.
•• Fouls during penalty corner
•• If the first shot into the goal during penalty corner is
a hard hit and the ball is lifted in the air above the
backboard, the goal will not be counted.
•• To avoid the foul during penalty corner, the attacker
must take push or scoop or flick shots in the goal.
Even if the ball is lifted in the air due to push or scoop
or flick shots, a goal is scored. On the international
level, the ‘drag flick’ is the most popular type of lifted
shot during the penalty corner.
3. Penalty Stroke: A penalty stroke is a single shot
taken on goal by an offensive player chosen by the team.
The goalkeeper is the only opposing player that can defend
this shot. A stroke may be awarded for a number of reasons.
The most common reason for a stroke to be taken is when
a defender commits a foul that directly prevents a goal from
being scored.

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 Team Games 177

The shot is taken from a spot referred to as the penalty

Activity 5.14
stroke mark. It is located 7 yards (6.4 meters) directly in Collect the names of players
front and center of the goal. Game play is stopped during the who have received Arjuna
penalty stroke and all players must stand away and outside Award in the last two years.
of 25 yards (23 metres) line. The player taking penalty stroke
must push, flick or scoop the ball towards the goal and is
Do You Know?
permitted to raise the ball to any height.
The National Championship
Fouls during penalty Stroke: When the stick makes in Hockey is known as
contact with the ball, it should make no distinct hitting Rangaswamy Cup.
noise; otherwise the umpire can disallow the penalty stroke.

Free Hits
Free hits are awarded throughout the main part of the field
for general offences by either team. The most common fouls
that lead to free hits are:
•• Obstructing an opponent from playing the ball.
•• Interfering with the stick or body when tackling.
•• Kicking the ball with leg.
•• Playing the ball dangerously (including lifting the ball).
Procedure to take a free hit
•• In a free hit, the ball possession is given to the opponent
team where the offence took place.
•• The ball is placed on the ground and a player will
restart the action by passing it to a teammate, hitting
the ball forward or backward, or through a self-pass
(either by dribbling the ball or hitting it into space). All
the opposing players must stand at least 5 yards from
this player until the ball is put into play.
•• If the ball is within the 25 yards area of a goal, the
ball cannot be directly hit into the circle. The ball must
travel 5 yards by dribbling or passing before it can be
hit into the circle and shot at the goal.

Obstruction
In most general terms, obstruction is called when the ball
is shielded from an opposing player who is trying to get the
ball. Players often use their own bodies or sticks to block the
ball, but third party obstruction can also be called. Third
party obstruction is called when an attacking player runs
to block an opponent’s path (who is trying to get the ball)
between a teammate who has possession of the ball.

Match Time
An international match time is 60 minutes with four
15-minutequarter (first quarter 15m and 2m for rest, second
quarter 15m and 10m for rest third quarter 15m and 2m for
rest and fourth quarter 15m) for rest. The additional time out for

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penalty corners and after goals ensure that the new 60 minutes
Do You Know?
The Indian Men’s Hockey team format is primarily the actual playing time and eliminates the
remained unbeaten in the dead time associated with penalty corner set up while allowing
Olympics, winning six gold the teams to enjoy their goal celebration.
medals in a row. The Indian
team has won a total of eight Penalty Shootout
gold medals till date. The team that scores the most goals within the match time is
the winner. According to the International Hockey Federation,
if no goals are scored during regulation time, the game will
end in a tie or draw. In the Knock Out Tournament, the
winner is decided on the basis of penalty shootout.
The New Match Time Format
•• Match duration: 60 minutes equally divided in
four quarters
•• 40 seconds time out: After penalty corner awarded
and after a goal scored
•• Two minutes break after the first and the third
quarters and 10 minutes break for half time.
The penalty shootout will be taken under the following
conditions—
1. The defending goalkeeper will stand behind his own
goal line, between the goal post.
2. The ball is placed on the nearest 23 m line in a position
opposite the center of the goal.
3. The umpire blows his whistle to signal the start of the
shootout. The attacker and the goalkeeper may then
move in any direction.
4. An attacker will start from behind the 23 m line near
the ball.
5. The shootout is completed when any one of the
following occur—
(a) 8 seconds has elapsed
(b) The attacker scores a goal
(c) The attacker commits an offence
(d) The goalkeeper commits an offence a goal shall be
awarded
(e) The ball goes out-of-play over the back line, this
include the goalkeeper who may intentionally play
the ball over the back line to end the shootout.

Umpires
There are two umpires (or ‘referees’) in each game. Each
umpire controls half of the field, although general play in the
midfield can be called by either umpire.

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An umpire can give a card to any player who has committed

Activity 5.15
a repeated offence. There are three types of cards: Collect information on the
Green card: Temporarily suspends the player for a years in which Indian Men’s
minimum of two minutes of playing time. Hockey team won Olympic
Yellow card: Temporarily suspends the player for a gold medals.
minimum of five minutes of playing time.
Red card: Permanently suspends the player from the
match.
If a player is suspended temporarily or permanently, then
the team plays with the remaining players.

Umpire Calls
The whistle is the umpire’s tool to enforce the rules of the
game. The umpire blows the whistle to:
•• start the first and second half of the game
•• start a bully
•• call a foul
•• start and end a penalty stroke
•• indicate a goal
•• restart a match after it has been stopped
•• stop a match to substitute players into the game
•• stop the match for an injury
The umpire uses the whistle to keep the game moving
smoothly. The umpire will also use hand signals to indicate
the specifics of the call.
Outstanding Hockey Players: Some of the outstanding
hockey players in India are Prithpal, Ajit Pal Singh, M.P.
Ganesh, Roopa Saini, Vasudeven Bhaskaran, Zafar Iqbal,
Pargat Singh, Jagbir Singh, Dhanraj Pillai, Rajendra Singh,
Dilip Trikey, Mamta Kharab, Deepak Thakur, Sandeep Singh,
Ritu Rani, Sardar Singh, etc.

Kabaddi
History
Kabaddi is an indigenous game of India which has originated
and developed since the epic age of Mahabharata. The word
‘Kabaddi’ has been derived from the term Kaunbada which
means ‘to challenge an opponent’. The game, known as
Hu-Tu-Tu in Western India, Ha-Do-Do in Eastern India and
Bangladesh, Chedugudu in Southern India and Kaunbada in
Northern India. Kabaddi attained national status in the year
1918. Maharashtra was the pioneer state to bring the game
to the national platform and popularity. Standard rules and
regulations were formulated in 1918 but were brought out
in print in the year 1923 and in this very year, an All India
Tournament was organised at Baroda with these rules.

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13 m

End Line

Lobby Lobby 1m

1.75 m
1m 3.75 m
Bonus Line

Baulk Line
End Line

End Line
Mid Line

10 m
8m

Lobby Lobby 1m
End Line

Fig. 5.36: Specifications of net

Table 7: Measurement of Kabaddi Ground

Do You Know? Size of Kabaddi Court 13 × 10 m (for men)

Kabaddi received international 11 × 08 m (for boys and
exposure during the 1936 women)
Berlin Olympics, demonstrated Size of Lobby 1 m wide on both sides
by Hanuman Vyayam
Prasarak Mandal, Amaravati, Distance of Baulk Line 3.75 m
Maharashtra.
from Mid-Line
Distance of Bonus Line 4.75 m
from Mid-Line

Modern Kabaddi is a synthesis of the game which is

played in various forms under different names. The game
was introduced in the Indian Olympic Games at Calcutta in
1938. In 1950, the All India Kabaddi Federation came into
existence and compiled standard rules.
The Amateur Kabaddi Federation of India (AKFI) was
founded in 1973. After the formation of Amateur Kabaddi
Federation of India, the first men’s nationals were held in
Madras (renamed as Chennai), while the women’s nationals
were held in Calcutta (renamed as Kolkata) in 1955 (1955
does not come after 1973). The AKFI has given shape to
the new rules and has the right to modify them. The Asian
Kabaddi Federation was founded under the chairmanship of
Janardan Singh Gehlot.

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Rules of Kabaddi Do You Know?

Kabaddi is now played indoor
Team on mats after wearing mat
Each team shall consist of minimum 10 and maximum 12 shoes.
Players. Seven players shall play at a time and the remaining
players are substitutes.

Duration of the match

The duration of the match shall be of two halves, i.e., 20
minutes of each half. In case of men and junior boys there
is an internal of 5 minutes. In the case of women, junior
girls, sub-junior boys and girls, there are two halves of 15
minutes with 5 minutes interval. The side that wins the toss
shall have the choice of the court or the raid. The teams shall
change the court after first interval. The number of players
for each team at the start of second half shall remain the
same as it was at the end of first half. The last raid of each
half of the match shall be allowed to be completed even after
completion of the scheduled time as mentioned above.

Rules for Raider

•• Raider shall continue to chant “Kabaddi”. Raider must
start the chant before the player touches the opponent’s
court.
•• If a raider goes out of turn, the Umpire or Referee shall
order the raider to go back and a technical point will be
given to the opponent team.
•• Not more than one raider shall enter the opponent’s
court at a time; otherwise a technical point will be
awarded to the opponent and a chance to raid.
•• When a raider is out the raid is over, the opponent
should send their raider within 5 seconds. Otherwise
their team loses its turn of raiding.
•• If a raider, who is caught by the catcher, escapes from
their attempt to hold and reaches his court safely, he
shall not be pursued further.
•• When a raid is held, the cather shall not try deliberately
stifle the raiders chant by shutting his mouth, using
violent tackling leading to injuries, any type of scissoring
or any unfair means. If such incident happens, the
Umpire or Referee shall declare the raider ‘Not Out’.

Rules and regulations

•• No catcher shall willfully push the raider out of the
boundary by any part of his body, nor shall any raider
willfully push or pull catcher’s body out of the boundary.
If the raider is pushed outside the boundary or the

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catcher is pushed or pulled outside the boundary, the

Do You Know?
After all the members of a team Umpire or Referee shall declare the raider or the catcher,
are declared out, the opponent as the case may be, as ‘Not Out’, and the catcher or the
team will be awarded two extra raider who pushes or pulls the opponents outside the
points known as ‘Lona’. boundary shall be declared out.
•• During the course of raid, none of the catcher shall
touch the raider’s court until completion of the raid.
In case any catcher touches the raider’s court before
completion of the raid, they will be declared out and the
opponent team will be given that many points.
•• When a team manages to put out the entire opponent
team and none of the opponents are entitled to be revived,
then that team scores a lona and two extra points for
lona shall be awarded in addition to the points scored
by the team putting out all the players of the opponent.
The play continues and all the players who are out shall
enter in their court within 10 seconds. Otherwise the
referee or umpire shall award one technical point to the
opponent. If the team fails to enter within one minute,
the team shall be scratched from the match and the
match shall be awarded to the opponent.
•• If a raider is warned or in any way instructed by one
player of his own side, the Umpire or Referee shall
award one technical point to the opponent.
•• A raider or catcher is not to be held by any part of his
cloth deliberately other than his limb or trunk. The one
who violates the rule shall be declared out. If the raider
is held deliberately other than his limb or trunk, the
Umpire or Referee shall declare such raider as not out.
Note: If a raider is intentionally caught by clothes or hair, the
raider shall be declared ‘not out’ and the catcher who has violated
the rule shall be declared out.
•• When one or two players of a team are left during the
game and the Captain of the team declares them out in
order to bring in the full team, the opponent shall score
as many points as the players that existed in the court
at the time of declaration as well as two extra points for
‘lona’.
•• A player or players who are out shall be revived in
the same order as they were out when one or more
opponents are out.

System of Scoring
Each team shall score one point for every opponent out or put
out. The side, which scores a ‘lona’, shall score two extra points.

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 Team Games 183

Time Out
Activity 5.16
Each team shall be allowed to take two ‘Time Outs’ of 30 Ask your teacher to conduct
seconds each in each half; such ‘time out’ shall be called for inter house Kabaddi Matches in
by the Captain, Coach or any playing member of the team your school.
with the permission of referee. The ‘time out’ time shall be
added to the match time.

Substitution
Five reserve players can be substituted with the permission
of the Referee during ‘time out’ or interval.

Bonus Point
For crossing the bonus line, when catcher team have
minimum six players, bonus point is awarded to the raider.

Result
The team, which scores the highest number of points at the
end of the match, shall be declared the winner.

Tie in Knockout
If there is a tie in the Knockout match, the match will be
played of 5-5 raids where both the teams should field 7
players in the Court and baulk line is treated as bonus line
but point remains the same. Listed players will perform the
raid alternatively; no one will be out, only score points will be
given to their respective team. At last the team which scored
more points is declared the winner.

Golden Raid
•• Even after 5–5 raids, if there is a tie, a fresh toss will be
taken and the team that wins the toss shall have the
chance to raid, i.e., ‘Golden Raid’.
•• If there is a tie even after the Golden Raid, then a chance
will be given to the opponent team for the Golden Raid.
•• In the Golden Raid, the team which scores the leading
point shall be declared as winner.
Green Card is flashed for warning, Yellow Card for
temporary suspension for 2 minutes, and Red Card for
suspension from the match or to debar from the tournament.

Fundamental skills in Kabaddi

The main objective of the defence players or catcher is to
catch the raider and prevent him from escaping to his home
court. To achieve this objective, the catcher can use any of
the six fundamental defence skills, i.e., ankle hold, thigh
hold, knee hold, waist hold, wrist hold and arm hold.

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Ankle hold
Activity 5.17
•• Is there a weight Ankle hold is one of the commonly used defensive skills. In
categorisation for Kabaddi? this technique, the defending player (catcher) holds the ankle
•• Find out the age and weight of the raider with both hands.
categories of Kabaddi in
SGFI.

Fig. 5.37: Ankle hold

Thigh hold
It is also a defensive technique in which the defender throws
his body on the raider to hold both thighs with the arms
around the thighs of raider.

Fig. 5.38: Thigh hold

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 Team Games 185

Knee hold
This is not a common skill in kabaddi but when used by the
defender, it works like a jaw to catch the raider.

Fig. 5.39: Knee hold

Waist hold
Waist hold is used during the struggle when the raider moves
back to one’s own court after the raid.

Fig. 5.40: Waist hold

Wrist hold
Wrist holding technique is best used during one to one
situation and not advised during the usual course of game.

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 186 Health and Physical Education - XI

Fig. 5.41: Wrist hold

Arm hold
During struggle, arms of the raider are held to stabilise the
raider but this is not a very common practice as the arm hold
is natural action occurs during competition.

Fig. 5.42: Arm hold

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Offensive skills

Toe touch
Toe touch is executed by the raider to touch the opponent by
toe during raid for scoring a point.

Fig. 5.43: Toe touch

Side kick
The raider tries to touch the opponent by side kicking,
keeping in mind that the opponent should not hold the leg.

Front kick
In front kick, the raider tries to kick from front, in a deceiving
action, keeping in mind that the opponent should not grab
the leg.

Fig. 5.44: Front kick

Mule or Back kick

It is a deceiving kick, performed by standing in front of the
opponent and facing in the same direction.

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Activity 5.18
•• How many gold medals
did India win in Asian
games, Jakarta-Palembang
(Indonesia) 2018?
•• Collect the information of
teams and their occupied
owners in Professional
Kabaddi League in India.

Do You Know?
•• India is the first country
to introduce Professional
Kabaddi League. Fig. 5.45: Mule or back kick
•• Asian Kabaddi circuit
is dominated by Indian Awards in Kabaddi
coaches and players to To motivate the extraordinary achievements of the players
develop the game of Kabaddi and Coaches, the Government of India honours players with
in Asia.
different awards along with cash prizes and certificates.
In the year 2018, G. Pranav Sai Reddy of received Arjuna
Award. E. Prasad Rao has been awarded with Dronacharya
Award for an excellent contribution as a Coach.

Kho-Kho
The game Kho-Kho is based upon the natural principles of
physical development and develops all of the motor qualities
of an individual. It involves and cultivates a healthy combative
spirit among the youth. It is not merely a game of running
with speed but also to chase at natural instinct to overtake.

Fig. 5.46: Players in kho-kho playground

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 Team Games 189

History of Kho-Kho Do You Know?

The origin of Kho-Kho is not easy to mark out, but many Practice of Kho-Kho helps to
historians believe that it is a modified form of ‘Run and develop coordinative abilities
Chase’, which in its simplest form involves chasing and more than other games.
touching a person. The popularity and development of this
game has been associated with the development of ‘Akharas’
and ‘Vyayamshalas’ in Maharashtra. Probably, the game
Kho-Kho has originated from Pune, Maharashtra and slowly
spread within the country and also gained popularity in the
neighbouring countries, i.e., Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka
and Pakistan. The rules of this game were framed in 1914
by a committee of veteran players. Initially two players were
made to stand at the two ends instead of the posts. The
game is controlled and governed by the rules formed by Kho-
Kho Federation of India which was established in 1956. It
is believed that the first championship of Kho-Kho was held
in 1959 at Vijaywada. ‘Hanuman Vyayam Prasarak Mandal’
Amravati, has given the modern form to this game. Kho-Kho
game was first introduced in the National Games in 1985,
held in Delhi. First Asian Kho-Kho championship was held in
1996 in Calcutta, where Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and
India participated. It was also introduced as a demonstration
game in the Berlin Olympics in 1936.

Measurements of Kho-Kho Playground

Kho-Kho ground is rectangular in shape and can be
constructed either outdoor or indoor. In outdoor spaces, it
should be made on a levelled clay surface and synthetic or
wooden surface should be used when playing indoors.
Table 8: Basics of Kho-Kho

Terms Units

Shape of the playfield Rectangular

Total area including lobbies 32m × 21m

27m × 16m (Men/Women and Junior Boys/

Dimensions of the playfield Girls)
23m × 14m (Sub Junior Boys/Girls)

1.5m × 16m (Men/Women and Junior

Free Zone Boys/Girls)
1.5m × 14m (Sub Junior Boys/Girls)

24m (Men/Women and Junior Boys/Girls)

Centre Lane
20m (Sub Junior Boys/Girls)

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Terms Units
35cm × 30cm (Men/Women and Junior
Cross Lane Boys/Girls)
30cm × 30cm (Sub Junior Boys/Girls)
2.55m (Men/Women and Junior Boys/
Distance: Pole to first Cross
Girls)
lane
2.15m (Sub Junior Boys/Girls)
2.30m (Men/Women and Junior Boys/
Distance between two
Girls)
chasters block
1.90m (Sub Junior Boys/Girls)
Number of innings in Kho- 02 for each team (total 4 turns of 9 minutes
Kho each)
Duration of the interval 6 minutes (after first inning for both teams)
Time interval between team
3 minutes (9 + 3 + 9 + 6 + 9 + 3 + 9) = 48
turns including interval
minutes
time
Dimensions of the pole
1.20m to 1.25m
(Height)
Diameter of the pole 9cm to 10cm
Number of players 9 playing members and 3 extra players
2 Umpires, 1 Referee, 1 Time Keeper, 1
Officials
Scorer

Fig. 5.47: Specifications of kho-kho playground (men/women)

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 Team Games 191

Equipment
For the construction and playing Kho-Kho, the following
equipment are required—
1. Posts (Two Wooden Poles)
2. Cord (for field marking only)
3. Steel measuring tape (for field marking)
4. Lime powder (for field marking)
5. Stopwatch
6. Score sheet
7. Large score board (score indicator)
8. Time indicating Plates (30 mm × 20 cm)

General rules and regulations

1. Each team consists of 12 players. Nine players play
the game.
2. On the basis of the toss, the captain chooses running
(defending) or chasing (attacking).
3. Nine players of the chasing team participate during
the attack, out of which eight players sit on the
boxes of the central lane. The players sit in the boxes
alternately in such a way so as to face in opposite
direction.
4. An active chaser gives a vocal signal ‘kho’ to the team’s
own sitting player with a simple tap by palm on his/
her back and sits in their box. It is a violation if the
sitting player moves before the kho is completed. This
violation of the sitting player is termed as ‘early kho’.
5. A chaser while chasing is not allowed to change
the direction, but they can change the direction in
rectangles known as free zones which are outside the
poles.
6. If a chaser touches the runner, the runner is given
out.
7. The match consists of two innings. Each team is given
nine minutes for chasing (attack) and nine minutes
for running (defend).
8. The running team is divided into three groups consisting
of three players in each group. First group enters with
the starting whistle and the second group enters
when the players of first group are out and the game
continues.
9. A runner is also declared out if any part of his body
touches outside the playing area or moves out of the
playing area while defending himself.

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10. A substitution can be made:

a) for the runners team before giving the order of the
runners to officials.
b) chasers can be substituted during the game any
time.
11. After getting out, the runner should sit in the lobby
accorded to his group.
12. In a match, there are two umpires, one referee, one
time keeper and one scorer.

Specific exercises of warm-up and conditioning

1. Jogging, and running
2. Breath control exercises
3. Dodging and Zig-Zag running
4. Bending and stretching exercises
5. Frog jump

Fundamental skills of kho-kho

1. Types of giving Kho
a) Simple Kho
b) Beginners Kho
c) Late Kho
2. Method of chasing
a) Left hand chase
b) Right hand chase
3. Method of sitting
a) Bullet/Bunch method
b) Parallel method
4. Method of getting up
a) Monkey style
b) Standing up style
c) Combined style
5. Making the chain
a) Single chain
b) Double chain
c) Making a ring
6. Dodging
7. Diving
a) straight dive (front dive)
b) Sideward dive

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Do You Know?
Kho-Kho is now played indoor
on mats also.

Activity 5.19
Ask your teacher to organise
an inter-class/inter-group Kho-
Kho competition in the school.

Fig. 5.48: Straight dive in kho-kho

Fig. 5.49: Side dive in kho-kho

Important tournaments

International
1. Asian Championship—started in 1996 at Calcutta
2. Netaji Subhash International Tournament—first held
in 1998

National
1. Federation Cup
2. Nehru Gold Cup
3. National Kho-Kho Championship
4. Inter University Championship

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Activity 5.20 Volleyball

Mark a Volleyball court on the
playfield in your school. History of Volleyball
Volleyball is played by two teams on a playing court divided by
a net. It is one of the most successful, popular, competitive and
recreational sports in the world. The game of volleyball originally
called Mintonette was invented in 1895 by William G. Morgon.
The Volleyball Federation of India (VFI) was formed in the year
1951. The Federation Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) was
founded in 1947. Volleyball was introduced in the Asian Games
in 1958 for Men and in 1962 for Women. The FIVB Volleyball
Men’s World Championship started in 1949 and for women in
1952. Volleyball made its Olympic debut at the 1964 Tokyo
Games.

Court Dimensions

Fig. 5.50: Volleyball court layout

•• The playing court is rectangular in shape measuring

18 × 9 m. It is surrounded by a free zone of 5 m from
the side lines and 6.5 m from the endlines.
•• The height of the free playing space, above the playing
area, from the playing surface, shall be 12.5 m.
•• Attack line is 3 m from the axis of the centre line, which
marks the front zone.
•• The service zone is 9 m wide and is behind each end
line. It is laterally limited by two short lines, each 15 cm
long, drawn 20 cm behind the endline as an extension
of the side lines.

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•• All lines of the court are white and 5 cm wide.

Activity 5.21
•• Full Court diagonal = 20.125 m Draw a Volleyball court as
•• Half Court diagonal = 12.728 m per International Standards
of FIVB giving all its
Equipment specifications.

Fig. 5.51: Court and net specifications in volleyball

Ball
•• The ball shall be spherical, made of a flexible
leather or synthetic leather case with a bladder
inside, made of rubber.
•• The colour may be a uniform light colour or a
combination of colours.
•• The circumference is 65–67 cm and its weight
is 260–280 g.
•• Its inside pressure shall be 0.30 to 0.325 kg/cm2. Fig. 5.52: Volleyball
•• The height of net is 2.43 m for men and 2.24
m for women measured from the centre of the
playing court.
•• The net is 1 m wide and 9.50 to 10 m long, made of 10
cm square black mesh.
Preferably adjustable posts that are 2.55 m high are
placed 1m outside the side lines.

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 196 Health and Physical Education - XI

Antenna and Side Bands

•• An antenna is a flexible, 1.80 m long and 10 mm in di-
ameter, made of fibreglass or similar material.
•• The top 80 cm of each antenna extends above the net and
is marked with 10 cm stripes of red and white colour.
•• Two white bands 5 cm wide are fastened vertically to
the net and placed directly above each side line.

How to play volleyball

•• A team consists of 12 players of which one of the players
other than the Libero, is the team captain.
•• Before the match, the referee carries out a toss in the
presence of the two team captains to decide upon the first
service and the sides of the court in the first set. If a
deciding set is to be played, a new toss will be carried out.
•• Before the start of each set, the coach has to present
Fig. 5.53: Antenna and side the starting line-up of six players of the team on a
bands line-up sheet. The team’s starting line-up indicates the
rotational order of the players on the court. This order
must be maintained throughout the set.

Net

4 3 2

5 6 1

Court positions and rotation direction

Fig. 5.54: Player positions and rotation direction of players

•• At the moment the ball is hit by the server, each team

must be positioned within its own court, in the rotational
order (except the server). The three players along the
net are front-row players and occupy positions as—
4 (front-left), 3 (front-centre) and 2 (front-right); the
other three are back-row players occupying positions 5
(back-left), 6 (back-centre) and 1 (back-right).
•• Rotational order is determined by the team’s starting
line-up and controlled with the service order and players’
positions throughout the set. When the receiving team
gains the right to serve, its players rotate one position
clockwise—the player in position 2 rotates to position 1
to serve, the player in position 1 rotates to position 6,
etc.

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•• Each team is entitled to a maximum of three hits (in

addition to blocking), for returning the ball.
•• A player cannot hit the ball two times consecutively.
•• A team scores a point by successfully landing the ball
on the opponent’s court or when the opponent team
commits a fault or receives a penalty.
•• A rally is the sequence of playing actions from the
moment of the service hit by the server until the ball is
out of play.
•• If the serving team wins a rally, it scores a point and
continues to serve.
•• If the receiving team wins a rally, it scores a point and
it must serve next.
•• Each team may request a maximum of two time outs of
30 seconds each and six substitutions per set.
•• A player of the starting line-up may leave the game, but
only once in a set. The player may re-enter, but only
once in a set, and only to the previous position in the
line-up.
•• All intervals between the sets are of three minutes.
•• To win a set: A set (except the deciding 5th set) is won
by the team which first scores 25 points with a minimum
lead of two points.
•• In the case of a 24-24 tie, play is continued until a two-
point lead is achieved (26-24; 27-25; etc.).
•• To win the match: The match is won by the team that
wins three sets.
•• In the case of a 2-2 tie, the deciding 5th set is played to
15 points with a minimum lead of 2 points.
•• Each team has the right to designate from the list of
players up to two specialist defensive players—liberos.
•• The libero on court is the Acting Libero. If there is
another libero, than that person is the second Libero
for the team. Only one libero may be on court at any
time.
•• The libero player(s) must wear a uniform which has a
different dominant colour from the colour of the rest of
the team.
•• The libero is allowed to replace any player in a back row
position. The player is restricted to perform as a back row
player and is not allowed to complete an attack hit from
anywhere (including playing court and free zone), if at the
moment of the contact, the ball is entirely higher than the
top of the net.
•• They may not serve, block or attempt to block.
•• Libero replacements are not counted as substitutions.
•• They are unlimited but there must be a completed rally
between two libero replacements.

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 198 Health and Physical Education - XI

Fundamental Skills

Fig. 5.55: Under arm pass

Fig. 5.56: Over hand serves or tennis service

1. The Service
(a) Tennis Service
(b) Jump and Serve
(c) Floating service
2. The Pass
(a) Under arm pass
(b) Over head pass
(c) Forward dive and pass
(d) One arm pass with side rolling
Fig. 5.57: Overhead pass or
volley pass 3. The Set-up
(a) Overhead or Volley Pass
4. The Attack
(a) Smash or Spike

Fig. 5.58: The attack

5. The Block
(a) Single block
(b) Double block

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 Team Games 199

Activity 5.22
Practice Tennis Service in
Volleyball and the Physical
Education Teacher will rectifies
your mistakes.

Fig. 5.59: The block

6. Tennis Service
(a) The ball is tossed with fingers, left foot forward
with weight transferred simultaneously.
(b) The Arm is stretched in order to accelerate the
ball.
(c) The Wrist is kept rigid with flat hand keeping the
forearm and shoulder relaxed.
(d) Hip is rotated to move back, shoulder, elbow and
hand.
(e) Arm is quickly accelerated towards the ball, to hit
it with base of the palm.
(f) The hitting arm and the body moves forward
stepping with the rear foot.

Fig. 5.60: Jump serve

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 200 Health and Physical Education - XI

Fig. 5.61: Under arm pass

7. The pass
(a) Under arm pass: This skill is used when the ball
is below your forehead to receive a striking ball or
dropped ball, etc.
(b) Overhead pass: This skill is used when the ball
is high, above the player’s shoulders/head and
generally used to receive the service to set a ball
or receiving a loose crossed ball.
(c) The set-up: Set-up skill is generally a second
contact with the ball in order to set up a spike for
another player. This skill is used to spike a ball or
drop the ball into the opponent’s court.

Fig. 5.62: Overhead pass (Left), set-up (Right)

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 Team Games 201

(d) The Serve: It is used to put the ball into play, to

Activity 5.23
start the volley and this skill is solely executed Play a Volleyball match between
by one player. It is further classified into mainly two teams of your class. Use
three parts. libero, substitutions and time
(i) Tennis Service outs as per rules.
(ii) Jump Service
(iii) Floating Service

Fig. 5.63: Floating service

(e) The Attack: In this skill, a player attempts to hit

the ball from over the net towards the opponent
court with the aim to score a point. It is executed
from the front zone as well as the back zone.
(f) The Block: In this skill, a player attempts to stop
the opposite team from hitting the ball into his
or her court. By using block technique, a player
stops the opposite team from scoring a point.

Awards in Volleyball
To motivate the extraordinary achievements of the players
and Coaches, the Government of India honours players with
different awards along with cash prizes and certificates.
Tom Joseph was the recipient of Arjuna Award in 2014.
G.E. Sridharan was honoured with Dronacharya Award
for his excellent contribution as a Coach in the year 2007.

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 Assessment
Basketball
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the reason behind invention of Basketball by
Dr. Neismith.
2. What are the reasons of basketball’s development at such a
fast pace?
3. Discuss the functional rules of basketball.
4. Explain the four fouls in basketball.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. What is the full form of FIBA?

2. Who is known as the father of basketball?
3. What is the full form of BFI?
4. When was the first set of basketball rules framed?
5. What is the height of basketball ring from the floor?
6. What is the weight of the basketball?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. The first national basketball championship was held in

_______________________ under IOC.
2. Basketball become a regular part of Olympics officially in the
year of ________________________.
3. Basketball game is divided into _____________ quarters.
4. Circumference of a basketball is ___________________.

IV. State whether True or False

1. The first national championship under BFI was conducted

in 1951.
2. Three seconds rule is related to violation.
3. The boundary lines are a part of playing area in Basketball.

Cricket
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Write down the international and Indian history of cricket.
2. Explain the 11 ways through which a batsman can be given
‘out’ in the game of cricket.

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 Team Games 203

3. Elaborate the different types of bowling in cricket.

4. Explain the different types of batting in cricket.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. When and where was the BCCI framed?

2. What is the old and new full form of ICC?
3. What is T20?
4. What is a Wide Ball?
5. Who was the recipient of Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award in
2018?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. Cricket is a game played with a ________ and __________ on a

large field, known as a ___________.
2. First Indian batsman who scored century in Test Match was
__________.
3. First Indian batsman who scored century in One day match is
_________.
4. The colour of cricket ball should be _________ in night test
matches.

IV. State whether True or False

1. There are two types of crease.

2. The height of stumps is 28 inches.
3. A ‘Bye’ run is scored when a batsman is trying to hit the ball
but could not hit it and is miss-field by the fielder or wicket
keeper.
4. A batsman is not out if he willingly obstructs the opposition by
word or action.

Football
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the world history of Football.
2. Draw a labelled football ground.
3. Explain any five laws of football.
4. What are the players’ equipment in football?
5. List the types of kicks in football and explain any two.

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 204 Health and Physical Edcation - XI

II. Short Answer Questions

1. When was the first Football Association formed?

2. Tsu-Chu was played in which country?
3. What is FIFA?
4. When was AIFF formed?
5. What are the dimensions of a football field for international
competitions?
6. List the criteria as per FIFA for the football to be used.
7. What is the difference between free kick, indirect free kick and
penalty kick?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. The game of football is also known as ___________ in the world.

2. The first known/oldest football tournament is _____________.
3. India holds the record of organising _________ cup as second
oldest tournament in the world.
4. Less than ___________ players cannot be allowed for a team to
play in tournament.
5. Two yellow cards are equal to ____________ which means
sending off offence.

IV. State whether True or False

1. The Throw-In is a method of restarting play.

2. The measurement of a goal area is 5.5m × 19m.
3. A goal can be scored directly from the indirect free kick.
4. A direct free kick, kicked in own goal is awarded as corner to
opponent.
5. Unsporting behaviour is a questionable offence.
6. A direct goal can be scored from the corner kick but only
against the opposing team.
7. A flag post should not be less than 1.5m (5 feet).

Handball
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Write down the History of Handball.
2. Draw a labelled handball playfield.

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 Team Games 205

3. Explain the functional rules of Handball.

4. Differentiate between the 6 m Goal Area Line and 9 m free
throw line.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. What is the full form of IHF?
2. When and where was the IHF framed?
3. How many players and substitutes are there in a Handball
team?
4. Write down the names of the current Indian Handball team
members?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. The first national handball championship was held in

_______________.
2. Handball became a regular part of Olympics officially in the
year of ______________ .
3. Time out is related to _____________ quarters of playing time.
4. Panalty line is _________________ away from the Goal Post.

IV. State whether True or False

1. The first World Championship under IHF was conducted in

1954.
2. 3 seconds rule is related to violation.
3. The length of a Handball ground is 42 m.

Hockey
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Who founded the International Hockey Federation and in
which year?
2. In which year was hockey introduced in the Olympic Games.
3. Draw a labelled diagram of hockey field playground.
4. Explain in detail the new match time format in field hockey.
5. Explain the new format of shootout in field hockey.

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 206 Health and Physical Edcation - XI

II. Short Answer Questions

1. What is the full form of FIH?

2. What is the weight of a field hockey ball?
3. What should be the shape of the head of a hockey stick?
4. How many umpires are there in field hockey?
5. How many types of cards can be issued by the umpire in field
hockey? What is the effect of yellow card on a player?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. The height of the goal post in field hockey is ____________.

2. The player is suspended for ____________ minutes if he gets a
green card.
3. National championship for field hockey is ____________.
4. The duration of a field hockey match is ____________.
5. The international field hockey match played is ____________
quarters of ____________ minutes.
6. Indian men’s Hockey team won _______________ gold medals in
Olympic Games.

IV. State whether True or False

1. A player is suspended for 5 minutes when the umpire shows

yellow card to the player.
2. The height of the backboard in goal post is 480 mm.
3. The height of the flag post is 2.00 m.
4. Field hockey was first introduced in 1900 Olympic Games.

Kabaddi
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Briefly explain the origin of Kabaddi as a game in India.
2. Describe any three rules of giving raid.
3. What are the situations in which the raider can be given ‘out’?
4. How does an anti-raider team get points?
5. How can a bonus point be scored?

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 Team Games 207

II. Short Answer Questions

1. Name the place from where Kabaddi has originated?

2. When did Kabaddi receive international exposure?
3. How many players play in a Kabaddi match?
4. What is ‘lona’?
5. What is the duration of time out in a Kabaddi match?
6. Enlist some defensive fundamental techniques mostly used in
Kabaddi.
7. What does green card indicate in Kabaddi?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. The game of Kabaddi has been developed and played since the
epic age of ____________.
2. The surface for playing Kabaddi game in present day is
____________.
3. A raider is allowed to chant only____________.
4. A raider cannot be held by his ____________ or ____________.
5. When all the members of a team are made out by the opponents,
it is called ____________.

IV. State whether True or False

1. To warn a player, the umpire shows green card.

2. Temporary suspension of 4 minutes is given by yellow card.
3. Red card is given to a player for suspension from the match.
4. A raider gets 1 point for crossing the bonus line only when
there are minimum 6 defending players.
5. In the case of tie match in knock-out tournament, five raids
are allowed from both the teams.

Kho-Kho
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the history of Kho-Kho.
2. Draw a Kho-Kho court according to the specifications.
3. Describe some fundamental skills of Kho-Kho.
4. Write about the important national and international
tournaments organised in Kho-Kho.

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 208 Health and Physical Edcation - XI

5. Explain the general rules and regulations of Kho-Kho.

6. Explain the dimensions of the Kho-Kho ground for women.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. Define ‘chasers’.
2. State the height of the pole in Kho-Kho.
3. Can a runner touch the sitting chaser?
4. Is a player considered out, if his both feet are outside the
playing court?
5. Name the basic techniques of Kho-Kho.
6. Who was the first Kho-Kho player to get the Arjuna Award?
7. Can the chasers finish their turn before the allotted time?
8. Will the defenders have to come again, if they are all out before
the time?
9. What are the dimensions of each square for men’s playfield?
10. How many points are awarded if a runner is out?
11. How many officials are required in a Kho-Kho match?
12. Name some of the famous players of Kho-Kho.
13. How many players are there in a Kho-Kho team?
14. How many innings are there in a Kho-Kho match?
15. What is the total duration of a Kho-Kho match?
16. Who had given the modern form to Kho-Kho?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. For the first time, the rules of Kho-Kho were framed in the year
______________.
2. The modern frame of the game is credited to ______________.
3. The governing body of Kho-Kho in India is ______________.
4. Asian championship started in ______________.
5. Chaser in Kho-Kho is also called ______________.

IV. State whether True or False

1. Hanuman Vyayam Prasarak Mandal has given the modern

form of Kho-Kho.
2. Kho-Kho federation of India was established in 1940.
3. Eleven players play in a Kho-Kho game.

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 Team Games 209

4. Running team is divided into three groups consisting three

players each.
5. The Kho-Kho game develops agility.

Volleyball
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the international and Indian history of Volleyball game.
2. Explain about ‘libero’ in Volleyball.
3. Write down the scoring system in Volleyball.
4. Explain about the fundamental skills of Volleyball.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. When was the Volleyball Federation of India (VFI) formed?

2. When was the Federation Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB)
founded?
3. List the equipment used in Volleyball.
4. Write down the fundamental skills of Volleyball.
5. Name the types of services in Volleyball.
6. What is ‘attack’ in Volleyball?
7. Who was the recipient of the Arjuna award in 2014 in
Volleyball?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. In Volleyball, the height of the free space above the playing

area from the playing surface shall be _______ m.
2. Diagonal measurement of full Volleyball court shall be ______ m.
3. A team may request a maximum of ________ substitutions per set.

IV. State whether True or False

1. Volleyball was introduced in 1964, Tokyo Olympic Games.

2. Federation Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) was formed in
1949.
3. Libero cannot serve, block or attempt to block.

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 Yoga and its
Relevance in the
Modern Times
6
Yoga is a science of living. It needs to be incorporated in
daily life. It works on physical, mental, emotional, social and
spiritual levels of human beings. Yoga helps in improving the
quality of life. For example, yoga teaches us how to think,
behave and grow to become a fully mature person. Yoga
brings harmony between body and mind. It is an art and
science for healthy living.
The word ‘yoga’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘yuj’
meaning to join, to yoke, and to unite. It is an ancient system
of self-development and natural process of evolution of
human beings.
Now a days, the word yoga has a strong impact on human
Fig. 6.1: Yoga mudra life. The ultimate purpose of yoga is the attainment of human
growth. Yoga has been established as a new field in education
system. It helps in achieving higher state of consciousness
on the evolution of an individual’s development. It is the
discipline of body and mind.
Children face too much stress in their surroundings,
such as, school, home, playground, etc. Due to this stress
they have many problems such as physical, mental and
emotional. When these health hazards create problems for
long, they lead to psychosomatic diseases and social unrest.
All these problems originate due to imbalance between our
physical, mental and spiritual levels. They are closely related
to materialistic way of life. Attachment and endless ambitions
are the two primary causes of our sufferings.
According to the Upanishads, yoga is a higher state of
consciousness and a process to ease the mind and manifest
the wisdom. Yoga establishes the activities of a healthy state
of body, mind and harmonious interpersonal relationships.
Due to unhealthy lifestyle, the overall growth of child gets
ceased and it leads to ill health. Yoga works on various

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 Yoga and its Relevance in the Modern Times 211

aspects of human body and mind and helps to improve self-

awareness, self-control, relaxation, concentration, flexibility
and coordination.

History and Development of Yoga

Yoga has a very long history and in terms of legacy it is as old
as human civilisation. Its history is also linked with the vedas
and upanishads.
Yoga had a special place during the Indus Valley
Civilisation (2000 B.C). The stone seals restored from the
sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation depict the practice of
Yoga during old days.
The word yoga is frequently referred in all the four Vedas
Rigveda, Yujurveda, Samveda and Atharvaveda.
Moksha is the ultimate goal of yoga, which is well
explained in the Upanishads. The teaching of Buddha (Arya
Asthangic Marga) and Jainism (five great vows) are the two
pillars of yoga tradition. These two had greatly contributed to
the development of yoga.
The epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata have numerous
references about yoga. The Bhagavad Gita is considered as a
classical treatise on yoga.
There is also description of Yoga in Shad Darshans. Fig. 6.2: Vedas
Maharishi Sage Patanjali had codified the comprehensive
system of Yoga around second century B.C. Patanjali gave
the concept of eight limbs of yoga called as Ashtang Yoga.
Nath culture also played an important role in the
development of the Hatha Yoga Tradition. Hatha Yoga deals
with day-to-day health related problems and emphasised on
the human body and mind. The famous scriptures of Hatha
Yoga are Hatha Yoga Pradeepika, Gheranda Samhita, Hatha
Ratnavali, Shiva Samhita, Siddha Siddhanta Paddhati,
etc. Nineteenth century gurus, such as, Ramakrishna
Parmahansa, Swami Vivekananda, Maharishi Aurobindo and
Ramana Maharishi preached yoga to the masses.

Schools of Yoga
The basic goal of yoga is thus to attain bliss and also to provide
true knowledge about human beings. In order to attain the
above goals, various thoughts, ideas and opinions were given by
seers which are known as the schools of yoga. These are—

Karma Yoga (Path of Action)

Karma Yoga is one of the main streams of yoga. Karma
literally means action. The aim of Karma Yoga is attaining
union with the higher-self by harmonising the actions.

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Karma Yoga inspires the person to perform the work to the

best of their abilities without any attachment or expectation
of the results. The concept of Karma Yoga and its practice
are mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita. This stream of yoga
emphasises the following.
•• Karma as duty: Karma Yoga lays emphasis on doing
karma or action as duty. When an act is performed
dutifully with total involvement, it leads to joy and
happiness.
•• Karma Sukaushalam: Karma Yoga states that
yoga means a skilled action. Actions should be done
efficiently. Actions performed with full concentration
and detachment brings efficiency.
Fig. 6.3: Swami Vivekanand •• Nishkama Karma: Nishkama Karma means action
which is free from personal motives and is performed as
a duty. This attribute emphasises that actions should
be performed without any expectations of the results.

Jnana Yoga (Path of Knowledge)

•• Jnana Yoga is related to the knowledge of ‘self’, the world
and realisation of ultimate reality or truth. Jnana Yoga,
thus is a path of philosophy that uses intellect and helps
to gain knowledge and keeps the person away from avidya.
•• Avidya (ignorance) is the main cause of pain, misery
and sufferings in life. A person because of avidya
(ignorance) identifies himself with various names, and
forms such as body, mind, race and nationality, etc.,
and remains in pursuit of worldly possessions. This
knowledge develops discriminating knowledge (Viveka)
that will help to remove the veil of avidya, enables
the one to discriminate between reality and unreality
(appearance) and guides towards the path of real
happiness and bliss.
•• The main aim of the Jnana Yoga, thus is to overcome
the avidya (ignorance) so that one can understand
and distinguish between the real and unreal. The
three important stages of Jnana Yoga are shravan
(adequate hearing), Manana (constant remembrance)
and Nidhidhyasana (contemplation or meditation).

Raja Yoga (Path of Psychic Control)

•• The science of Raja Yoga proposes a practical and
scientific method of reaching the truth. Raja Yoga,
the path of psychic control is a systematic process of
culturing the mind.

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 Yoga and its Relevance in the Modern Times 213

•• It is aimed to develop dormant potential of the

personality.
•• Raja Yoga discusses the way of controlling and
modification of mind (chittavrittis).
•• Abhyasa (continuous practice) and viaragya
(detachment) are also emphasised in Raja Yoga for the
control of chittavrittis and spiritual practices.
•• Raja Yoga is based on Ashtanga Yoga (eight limbed
Yoga) as propounded by Maharishi Patanjali.
•• All the eight limbs of yoga work on various levels of
human personality.

Bhakti yoga (Path of Devotion)

•• Bhakti Yoga (path of devotion) is a systematic method
of engaging the mind in the practice of divine love.
Bhakti means selfless and unconditional love to god.
This mode of worship consists of unending and loving
remembrance of God. The person merges himself/
herself with the God.
•• The attitude of love and devotion has the softening
effect on emotions and calms down the mind. There
are nine forms of Bhakti Yoga mentioned in ancient
text. These are Shravan, Kirtan, Smaran, Padsevan,
Archana, Vandana, Dasya, Sakhya, Atmanivedan.

Guidelines for Yoga Practice

The guiding principles given below should be followed by the
Sadhakas performing the yogic practices.

Before the yogic practice

•• Shauch means cleanliness, an important pre-requisite
for Yogic practice.
•• It includes the cleanliness of surroundings, body and
mind.
•• Yogic practices should be performed in a calm and
quite atmosphere with a relaxed body and mind.
•• Yogic practices should be performed on an empty
stomach.
•• Bladder and bowels should be emptied and evacuated
before starting yogic practice.
•• Yogic practice should not be performed on uneven
surface.
•• A mattress, durry or folded blanket should be used.
•• Light and comfortable cotton clothes are preferred to
facilitate easy movements of the body.
•• These practices should not be performed in a state of
exhaustion, illness or in a hurry.

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During the practice

•• Practice session should start with prayer as it creates
conducive environment and thereby relaxes the mind.
•• Perform the practice slowly with body, breathe
awareness along with relaxation.
•• Breathing should always be done through nostrils
unless instructed otherwise.
•• Observe your body movements, do not strain too much.
Practice as per your own capacity.
•• Regular practice is very essential for good results.
•• There are contra-indications/limitations for each
Asana, Pranayama, Kriya and Bandha. Such contra-
indications should always be kept in mind. In case of
chronic diseases or cardiac problems, doctor and yoga
therapist should be consulted prior to the performance
of yogic exercises.
•• During pregnancy and menstruation, yoga expert
should be consulted prior to yogic practice.

After the practice

•• Bath may be taken only after 15 to 30 minutes of the
yoga practice.
•• Light food may be taken only after 15 to 30 minutes of
the yoga practice.
•• After each practice session, shavasana should be
practised as per need.
•• Yoga session should end with meditation followed by
deep silence and then Shanti Path.

Yogic Principles and Practices For

Wellness
•• Wellness is a state of being healthy. Yoga promotes
wellness by bringing harmony between various
dimensions of wellnesss namely physical, emotional
(neutral), intellectual, social, environmental and
spiritual health.
•• Yoga is an art and science of healthy living. It is a
spiritual discipline based on an extremely subtle
science, which focuses on bringing harmony between
body and mind.
•• For wellness, we have to maintain balance among
various aspects of life like physical, mental, social and
spiritual.
•• Adolescence is the time when an individual undergoes
tremendous physical, emotional and psychological
changes. This brings stress.

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•• Yoga is the proven remedy for all the causes of stress

and strain among the adolescence.
•• Regular practice of yoga amongst the students leads
to improved concentration, reduced blood pressure,
better grades in the academics, improved interpersonal
relationships, more confidence, better sleep, calmness,
sharper brains, relief from headache if any and
decreased absenteeism and aridness.
•• The following are few of the mechanisms through which
yoga works for wellness.
▪▪ Shodhana Kriyas cleanse the accumulated toxins
through various shuddikriyas and sukshmavyayama
(simple movements for all body parts).
▪▪ Adoption of a yogic lifestyle with proper nourishing
diet creates positive antioxidant enhancement thus,
neutralising the free radicals.
▪▪ Yogasana steadies the entire body through different
physical postures. Physical balance and a sense
of ease with oneself enhance mental/emotional
balance and enable all the physiological processes
to occur in a healthy manner.
▪▪ Pranayama helps to improve control over autonomic
respiratory mechanisms, through breathing
patterns that generate energy and enhance
emotional stability.
▪▪ Dharana helps to focus the mind positively on the
activities being done, enhances energy flow and
results in healthy blood circulation to the different
body parts and internal organs.
▪▪ Dhyana creates a calm internal environment
through contemplative practices. Mental balance
produces physical balance and vice versa too.

Yoga for Wellness

Shodhanakriya
It is practiced for internal purification. These are followed in
Hatha Yoga. It helps to clean the accumulated toxins and
generates a sense of relaxed lightness.

Neti
Neti is a Hathayogic Kriya, which is concerned with the
cleaning of nasal passage. This practice involves cleaning up
the throat as well. Neti is a pre-requisite for cleaning up the
respiratory passages for the proper practice of Pranayama.
There are two types of Neti.

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Jala neti (nasal cleansing with water)

In Jala Neti, water is used for cleansing the nasal passage.
Steps for practising Nasal Neti are—
•• Sit in Kagasana. Keep 1.5 to 2 inches distance between
the feet.
•• Lean forward from the lower back.
•• Tilt the head to the opposite side of the nostril whichever
is more active in breathing at the moment.
•• Insert the nozzle of the pot into the nostril whichever is
active in breathing at that moment.
•• Slightly open the mouth and breathe through it.

Fig. 6.4: Jala neti •• Keep the body relaxed.

•• Let the water flow in through one nostril and out
through the other nostril.
•• During the process, eyes should focus on the water
Do You Know? stream flowing out of the nostril.
An expert can perform Sutra
Neti together with both nostrils. •• After finishing half of the water, the put down the pot
and clear the nose. Repeat with the other nostril.
•• Clear the nose.
•• Clean the nose through the practice of Mukha Dhauti
(forceful exhalation from nose and passive inhalation
from mouth).

Dos and Don’ts

•• During the practice of Jala Neti, breathing should be
done from mouth.
•• Ideal time to perform is before sunrise, lukewarm salted
water is to be used for this kriya.
•• Head should not be tilted much during the practice of
Jala Neti.
•• Do not blow the nose too hard after the practice as the
remaining water may be pushed to the ears.

Fig. 6.5: Sutra neti Benefits

•• This exercise is excellent for the cases of chronic
headache, insomnia, drowsiness and improves eyesight.
•• The diseases peculiar to the nose, and also coughs are
effectively cured.
•• Effective for stress and anxiety.

Sutra neti (nasal cleansing with thread)

According to yogic text, insert a soft thread through the nose
to the length of one hand span so that it comes out of the
mouth. This is called Sutra Neti.

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Stages for Practice

•• Sit in Kagasana.
•• Tilt the head slightly back and insert the sutra (thread
or rubber catheter) into one of the nostrils, whichever
is more active in breathing at the moment. Gently push
it through the nostril using both hands.
•• When the thread (sutra) has come through to the back
of the throat, put the index and middle fingers into
the mouth; catch hold of the sūtra; and draw it out
carefully through the mouth. Leave a few inches of the
thread hanging out of the nose.
•• Now, slowly and gently pull the thread forward and
backward 4–5 times.
•• Slowly take the thread out through mouth and repeat
the practice through the other nostril.

Dos and Don’ts

Do You Know?
•• Insert the thread slowly and breathe continuously. The An expert can perform 300
thread should be clean. strokes of Kapalbhati.
•• This practice should be performed under guidance.
•• Do not try Sutra Neti unless Jala Neti is perfected.
•• Do not apply force while inserting the thread.
•• Do not rub the Sutra too fast during practice.

Benefits
•• Sutra Neti stimulates the nerves and improves the
function of eyes, tear ducts and olfactory zone in the
brain (nasal zone).
•• It massages the membranes and sinus glands and
strengthens them.
•• It increases resistance to invasion by viruses.
•• It is very effective in ENT problems.
Fig. 6.6: Kapalbhati
Kapalbhati
Kapala means skull (head) and Bhati means to shine.
Because this practice makes the skull (head) shine, therefore
it is called Kapalbhati.
In other words, it rejuvenates the skull (head) and the
mental functions.

Stages for Practice

•• Sit in a meditative posture, eyes closed and the whole
body relaxed.
•• Inhale deeply through both nostrils expanding the
abdomen and exhale with a forceful contraction of the
abdominal muscles.

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•• The breathing must be of the ‘bellows’ type and perform

Do You Know?
An expert practitioner 30–40 strokes in one round. Start from 10 strokes.
can perform more than 20 •• At the end of practice, deep exhale and relax.
movements in one time.
Dos and Don’ts
•• Stroke should be in rhythmic manner.
•• Active exhalation and passive inhalation.
•• Don’t strain the facial muscles during the practice.
•• Avoid performing the practice in the case of high blood
pressure, heart diseases and gastric ulcers.

Benefits
•• It purifies the frontal air sinuses and stimulates the brain.
•• Massages abdominal organs; and improves digestion.
•• It increases the capacity of lungs.
•• It is useful in treating cold, rhinitis (inflammation of the
mucus membrane of the nose), sinusitis and bronchial
infections.

Agnisara
Agnisāra is also known as Vahnisara. Vahni and Agni are
synonymous words meaning fire and ‘Sāra’ means essence.
According to Hatha yogic tradition, the essence of fire is located
in the navel region. During this kriya, there is a movement in
navel region. It can be performed in sitting or standing position.

Fig. 6.7: Agnisara

Stages for Practice
•• Stand erect with the feet apart at shoulder level.
•• Bend the knee and body at an angle of 60o. Place the
hands on thighs above the knees.
•• Exhale completely then contract and expand the
abdominal muscles rapidly for as long as comfortable
while retaining the breath outside.
•• Then slowly breathe in. Repeat the practice 2–3 times.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Stomach should be empty while performing Agnisara.
•• The movement should be in rhythmic manner.
•• Don’t hold the breath beyond capacity.
•• Avoid performing this practice in case of high blood
pressure.

Benefits
•• It gives gentle massages to abdominal organs, and
improves digestion.
•• It reduces fat and strengthens the abdominal muscles.

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•• It stimulates the relevant nerves and harmonises all

Do You Know?
the abdominal conditions of the bowel, liver, kidney, Surya namaskara can be
spleen, pancreas and digestion, allowing optimum performed with mantra.
assimilation of nutrients.

Surya Namaskara or Sun Salutation Activity 6.1

Surya or the sun is the primal cause of everything. It gives •• Prepare a model of Surya
Namaskara.
energy to all the living beings on the earth. Surya namaskara
is the set of seven asanas in twelve steps. Every morning •• Conduct competition
between class.
performing it with breathing techniques, energises the whole
body and mind.

Technique
Starting position—stand erect with feet together and arms by
the side of the thighs; balance the body equally on both the
feet (samasthiti).

1 2 3 4

Fig. 6.8: 1. Namaskarasana 2. Hastottanasana 3. Padhastasana 4. Ashwasanchalanasana

1. Namaskarasana: Inhale, bring the arms up and

with exhalation join the palm together in Namaskara
mudra in front of the chest.
2. Hastottanasana: Inhale, raise both the arms up;
stretch the body as much as possible and bend
backwards without bending the knees.
3. Padhastasana: Exhale, bend forward from the lower
back keeping the spine straight. Place the hands
on the ground by side of the feet. Try to touch the
forehead to the leg without bending the knees.
4. Ashwasanchalanasana: Inhale, place the right leg
back as far as possible and touch the knee of right
foot on the ground. Bend the left leg from the knee
and keep the knee and foot at right angle; arching the
spine back and look up between the eyebrows centre.

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5. Parvatasana: Stretch the left foot backward by the

side of right foot, lower your head and move the
buttocks upwards. Keep the arms and legs straight
and heels on the floor.
6. Ashtanga Namaskarasana: Lower the knees, chest
and chain to the floor. Keep the hips slightly up. The
toes, knees, chest, hands and chin should be touching
the floor.

5 6

Fig. 6.9: 5. Parvatasana, 6. Ashtanga namaskarasana

7. Bhujangasana: Lower the hips, inhale, then raise

the head and push the chest up. Raise the upper
body upto the navel. Keep the palms on the ground.
8. Parvatasana: Exhale, lift the hips up and lower the
head and chest downwards in an inverted ‘V’ posture.
Keep the head between the arms and feet on the ground.

7 8

Fig. 6.10: 7. Bhujangasana, 8. Parvatasana

9. Ashwasanchalanasana: Inhale, bend the right

leg and bring it forward. Keep the right foot on the
ground between the arms and left leg backward with
the knee touching the ground. Arch the spine back,
look up between the eyebrows centre.

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10. Padhastasana: Exhale, bring the left leg forward

and place the left foot beside the right foot. Place the
hands on the ground by side of the feet. Try to touch
the forehead to the knees without bending the knees.
11. Hastottanasana: Inhale, raise both the arms up;
stretch the body as much as possible and bend
backwards without bending the knees.
12. Namaskarasana: Exhale, come back to the original
position. Slowly bring the arms down and join the
palms together in front of the chest in namaskara
mudra.

9 10 11 12

Fig. 6.11: 9. Ashwasanchalanasana, 10. Padhastasana, 11. Hastottanasana, 12. Namaskarasana

This is one round of Surya namaskara. Repeat the same

process of twelve steps by using the other leg in fourth
position (Ashwasanchalanasana).

Dos and Don’ts

•• Perform while maintaining good physical balance.
•• Perform every step with breathing pattern.
•• Avoid this in case of high blood pressure, fever, slipped
disc and hernia.
•• Do not practise beyond one’s capacity.

Benefits
•• Stimulates and balances all the systems of the body.
•• Increases concentration and calmness.
•• Helps in curing constipation.
•• Improves blood circulation all over the body, and
reduces fat.
•• Helps in removing carbon dioxide from the lungs
replacing with fresh oxygen and improves brain function
by bringing oxygenated air by blood to the brain.

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Activity 6.2 Yogasana

Teacher can conduct a We all know that asanas are beneficial for our physical and
competition between students mental development. Some of the asanas are explained here:
in classroom and measure the
holding time of yogasana. Tadasana
Tadasana is named after the Tada (Palm tree) as in the final
posture, the body remains erect in standing position like a
palm tree.

Stages for Practice

•• Stand with your feet 2 inches apart.
•• Inhale and raise your arms up to shoulder level,
interlock your fingers and turn the wrist outwards.
•• Raise the heels off the floor.
•• Try to balance on the toes.
•• While exhaling, slowly bring arms down along with the
heels.
•• Remove the interlock.
•• Relax for a while in the standing position.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Breath becomes slow and deep.
•• Raise the legs slowly without any jerk.
•• Avoid this practice in case of knee pain and ankle injuries.

Benefits
Fig. 6.12: Tadasana
•• This āsana stretches the muscles and nerves, thereby
improves functioning of various systems of the body.
•• The muscles become strong. It gives strength to the
toes.
•• It is helpful in increasing the height of young growing
children. It is helpful for the patients of sciatica.

Vrikshasana
Vriksha means tree. The final position of this asana is a
stand- still position which resembles the shape of a tree,
hence the name.

Stages for Practice

•• Stand with feet 2 inches apart. Focus on a point in front.
•• Exhale, bend the right leg and place the foot inside the
left thigh. The heel should be touched to the perineum.
•• Inhale and extend the arms up and join the palms in
namaskara mudra.
Fig. 6.13: Vrikshasana •• Stay in the position for 10 to 30 seconds and breathe
normally.

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•• Exhale and bring the arms and the right foot down.
Relax and repeat the asana by bending the left leg.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Normal breathing should be continued in the final
posture.
•• Avoid this practice in case of knee pain and ankle injuries.

Benefits
•• It increases the flexibility of joints of knees and ankles
and strengthens them.
•• It tones up the leg muscles and rejuvenates the
ligaments also.
•• It helps to cure rheumatic pain and the problem of
numbness.
•• it improves concentration.

Padahastasana
Pāda means feet, and hasta means hands. Therefore,
Pādahastāsana means taking the palms down towards the
feet.

Stages for Practice

•• Stand straight with feet 2 inches apart.
•• Inhale slowly and raise the arms up.
•• Stretch up the body from the waist.
•• Exhale and bend forward until the trunk is parallel to
the ground.
•• Exhale, and bend forward until the entire palm rests on
Fig. 6.14: Padahastasana
the ground near to feet.
•• Maintain this final posture for 10–30 seconds.
•• Now inhale, come up slowly to the vertical position and
stretch the arms above the head.
•• Exhale and slowly return to the starting position in
reverse order.
•• Relax in the standing posture.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Bend from the lower back while performing
Padahastasana.
•• Bending should be according to their capacity.
•• In the final stage, avoid hunch in the back.
•• Avoid performing this asana in case of severe back pain.

Benefits
•• It makes the spine flexible, improves digestion, and
prevents constipation and menstrual problems.

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•• It helps to improve blood circulation in the head and

Do You Know?
Bending should always be heart region.
followed by counter-bending. •• It helps to stimulate the glands, i.e., thyroid, endocrine
Example: Performing back and pituitary gland.
bending after a forward
bending and vice-versa. Ardha Chakrasana
In Sanskrit language, Ardha means half and Chakra means
wheel. In this posture, the shape of the body takes the shape
of half wheel, therefore it is called Ardha-chakrasana.

Stages for Practice

•• Stand erect on the ground with feet together.
•• Keep your hands by the side. Keep your elbows parallel
to each other.
•• Now slowly inhale and bend backwards as much as
possible.
•• Try to maintain the posture with normal breathing and
without losing the balance.
•• Inhale and slowly come up to the original position.
Relax in standing position.

Dos and Don’ts

•• While bending backward, eyes should be kept open.
•• Maintain the final position with the normal breath.
Fig. 6.15: Ardhachakrasana •• Avoid this practice in case of vertigo and high BP.
•• Do not bend knees in the final position.

Activity 6.3 Benefits

Students prepare a record book
•• This asana gives relaxation to the neck and back
and write their physical and
muscles, especially of lower back.
mental experiences of asanas.
•• It improves flexibility of the spine.
•• It helps to remove fat from
the waist.
•• It also removes stiffness
from the hip joints.
•• It improves the breathing
and lung capacity.

Trikonasana
Trikona means triangle.
Tri means three and kona
is an angle. As the asana
resembles three arms triangle
made by the trunk and the
limbs, it has been named as
Trikonasana.
Fig. 6.16: Trikonasana

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Stages for Practice

Activity 6.4
•• Stand on your legs 3–4 feet apart. Practice asanas daily for 15
•• Slowly raise both the arms sideways up to shoulder days. Write your holding time
level. in final position and analyse the
•• Turn your right foot towards the right side. Exhale, improvement.
slowly bend to the right side and place the right hand
just behind the right foot.
•• The left arm is straight up, in line with the right arm.
Turn your head and gaze at the tip of the left hand
middle finger.
•• Remain in the posture for 10–30 seconds with normal
breathing.
•• As you inhale, slowly come up. Repeat it from the left
side.
Dos and Don’ts
•• Bend from the waist.
•• Keep the knees straight in the final position.
•• Avoid bending forward while bending sideways.
•• Avoid this practice in case of severe back pain.

Benefits
•• Strengthens calf, thigh and waist muscles.
•• Makes the spine flexible, and improves lung capacity.
•• Prevents flat foot, and reduce fat.
•• Kyphosis and Scoliosis patients can also do this
practice.

Parshvakonasana
Parsva means side or flank and Kona means angle. In the
final pose of this asana, the body forms a lateral angle, hence
it is called Parsvakonasana.

Stages for Practice

•• Stand erect.
•• Inhale and spread feet
approximately 3–4 feet apart.
Raise the arms sideways at the
shoulder level.
•• Turn right foot to the right side
and bend the knee, form a right
angle with the thigh and calf.
•• Exhale and bend from the waist
to the right side and bring the
right arm down, place the right
palm on the floor by the inner
side of the right foot. Fig. 6.17: Parshvakonasana

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•• In the final posture, spine must be kept straight and

the left foot flat on the floor. Hold the posture for 30
seconds, and breathe normally.
•• Inhale and come back to the starting position.
•• Repeat it from the other side.

Dos and Don’ts

•• In the final position, the knee of the bend leg should be
in line with the heel.
•• Avoid forward bend in the final posture.
•• Avoid in case of severe back pain.

Benefits
•• It strengthens the heart muscles.
•• It improves digestion.
•• It helps to reduce fat from waist and hips.
•• It increases harmony between the body and mind.

Padmasana
In Sanskrit language, Padma means lotus. This asana is a
traditional posture. In this asana, the feet look like the shape
of lotus petals. That is why, it is called as Padmasana.

Fig. 6.18: Padmasana

Stages for Practice

•• Sit on the ground.
•• Fold the right leg and place the right foot above the left
thigh.
•• Fold the left leg and place it above the right thigh.
•• Place hands on the knees in Jnanamudra.
•• Keep the spine straight. Breathe normally.

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Dos and Don’ts

Activity 6.5
•• Place the foot on the opposite thigh. Students should practise
•• Both the knees should ideally touch the ground in the Vajrasana after dinner, daily
final pose. for 15 days and write their
•• Avoid leaning forward. experiences in the record book.
•• Avoid this practice in case of knee pain and ankle The teacher will check it.
injuries.

Benefits
•• Padmāsana induces mental calmness and tranquillity.
•• It tones up the nerves of coccyx and sacral region by
supplying them with more blood.
•• It improves the digestive process and helps to relieve
constipation.
•• It improves the concentration and memory.
•• It is helpful for people suffering from shortness of
breath.

Vajrasana
Vajra means adamantine. It is believed that the body becomes
like adamantine by practising it. This can be considered
as a meditative posture. While practising it for meditative
purposes, students should close their eyes at the final stage.
This is the only posture that can be practised just after
having meal.

Stages for Practice Fig. 6.19: Vajrasana

•• Sit with legs extended together, hands by the side of the
body, palm resting on the ground, and fingers pointing
forward. This is dandasana.
•• Fold the right leg at the knee and place the foot under
the right buttock.
•• Similarly folding the left leg, place left foot under the
left buttock.
•• Place both the heels apart and the big toe touch and
overlap each other.
•• Position the buttocks in the space between the heels.
•• Keep the hands on respective knees. Keep the spine
erect.
•• While returning to the original position, bend a little
towards right side, take out your left leg and extend it.
•• Similarly extend your right leg and return to the original
position.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Keep the knees and thighs together while sitting in
Vajrasana.

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•• Heels should be outside.

•• Avoid excessive arching of the spine.
•• Avoid this practice in case of ankle injury and knee
pain.

Benefits
•• This āsana strengthens thigh muscles and calf muscles.
•• This āsana is good for digestion.
•• It provides firm base to the spine and keeps the spine
erect.
•• It helps to improve concentration.

Bhadrasana
In Sanskrit language, Bhadra means noble. Which is the
grace in the form of awakening that takes place.

Fig. 6.20: Bhadrasana

Stages for Practice
•• Sit on the ground stretching both the legs together in
front.
•• Place your hands by the side, with palms resting on the
ground.
•• Fingers should remain together pointing forward. This
is dandasana.
•• Fold the legs slowly at knees; and join both the soles
with each other.
•• Hold the ankles.
•• Slowly bring the heels towards perineum.
•• The knees should touch the ground. Head, neck and
back should be straight.
•• Maintain the final position for 20–30 seconds.
•• Come back in dandasana and relax.

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Dos and Don’ts

•• Spine should be kept straight.
•• Knees should be touched to the ground.
•• Avoid excessive arching of the spine.
•• One should avoid pushing the foot inside beyond one’s
capacity.

Benefits
•• This asana is good for lumber region and keeps it healthy.
•• It is beneficial in women’s physical problems and
facilitates easy child birth.
•• It helps in improving concentration.
•• It calms down the mind.

Ushtrasana
Ushtra means camel. The body in this posture resembles the
posture of a camel, hence the name.

Fig. 6.21: Ushtrasana

Stages for Practice

•• Sit in Vajrasana.
•• Kneel down on the floor. Keep your thighs and feet 2–3
inches apart, toes pointing back and resting on the
floor.
•• While inhaling bend backward. Be careful not to jerk
the body while bending backwards.
•• With exhalation place the right palm on the right heel
and left palm on the left heel.

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•• In final position, thighs will be vertical to the floor and

the head tilted backwards.
•• Weight of the body should be evenly supported by the
arms and legs.
•• Inhale, slowly come back to normal position and relax
in Vajrasana.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Keep the thighs vertical to the ground.
•• Avoid jerking the body while bending backward.
•• Avoid in case of hernia, vertigo, and frozen shoulder.
•• Proceeding to the final stage of asana should be gradual.

Benefits
•• This is useful in back pain and neck pain.
•• It helps to reduce fat over the abdomen and hips.
•• It helps to strengthen the back muscles and leg muscles.
•• It is beneficial in respiratory disorders.

Shashankasana
Shashanka means rabbit. The body in this posture takes the
shape of a rabbit, hence the name.

Fig. 6.22: Shashankasana

Stages for Practice

•• Sit in Vajrasana. Keep the spine erect.
•• Spread both the knees wide apart with the toes
remaining together.
•• Place the palms between the knees.
•• Exhaling, bend forward from the waist with the arms
straight.

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 Yoga and its Relevance in the Modern Times 231

•• Chin and chest should be resting on the floor.

Activity 6.6
•• Look in front and maintain the position. Teacher should check the
•• Inhale and come back in Vajrasana. interest of students in this
asana. The teacher can check
Dos and Don’ts the perfection of students and
•• Keep the back straight in the final pose. motivate them.
•• Don’t raise hips while practising this asana.

Benefits
•• It tones up the reproductive organs.
•• It strengthens the abdominal and pelvic region.
•• This āsana relieves sciatica nerve.
•• It helps to reduce stress, anger, etc.

Uttanamandukasana
Uttana means upright and Manduka means frog. The final
position of Uttanamandukasana resembles an upright frog,
hence the name. In the final posture, the head is held by the
elbows.

Fig. 6.23: Uttanamandukasana

Stages for Practice

•• Sit in Vajrasana.
•• Spread both the knees wide apart with the toes
remaining together.
•• Raise your right arm, fold it and take it backward from
above the right shoulder and place the palm below the
left shoulder.
•• Now fold the left arm similarly and place the palm below
the right shoulder.

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 232 Health and Physical Education - XI

•• Maintain the position.

•• While coming back, slowly remove the left arm and
then right arm, bring the knees together as in the initial
position.
•• Relax in Vajrasana.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Spread the knees well.
•• Keep the back and neck straight in the final position.
•• Avoid the gap between thighs and ground.

Benefits
•• This asana is helpful in back ache and neck pain.
•• It helps in improving the diaphragmatic movements.
•• It improves the lung capacity.

Paschimottanasana
Paśchima means back and Uttān means stretch out. In this
āsana, the back side of the body including the spinal column
gets stretched, hence the name.

Fig. 6.24: Paschimottanasana

Stages for Practice

•• Sit in Dandasana. Inhale and raise your arms up.
Stretch your back and bend forward as much as
possible.
•• Hold the toes and place the elbows by the side, on the
ground.
•• Maintain the posture as per the capacity. Come back
by raising hands and head in the initial position.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Keep the knees straight. Normal breathing should
continue.
•• Avoid hunch in the back.
•• Avoid the practice in case of severe back pain.

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 Yoga and its Relevance in the Modern Times 233

Benefits
Do You Know?
•• It stimulates the function of abdominal organs, and This asana is also performed
improves digestion. with another state, where hands
•• It is helpful in removing constipation, obesity, dyspepsia are kept upright with elbows
and seminal weakness. resting on ground and face rests
•• It helps to improve blood circulation and regulates in between both palms while
blood pressure and reduce fat. looking forward.
•• It improves the flexibility of spine.

Suptavajrasana
Suptavajrasana is further development of Vajrasana.
Suptavajrasana means lying in Vajrasana; hence, it is named
Suptavajrasana.

Stages for Practice

•• Sit in Vajrasana. Slowly bend backwards taking the
support of the hand; and place elbows on the ground.
•• Slowly straighten the hands and completely lie on the
back with shoulders resting on the ground and knees
remaining together.
•• Beginners may keep their hands on respective thighs.
•• After practising this position well, stretch the arms
behind and hold the elbow/arm with the hand of
another arm.
•• While returning to the original position, first take out
your hands and place them by the sides of your body.
•• Now, with the help of elbows come back to the initial
position.

Fig. 6.25: Suptavajrasana

Dos and Don’ts

•• With the support of hand, come in supine position.
•• Keep the knees together in final position.
•• Do not strain in knees and thigh muscles.
•• Avoid the practice in case of knee pain.

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 234 Health and Physical Education - XI

Benefits
•• This asana strengthens the abdominal muscles.
•• It is useful in the management of high blood pressure
and sciatica.
•• It is a good remedy for constipation and backache.
•• It improves blood circulation and calmness.

Vakrasana
Vakra means twisted. In this āsana, the spine is twisted; due
to this reason, this asana is called Vakrasana.

Stages for Practice

•• Sit in dandasana.
•• Bend the right leg, and place the right foot beside the
left knee.
•• As you exhale, twist the body to the right.
•• Bring the left arm around the right knee and clasp the
right big toe or place the palm beside the right foot.
•• Take the right arm back and keep the palm on the
ground with the back straight.
•• Remain in the posture for 10–30 seconds with normal
breathing and relax.
•• Take out your hands with exhalation and relax.
•• Repeat the same procedure on the other side.

Fig. 6.26: Vakrasana

Dos and Don’ts

•• Perform within physical limits. Do not strain the body
unnecessarily.
•• Avoid the practice in case of knee pain, hernia and
organ displacement.

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 Yoga and its Relevance in the Modern Times 235

Benefits
•• This asana massage abdominal muscles.
•• It is useful in the management of high blood pressure
and sciatica.
•• It is a good remedy for constipation, diabetics, back
ache and improves blood circulation.
•• It helps in calmness of mind.
•• Enhances lung capacity.

Ardhamatsyendrasana
Ardhamatsyendrasana is named after the great yogi
Matsyendranātha. Full version of this asana is very difficult
for a beginner to master it. Therefore, it has been modified.
This modified version is called Ardhamatsyendrasana.
Matsyendra is the name of a Hatha yogi it is said that he Fig. 6.27: Ardhamatsyendrasana
attained siddhi in this asana, so the full version of this
asana is known as Matsyendrasana.

Stages for Practice Activity 6.7

Teacher conducts class
•• Sit on the ground in dandasana. Bend the left leg, competition and appreciates
then place the left heel on the side of the right hip. the better students.
•• Place right foot near the left knee, on the ground.
•• Place left arm over the right knee and grasp the toes
of right foot with the left hand.
•• Take right arm behind the back around the waist.
•• Turn your head towards the right side and try to look
behind.
•• Repeat it from the opposite side.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Keep the balance of body on the hips.
•• Place the bend knee behind the armpit of the opposite
arm.
•• Avoid the practice in case of severe back pain,
vertebral and disc disorders.
•• Avoid the jerking movement in the twisting of back.
•• Do not lean forward or backward.

Benefits
•• This āsana is good for the stimulation of pancreas,
adrenal glands, kidneys, liver and spleen.
•• It helps to relieve constipation, asthma, indigestion,
diabetics and obesity.
•• It strengthens muscles of the spine and back and
makes them flexible.
•• It corrects stooping shoulders, a bent back and the
defective posture.

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 236 Health and Physical Education - XI

•• It stretches and strengthens the shoulders, hips and

neck.
•• It is good for diabetic patients.

Gomukhasana
In Sanskrit language, ‘Gomukha’ means ‘cow’s face’. In this
āsana, the leg’s position takes the shape of Gomukha, hence
the name Gomukhāsana.

Stages for Practice

•• Sit in Dandasana.
•• Fold left leg from the knee and place it on the ground
by the side of right buttock.
Fig. 6.28: Gomukhasana •• Similarly fold right leg from the knee, bring it over left
leg and place right heel by the left buttock.
•• Raise the left arm, bend it at the elbow and take it below
the shoulders towards the back.
•• Raise the right arm, bend it at elbow and take it upward
and behind the back.
•• Interlock the fingers of both the hands behind the back.
•• Keep the head straight.
•• Gaze in front and maintain normal breathing.
•• Stay in this position for as long as comfortable and
then return to the original position, step by step.
•• Repeat the same by changing the position of the legs
and hands.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Avoid sitting on the heels.
•• Avoid the practice in case of shoulder, neck and knee
pain.
•• Keep the neck straight in the final position.
•• The above elbow should be closed to the ear.

Expected Learning Outcomes

•• The practice of this asana strengthens muscles of the
back and biceps.
•• It removes the pain in hip and lower extremities.
•• It helps in making the spine straight.
•• This āsana is very useful in arthritis and dry piles.
•• It is useful in frozen shoulders, neck pain and cervical
spondylitis.
•• It gives good exercise to the lungs and helps in
respiratory diseases.

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 Yoga and its Relevance in the Modern Times 237

Makrasana Activity 6.8

In Sanskrit Makara means crocodile. In this āsana, the body Prepare a list of asanas useful
resembles a crocodile, hence the name. for relaxing the body.

Fig. 6.29: Makrasana

Stages for Practice

•• Lie on the abdomen (prone lying position), with arms
beside your body.
•• Spread the legs little apart (1–2 feet) and place them
comfortably on the ground in such a position that the
heels face each other and toes point outwards.
•• Fold the arms at elbows. Place palm on the palm with
the head/face relaxing on the palms.
•• Slowly close eyes and relax. Do normal breathing and
remain in this position as long as comfortable.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Place both feet apart and keep the heels towards each
other.
•• Avoid this practice in case of heart problems.

Benefits
•• It is good for asthma, dyspepsia and vata diseases.
•• It is helpful in relaxing.
•• Removes mental and physical fatigue.
•• It reduces anxiety.

Bhujangasana
‘Bhujanga’ means cobra. The final position of this āsana
resembles the shape of a cobra. Hence it is named as
Bhujangasana.

Fig. 6.30: Bhujangasana

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Stages for Practice

•• Lie down in the prone position.
•• Join the feet and bend the arms at the elbow, place the
palms near the chest on the floor.
•• Slowly raise the head, neck and shoulders. Raise the
trunk up to the navel.
•• Maintain the posture for as long as comfortable. Then
slowly bring the body down on the ground.
•• Relax in makrasana.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Keep the elbows parallel to each other and pointed
upward.
•• Normal breathing should be continued.
•• Avoid this practice in case of hernia and abdominal
injuries.
•• Do not raise body below the navel.
•• Do not straighten your elbows and move slowly.

Benefits
•• This is good for stress management.
•• It is beneficial for relieving flatulence after meals.
•• It can relocate the slipped disc, removes backache and
keeps the spine supple and healthy.
•• It tones the ovaries and uterus, and helps alleviate
menstrual and other gynaecological disorders.
Activity 6.9
Students practice Shalabhasana •• It improves the lung capacity.
daily and maintain in the record
book. Teacher will check the Shalabhasana
improvement in holding time. The meaning of salabha is locust. In the final position of
this āsana, body resembles the shape of a locust, hence the
name.

Fig. 6.31: Shalabhasana

Stages for Practice

•• Lie down in prone position, place the palms below the
thighs, press them downward and join the heels.
•• Chin should be placed on the ground.

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 Yoga and its Relevance in the Modern Times 239

•• Lift the legs as high as possible while inhaling.

•• Bring down the legs while exhaling.
•• Release the hands.
•• Relax in makrasana.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Raise the legs slowly without jerks.
•• Take the support of the hand to raise the legs.
•• Place the chin on the ground.
•• Keep the knees straight in the final position.
•• Avoid bending the knees.
•• Avoid keeping distance between the knees.
•• Avoid bending at the elbows.
•• Do not practice it beyond one’s physical limits/capacity.

Benefits
•• Shalabhasana stimulates the autonomous
nervous system particularly the parasympathetic
one.
•• It massages abdominal organs.
•• It is good for lower back ache and slipdisk.
•• It relieves constipation and improves digestion.
•• It improves blood circulation and directs blood
circulation upwards.

Pawanmuktasana
‘Pawana’ means wind and ‘mukta’ means released. As Fig. 6.32: Pawanmuktasana
the name suggests, the practice of this asana helps
in releasing excessive gas from the body. This asana when
performed with one leg, is called Ekapada Pawanamuktasana.

Stages for Practice

•• Lift both legs, bend them at the knees and encircle the
knees with both arms. Press the knees and bring them
towards the chest.
•• Raise the head with the chin touching the knees. This
is Pawanamuktasana.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Press the knees to the chest.
•• Toes should be relaxed.
•• Avoid raising beyond the mid-torso.
•• Perform within physical limits.
•• Avoid this practice in case of Cervical Spondylitis.

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 Safety and Security
7
Games and sports are important for the development of
physical, emotional, mental and social health. While playing
any games and sports, safety and security of children is very
important. It is also necessary to take steps to prevent injuries
in sports field during competitions or sports training. In this
chapter, we are discussing safety issues regarding the sports
facilities and also dealing with the health hazards related to
alcohol and substance abuse, including common medicines.

Safety Measures in Playgrounds, Gymnasium

and Swimming Pool
In the present scenario of competition in games and sports,
coaches and athletes are mostly concerned with the winning
spirit and hard but systematic sports training. During
sports training and competitions of various games, safety
measures and security of players need to be kept in mind.
Injuries during sports training lead to fearful emotional or
psychological phobia. To save the players from such phobia,
simple safety rules and measures should be applied. These
safety rules are to be observed by the physical education
teachers, sports trainers, coaches, school administrators
as well as sports equipment manufacturers. Besides these,
students who are taking part in technical sports such as
gymnastics and swimming, and self-defense activities shall
also be taught to avoid injuries and observe safety measures
during sports training. These safety measures may be applied
in the following steps:

Safety regarding Sports Facilities

One of the most important safety measures which shall
be kept in mind is regarding the sports ground, sports
instruments and sports uniform.

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Sports ground
Do You Know?
Due to decreasing land While preparing sports ground, the construction company
and forest ratio, cutting should try to remove all the possible hazards such as nearby
or eliminating trees is not high tension electric line, barbed wire, bushes or wild grass
permissible. bushes, close wall with hard surface and shifting of trees.
The surface of the ground should be safe and clean, free
from hazardous material like stone, broken bricks, etc.
Wherever possible, the construction of hard surfaces for
games like basketball, badminton and tennis should be built
up properly with proper space. The chain link fencing or
stairs for accommodating trainers, coaches and players or
spectators should be away from the playing area, probably 6
meters away from the end lines of the play field.

Field
Proper and separate sitting area for extra players of the
participating teams shall also be provided to avoid the mixing
of players. Playing area of sports should be sufficient enough
to prevent accidental injuries. Sitting area for spectators
should be away from the actual playing area to avoid any
untoward incident during competitions. Playing area should
be clean and away from the hazardous materials/objects.
Trees and bushes should be shifted from the play field to
avoid collision. Sufficient warming up area away from the
competition arena may be provided. Dangerous broken glass
material or sharp edged stones should also be removed from
the playing area to avoid potential injury.

Safety regarding sports instruments

Due to sports engineering and technological advancement,
modern sports are played with sports equipment which are
performance friendly and add technical support during
movements. During planning and organising of sports
equipment, the manufactures shall add the ‘concept of safety to
sportsperson’ as priority. The material used for manufacturing
the instrument/equipment shall be of high standard as the
sportsperson is highly dependent on them for performing
their skills. Players are also advised not to use the damaged
equipment/instruments to avoid accidents. Efforts should be
made that the playing surface of different games and sports
should be constructed separately as advised by the respective
officials, federations or associations, if space is available.

Safety regarding uniforms

Sports uniform adds glamour and advantage to the
performance in games and sports but poor fabric and non-

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 Safety and Security 253

suitable shoes may be painful to the players. Sports uniforms

Do You Know?
play an important role to prepare the mood of sportspersons, The game of Kabaddi and Kho-
as it helps the players to feel better. Preparation of Kho in modern time is played
sportspersons for competition includes selection of— on synthetic surface. Usually
a) Types of shoes indoor synthetic surfaces are
less vulnerable to injuries.
b) Fabric of the T-shirt and its colour
c) Selection of the shoe — Most of the novice players do
not know how to select the shoe for sports training, Activity 7.1
•• Collect information about
as they are not aware of the injuries caused by the the safety measures taken
poorly manufactured shoes. Generally the defect is in your school building
either in the material or the arch of the sole. The play field/indoor hall and
defection arch may not provide support to the foot equipment.
resulting in unbalanced body weight. In some cases, it •• Discuss with teacher.
has been noticed that the lack of proper arch support
in the shoes may cause stress in the legs that leads
to muscles stiffness. Ultimately the sportsperson gets
tired and may rupture leg muscles if the activity is
not done with proper shoes. The objective of wearing
properly manufactured shoes are:
(i) comfortable feeling
(ii) proper ankle support
(iii) proper balance
(iv) avoiding leg injury due to uncomfortable shoes
d. Fabric of the T-shirt: T-shirt and its colour are
important for the players, especially for the novice.
Due to weather variations in India, a light colored
fabric which does not absorb sweat is considered
better. Fabric which consumes sweat may cause
allergy and skin problem if it remains in contact with
the body for longer duration.

Safety measures in relation to Gymnasium

Gymnasium in any institution is used for sports training for
multiple sports. It is considered as an asset to the institute,
and students often visit the gymnasium for the purpose of
building their body, rehabilitation after injury as well as to
get into proper shape. Injury in gymnasium may take place
due to the following:
a) Unsafe method of keeping equipment
b) Lack of proper place for exercises
c) Lack of warm-up area
d) Old equipment
e) Unsafe fitting of electrical gadgets

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f) Uncleaned surface
g) Slippery gymnasium surface
h) Poor lighting conditions
i) Poor sanitation and lack of water supply
j) Not observing safety measures during lifting and
keeping the weight barbells
k) Lack of proper knowledge of using equipment

Safety measures in relation to swimming pool

The schools or institutions having swimming pool need to
operate it with proper safety measures. To observe safety
rules in swimming pool, there shall be instructors, assistant
coaches, life guards, gatekeeper and sweepers. Availability of
human power, water quality and cleanliness of the swimming
pool are very important aspects of safety measures. The
following steps should be taken for safe and hygienic pool
conditions:
a) There should be separate swimming pool for the
beginners and the advance swimmers.
b) Students should avoid going into the deeper side of
the swimming pool without proper safety measures.
c) Life guards should be well trained and careful during
the pool activity. Special attention should be paid for
the swimming and diving activities towards the deep
end of the pool.
d) Swimming pool instructors/coaches and life guards
should be well equipped with life saving devices
such as, long stick, rope, whistle, lifesaving jackets,
swimming pads and kicking boards, etc.
e) Students should follow proper instructions and
guidelines of swimming pool for safety measures as
well as to avoid injuries.
f) Proper swimming uniform like costume, cap and eye
protector must be used regularly during swimming in
the pool.
g) Water treatment plant must be operational during the
swimming activities of the students.
h) Chlorination of water through proper amount of
chlorine will be helpful in removing accumulated
algae from the water.
i) Surface of the swimming pool should be cleaned regularly
with the help of suction head brushing machine.
j) Swimming activities should be allowed only in the
presence of life guards.

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 Safety and Security 255

k) While constructing the surface of pool, smooth finishing

Do You Know?
and use of standard chemicals may be ensured. Developing physical fitness
l) Safety stairs and hangers in the pool will help may help a player to prevent
swimmers to enter in the pool. injuries up to 60 per cent
m) Showers at pool side with fresh water taps should in that particular game, it
is scientifically proven that
also be facilitated for pre and post swim showers.
good physical fitness helps in
n) The surface of washrooms in swimming pool site better reaction ability, decision
should be supported through matting to avoid injury making ability and enhances
from the slippery surface. self-confidence of the player.
o) Proper lighting in the pool is always useful particularly
in the evening for supervising swimmers inside the pool. Activity 7.2
Gather information regarding
Safety Measures to Prevent Injuries the sports injuries that occur
in swimming pool and
It is always said that ‘prevention is better than cure’. Many
gymnasium.
accidents during sports can be prevented by taking appropriate
preventive measures. Students who participate in games and
sports activities should be given safe and secure environment
and facilities for enhancing the confidence of parents as well
as students. Injuries can be prevented by knowing the reasons
due to which injuries occur and observing the safety measures
during playing. While constructing play arena and sports
facilities, the needs of differently abled students should also be
kept in mind.

Why do sports injuries occur?

Injuries during sports take place due to many factors, which
includes careless attitude of the player towards fitness and
training. Some of the important factors that are responsible
for the sports injuries are—
a) poor equipment, surface and floor.
b) lacking in the knowledge of rules of the game.
c) lack of technical and tactical knowledge.
d) lack of fitness and conditioning.
e) not observing safety rules while playing technically
difficult sports like gymnastics, diving, judo and
wrestling, etc.
f) lifting of heavy weights without helpers may lead to
accident and cause severe injury.

How to prevent sports injuries?

Sports injuries can be prevented in sports arenas, during
competition and in technical sports. Supervision by coach
and instructor will always help to avoid sports injuries during
playing, training and competition.

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Prevention of injury related to sports facilities

Activity 7.3
•• Collect more information There are various ways to amend sports infrastructure in
about the preventive order to curb accidents during competition and during
measures to be taken while training of sports.
developing sports facilities.
•• Compare and analyse it Prevention of injury related to competition
with the steps taken by your Preventive measures to prevent sports injury should also be
school.
taken before competition.
•• Discuss with your classmates.
a) Proper warming up should be done before going for
•• Suggest ways.
any games or sports. Warming up helps to enhance
body’s reflex actions and reduce the chances of injury.
b) Proper safety measures should be adopted for
competition such as safety gears and clothing for
sports.
c) Players should follow rules and regulations of the
competition to prevent injuries.
d) All the equipment related to the sports should be
checked thoroughly and any equipment which may
not be in good shape or broken should be replaced or
get repaired.
e) Officials of the competition should also evaluate the
playing arena before the start of game.

Technical measures for prevention of injuries

Besides the above preventive measures to avoid sports
injuries, some important technical measures should also be
observed to prevent injuries.
a) Players should work on their fitness and conditioning
to avoid tiredness during sports competition.
Tiredness hampers the reaction and negatively
influences the speed of players. A tired player is most
likely to get injury during performing or playing, which
can be prevented only by enhancing the physical
fitness level.
b) All the sports where difficulty level of movements
is high, possibility of occurring injury are likely to
be higher. It is suggested to the players to practise
difficult technical movements of sports before taking
active participation.
c) Coaches and trainers should guide students regarding
the safety rules at regular intervals and observe the
safety measures taken by them.

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 Safety and Security 257

d) Proper nutrition also helps to avoid sports injuries

occurring due to stress or overload training. Nutrition
helps to repair and build the ruptured muscle fibers.
e) Selection of the right kind of shoe and sports uniform
also helps in preventing injuries like bruises, blisters,
broken nails, sprain, strain and shin pain, etc.
Every sport requires different kind of sports
movements and speed. Thus, it is suggested to select
the shoe and sports uniform according to suitability Do You Know?
Do you know that half of the
to a given sports condition to avoid injury. users who started the use of
tobacco in their youth will
Dealing with Alcohol, Substance Abuse be losing their lives by their
including Common Medicines during middle age?

Adolescence
Adolescence is particularly a vulnerable time in a person’s
life. Navigating this stage of life can be challenging even for
the most ‘normal’ or well-adjusted adolescents. Substance
abuse is a menace, especially during the adolescence as it
affects their physical, social and emotional growth. Of all
the substances, alcohol and tobacco (including pan masala,
gutkha, khaini, cigarette, beedi, etc.) are two of the substances
most commonly misused and abused by adolescents. Being
easily available, many children are exposed to these in their
homes at a very early age. Parents are role models, whether
good or bad, and children of such parents who misuse these Do You Know?
substances are at a greater risk of getting into the addiction. You would be surprised to
However, with proper treatment and support of loved ones, know that nicotine is used as
the youngsters can surely overcome their addiction habit insecticides and pesticides in
agriculture.
and live successful and happy lives.

Why is tobacco use unhealthy?

Tobacco is used in various forms such as smoking (cigarettes/
beedi/hookah); smokeless (pan masala with tobacco, gutkha/
khaini).
You know that cigarette smoking is injurious to health.
Most people believe that beedi is safer than cigarette. But
smoking beedi is also equally dangerous.
As you know that the nicotine present in the tobacco
leaves is highly addictive. It raises the blood pressure. There
are about 4000 chemicals found in the smoke from the
cigarettes which become a cause for different kind of cancers.
Carbon monoxide gas exhaled by the smoker, is highly
poisonous. Tar, a substance resulting from the burning of
tobacco leaves, is similar to coal tar used for building the
roads. So just imagine the harm it causes to the lungs!

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 258 Health and Physical Education - XI

Table 1: Some of the Constituents of cigarette smoke

Say “NO” to tobacco. Constituents Cancer causing Toxic metals

Remember, one moment chemicals
of wise decision is the Toluene Vinyl chloride Arsenic
foundation for future
Carbon monoxide Benzene Chromium
happy life for you and
your family. Butane Polonium 210 Cadmium

Smokeless tobacco
You have heard and seen the advertisements of pan masala
and wondered what it is made up of. Pan masala contains
supari, that is arecanut or betel nut, which is a traditional
item and a part of many religious ceremonies in our country.
Most of us believe that pan masala is not harmful as it
is just a mixture of areca nut cuttings, commonly known
as supari, food flavours and sweeteners. Actually it is a
specialised, ingenious mix of traditional items and chemical
products developed to cause addiction. New formulations of
pan masala are constantly developed and introduced in the
market to encourage initiation and sustained use of these
and other similar products with an objective to deliver higher
Case Study
“highs” to the addicts.
You must have seen the
short film on Mukesh
A dangerous fact which is not known is that continuous
shown in theatres before use of tobacco causes oral cancer. Its use by the pregnant
any film, who dies at a mothers is nearly as dangerous as alcohol drinking. If taken
very young age due to during pregnancy, even the unborn babies are harmed by
eating Gutkha. Discuss
the case of Mukesh in the the chemicals present in gutkha and pan masala.
class and the effects of
smoking. Health hazards of tobacco and substance misuse
Substance misuse affects all the aspects of life of the user.
Smoking causes different types of cancers, the most common
being lung cancer. Research has established that pan
masala, gutkha, and khaini all cause oral cancer. All types of
tobacco products that mention ‘low tar or additive-free’ are
harmful. Substance misuse in any form leads to dependence
and addiction. It affects the personality and makes one angrier,
volatile, depressed and tense. The day-to-day activities along
with thinking and memory are affected, resulting in a negative
impact upon the work in school/college/job.

Effect of tobacco abuse among women

Have you noticed attractive advertisements of lighted
cigarettes? Though we mostly see men smoking, the
young women are one of the biggest targets of the tobacco
industry. The tobacco industry organises richly-funded

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marketing campaigns targetting young children through

advertisements highlighting and falsely linking the tobacco
use with behaviour aspects such as freedom and liberty, or
beauty, slim figure and prestige.
Marketing strategies lure consumers especially the youth,
with misleading categories, such as ‘light’ or ‘low tar’. More
young children smoke ‘light’ cigarettes, often in the mistaken
belief that ‘light’ means ‘safer’. In fact, ‘light’ smokers often
engage in inhaling more deeply and more frequently to absorb
the desired amount of nicotine. Women who smoke are more
likely to experience infertility and delays in conceiving than
those who do not. Smoking during pregnancy increases the
risks of premature delivery, still birth and death. Smoking
increases women’s risk for cancer of the cervix as well.
Activity 7.4
Look at the pictures given below. They look scary. You may
have seen such pictures on cigarette packets. It is mandatory
to display pictorial warnings on tobacco products in India and
many other countries.

•• Find out which countries have very gory and scary pictures
on the cigarette packets. Make a collage and display with a
message.
•• Form a chain of five students and share the benefits of not
smoking with them
•• Plan and stage a role play on “Say No to Tobacco”.

How can we identify the symptoms of alcohol or

substance abuse among children during adolescence?
Symptoms to observe for alcohol/tobacco abuse
•• Feeling depressed, hopeless, rundown or even suicidal
•• Being selfish and not caring for others
•• Frequent absent-mindedness
•• Money or valuables disappear from home
•• Irritability and aggressiveness, violent behaviour
•• Declining grades
•• Important routine activities such as homework, and sports
getting affected

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 260 Health and Physical Education - XI

•• Having a new friend circle, often not disclosing to family

•• An urge to drink on a daily basis
•• Avoiding family and friends, spending more time alone in
order to consume drugs or alcohol
•• Taking risks, including driving rashly as well as having
risky behaviour.

Reasons for Alcohol Consumption and Substance Abuse

Many teenagers believe that drinking alcohol is a way of
gaining acceptance and admiration of their peers, fitting in
the friend circles and a way to show off that they have grown
up. Studies have shown that many adolescents started
substance abuse because of the pressure from their friends.
Some children indulge in substance abuse to show their
anger or a way of rebelling against their parental or societal
norms. For many, it is due to curiosity. Sometimes it is done
to explore the unknown behaviour. No matter whatever the
reasons are, substance misuse is not very healthy and is
dangerous.
Some of the adverse effects could be:
a) Greater difficulty in focussing and paying attention.
b) Poor school performance.
c) Depression and anxiety.
d) Unnatural deaths, for example from motor vehicle
accidents, due to drunken driving.
e) Tendency to indulge in crimes like stealing, fighting,
etc.
f) Suicidal tendencies are much higher in children of
adolescence age who drink or engage in substance
misuse.
Given below are some of the most common myths and facts
related to substance abuse:

Myth Facts
There is no harm in Almost all drug addicts start by trying
trying a drug just once, just once. Once the drug is taken, the
because one can stop user is always amenable to further
after that. drug intake, which becomes a part of
their habit.
Drugs increase creativity Drug addict loses clarity and may
and make the user more become incoherent over a period of
imaginative time.

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Drugs can sharpen Drugs induce dullness and adversely

thinking and lead to affect the normal functioning of body
greater concentration. and mind.
Will power alone can help Besides strong will power, love and
a drug addict to stop support of family and friends, medical
taking drugs. and psychiatric treatment may be
needed to come out of drug addiction.
Alcohol helps people Very often the opposite is found to
forget their problems. be true. People bring up forgotten
problems under intoxication. Alcohol
only adds up to the existing problems.
Drug use makes one cool In the beginning, it may be seen that
and better accepted by the use of drugs helps in winning
peers and classmates. more friends but this is a myth as
these peers are not true friends or
well-wishers. Furthermore, over a
period of time, drug dependence
makes one asocial and isolated.
Inhalants are basically Using inhalants such as thinners,
harmless even though glue, cleaning fluids can cause
people make a big deal permanent damage to organs like the
about them. liver, brain and nerves. They are also
extremely flammable and can cause
burns if matches are lit nearby.

Case Study
Three friends — Mani, Adil and Ronny met at a marriage party.
Mani and Ronny wanted to drink in celebration and compelled
Adil, (who has never had a drink before) to join them. They insisted
him that he should join them for the sake of friendship. Adil is in a
dilemma. On the one hand, he doesn’t want to lose his friendship
but on the other he is conscious that nobody in his family drinks
alcohol. He has also learnt from his parents that alcohol is harmful
for health.

Questions for discussion

1. What are the choices that Adil has?
2. What would you have done if you were in Adil’s place?
3. How else could Adil’s friends have celebrated?

Common medicines
There has been a growing trend of taking medicines by
the people not only for the treatment of certain diseases
against proper prescription but also for other reasons such
as cosmetics, weight loss or weight gain, etc. Often these
are purchased through sales over the counter, without any
proper prescription. This trend is seen more among children
of adolescence age and younger generations.

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 262 Health and Physical Education - XI

It is always advisable to seek the advice of a doctor and

consume only those medicines that have been prescribed.
One should never decide one’s own medicines (without
prescription from a doctor) whatever the ailment be. One
should not fall prey to false advertisements asserting that
certain drugs or medicines will help in reducing or gaining
weight or enhance the stamina or cosmetic beauty.

How to use medicines?

A medicine can be both beneficial and harmful, depending upon
how it is taken. When a medicine is taken in the manner as
prescribed by the doctor, it can be beneficial but when a medicine
is not taken in a manner prescribed by the doctor (overdose) or
it is taken with some other substances that it should not be
combined with, it may lead to adverse effects on the body.
Medicines should always be stored in a cool dry place and
away from direct sunlight. Some of the medicines may also
need to be stored in the refrigerator. So follow the directions
on label.
•• A medicine is anything that is used to diagnose, prevent
or treat illness in humans.
•• The basic function of medicine is to aid the healing
process of the body. The medicine acts as a catalyst in
stimulating the natural healing process of the body.
•• Medicines should be used to assist the body’s mechanism
to heal itself.
•• We should not be too dependent on medicines. It is
rather important to work towards achieving a physical
state in which we can regain and recover without or
with least possible aid of medicines.
•• Prescription drugs and over the counter medicine are
the ones prescribed by the doctor upon examining the
patient for treatment of their illness. While over the
counter medicines are the ones that a patient may buy
without consulting a doctor.
•• All medications which are sold without a prescription
have the potential to cause harm to the body. These
drugs and medicines may be sold as advertisements to
help reduce or gain weight, enhance cosmetic beauty, etc.

What precautions should we take before taking

medicines?
Always follow the dosage of medicine as prescribed by the
doctor and the time intervals. Follow other instructions
carefully before consuming any medicine, such as taking
medicines before or after meals, etc. Medicines should be
taken with water rather than with tea, milk or juice, etc.

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Doping
Concept of Doping
Doping is not a new trend brought on by the advent of
modern pharmaceutical agents. History shows that athletes
Fig. 7.1: Medicine label
in the ancient Olympic Games were willing to take plant showing date of manufacturing
extracts in a bid to perform better than their competitors. and expiry date
Performance enhancing drugs and dietary supplements have
been around since the ancient Olympic Games. Because of
the ethical considerations relating to unfair advantage during
competition and the potential for the adverse effect, most Activity 7.4
Find out when was the doping
athletic governing bodies have generated a list of substances
case first recorded in an
that are banned from national and international competitions. International Competition.
Doping, is a term used for performance enhancing drugs in
sports and often understood as the use of such drugs which
Do You Know?
are considered helpful to improve athletic performance.
EPO-Erythroproietin, is
Many drugs have been banned in sports as they are deemed a peptide hormone, i.e.,
to provide an unfair advantage, pose a health risk, or are produced naturally by the
seen to violate the ‘spirit of sport’. The use of banned drugs human body.
by athletes is referred to as ‘doping’.
Doping is defined by the International Olympics Committee
(IOC) as, ‘the use of any method or substance that might
harm the athlete, in a quest to gain an unfair advantage,
over his or her fellow competitors’. Hence, training at altitude
to increase the blood’s ability to carry oxygen is allowed, but
the use of drugs, to achieve the same result is considered
unethical and prohibited by the authorities.
Rigorous testing procedures have shown many notable
athletes to be trying to ‘beat the system’ by taking such
drugs. Most notably, Ben Johnson, in 1988, who won the
100 m sprint in a new world record time of 9.79s, was tested
positive for steroids, and lost his gold medal and world
record. The reasons to ban doping in sports are mainly the
health risks of performance-enhancing drugs, the equality
of opportunity for athletes, and the exemplary effect of drug-
free sport for the public. Anti-doping authorities state that
using performance-enhancing drugs goes against the ‘spirit
of sport’.

Why Doping?
Most athletes take drugs—
•• to enhance their physical performance in an attempt
to prevent them falling behind other competitors even
at the cost of damaging their health and risking their
sports career.
•• to help them wind down and relax,

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 264 Health and Physical Education - XI

•• to cope with the pressure and stress associated with

Do You Know?
•• Players are selected for constant battle to win all the time
doping control either via a •• to boost their own self-esteem and confidence,
random draw conducted by •• to mask the pain of certain sports injuries,
the Doping Control Officer •• to control and reduce weight,
(DCO), witnessed by the •• to hide the use of any other banned substances.
team or representatives.
•• The World Anti Doping Doping in Sports
Agency (WADA) is a In competitive sports, doping refers to the use of banned
foundation created through performance-enhancing drugs by competitors, where the
a collective initiative led by
term doping is widely used by organisations that regulate
the International Olympic
Committee (IOC).
sporting competitions. The use of drugs to enhance
performance is considered unethical by most international
sports organisations, including the International Olympic
Committee. Although, ethicists (World Health Organisation)
have argued that it is not different from the use of new
materials in the construction of apparels and sporting
equipment, which can also aid performance and give
competitors an unfair advantage.

Classifications of Doping
The technology in our world today is truly amazing. People
are discovering new and exciting ways everyday to make our
lives easier and more enjoyable. Doctors and scientists are
also discovering ways to help us live longer and finding ways
to cure our bodies from many different illnesses. Medicine
today is without a doubt much better than in past years.
Doctors and scientists continue to discover ways to help create
the ideal athlete in the world. They find ways to use drugs
that were originally set out for some other function and use
it to improve the performances of athletes today. Besides the
other unethical practices used by athletes, the two principal
categories of performance-enhancing substances considered
as the main source are:
1. Dietary supplements
2. Injectable supplements—Hormones and Drugs

Dietary Supplements
Dietary supplements are highly refined products that should
not be confused with food. They may not have any positive
nutritional value; hence, not referred to as nutritional
supplements.

Hormones
A variety of endogenously produced hormones are used to
enhance athletic performance. The most commonly used

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 Safety and Security 265

hormone is ‘testosterone’. This hormone is known to produce

strength and stimulate the function of skeleton muscles with
higher level of energy. Hormone produced and secreted by
different organs of the body are stored and employed by
athlete as ‘Ergogenic aids’.

Drugs
A drug encompasses substance that changes the body’s
function. A drug is a chemical substance that, when absorbed
into the body, can alter normal bodily function. This includes
the substances that stimulate hormone secretion. If a
substance looks like a medicine or is administered differently
from the way in which foods would be consumed, it may be
classified as a drug.

Basic Doping Drugs used in Sports

The basic drugs which are used for doping purposes in
different sports are described below for better understanding
about the drugs.

Narcotics
Narcotics are used as doping in sports. They are injected
into a human’s blood stream, or muscles, or under skin.
Narcotics can also be swallowed. Consumption of narcotics
reduces, eliminate, and hide pain. Examples of narcotics are
morphine and methadone. They are also used for moderate
inflammation. This drug is commonly used in sports with
less recovery time in between games. Athletes from football
and hockey games commonly use narcotics.
Side Effects: Narcotics decrease heart rate, causes
nausea, and vomiting.

Steroids
The well-known doping drugs called anabolic-androgenic
steroids are a group of powerful chemical compound,
related to the male sex hormone ‘testosterone’. The original
purpose of steroids was to help with different diseases. It
was developed in the 1930’s. Consumption helps to produce
more hormones in the body.
Side Effects: Consumption can lead to early heart
attacks, strokes, liver, tumours, kidney failure, and serious
psychiatric problems. Steroids can be injected with needles,
which cause risks of infections, such as HIV/AIDS and
Hepatitis B and C. Physical symptoms include developing
a very large head, acne flare ups, aggressive behaviour and
mood swings.

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Gene Doping
Gene doping probably began in the year 2001, when the
International Olympic Committee Medical Commission came
together to discuss the adverse effects of gene therapy in
sports. World Anti Doping Agency in 2002 took the action
immediately and banned gene doping. Genes can be injected
into muscles to prevent muscle-wasting disorder and this
camouflages with the other human genes thus making gene
doping almost impossible to detect.
Side Effects: Gene doping is very dangerous for the
human body as it leads to abnormal growth, extra muscles
in the body which needs more blood circulation during
contraction hence, may lead to lack of blood for other systems
and may cause serious problems for the user. Gene doping
is susceptive to extra growth of unwanted hair, heart related
problems, nervous breakdown and suspecting to cancer at
an early age.

Blood doping
Blood doping is a very high intense type of doping. It increases
red blood cell mass and thereby, delivering more oxygen to
the muscles. Athletes use this unethical practice with the
help of pathologist and medical practioners, usually in the
sports like cross-country, cycling, and swimming, etc. Blood
doping vastly increases an athlete’s endurance. The red
blood cells are then separated and stored in a cold area. The
blood is then fused back into the body about a week prior to
the athletes’ high endurance event. Blood doping increases
the capacity of cardiovascular system and helps delaying the
fatigue. This is all unethical.
Side Effects: EPO is a peptide hormone that is produced
naturally by the human body. EPO is released from the
kidneys and acts on the bone marrow to stimulate red blood
cell production. It is well known that EPO, by thickening the
blood, leads to an increased risk of several deadly diseases
such as, heart disease, stroke, and cerebral or pulmonary
embolism. The misuse of recombinant human EPO may
also lead to autoimmune diseases with serious health
consequences. In blood doping, one to four units of blood is
taken out from the athlete’s body.

Harms of Prohibited Substances

1. Taking doping drugs can have terrible effects on
your body. The well known doping drug, steroids has
a number of negative effects on the body. Steroids
interrupt the normal development of hormones

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 Safety and Security 267

throughout your body. When this happens, human

Activity 7.5
body experiences changes that are irreversible.
Make a list of the banned
Changes such as reduced sperm production, baldness, substances used by some
breast development in men, breast reduction and athletes to control body weight
voice deepening for women. The risk of high blood for a combat sports.
pressure and the risk of heart attacks is very high. If
a person takes a large amount of steroids, it increases
irritability and aggression.
2. The blood doping causes much stress on the heart. The
reason for this is that the red blood count increases
which causes the blood in blood stream to become thick.
The human heart is not used to pumping such thick
blood. This leads to different kinds of heart diseases.
3. Narcotics are a street drug and people share the
needles to inject it. This gives the risk of passing
different diseases from one person to another.
Overdosing of narcotics can cause death. Withdrawal
effects include limited vision, reduced sex drive,
menstrual problems, chronic constipation, mood
swings, and muscle twitches.
4. Lean mass builders such as anabolic steroids can
cause dangerous increase in the levels of cholesterol,
heart attack, hypertension, stroke, liver and kidney
damage, jaundice, depression, aggression, mood
swings, acne and skin disease, reduced sperm count
and impotence in males, and amenorrhea in females.
5. Beta-2 antagonists can cause nausea, headaches,
dizziness, muscle cramps and heart flutters, whilst
other lean mass builders such as the human growth
hormone may be associated with liver problems, heart
disease and irregularities in the processing of insulin.
6. Side effects of stimulants such as amphetamines
include increased heart rate, blood pressure and body
temperature, stroke, hypertension, agitation, anxiety
and sudden cardiac death. Strong prescription
painkillers such as narcotics are also highly addictive
and can impair the mental abilities.
7. Relaxants such as alcohol and marijuana cause
impaired judgement, balance, co-ordination and
memory, hallucinations and drowsiness.
8. Side effects of diuretics include dehydration, dizziness,
cramps, and kidney failure.
9. Those masking drugs used to prevent the detection
of other banned substances can cause severe allergic
reactions, nausea and vomiting.

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Testing In-competition and

Out-of-competition
Drug testing has become an increasingly large part of both
professional and amateur sports. An athlete can be called
for drug testing at any time, in or out of competition. During
competition, some sports carry out drug testing only on the
winning team or top three competitors. Others will be tested
by random selection amongst all the competitors. There are
two types of doping control tests:
1. In-Competition and
2. Out-of-Competition (OOC) Testing
In-Competition Testing is conducted at a competition venue,
while Out of Competition Testing occurs with no advance
notice and can occur at any location and at any time.

Doping Control Procedure

The main purpose of the technical procedures for doping
control is—
1. to plan for effective testing.
2. to maintain the integrity and identity of the samples
collected, from the point when the athlete is notified of
the test to the point when the samples are transported
to the laboratory for analysis.

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Assessment
I. Long Answer Questions
1. How can we prevent the injuries by preparing good sports
facilities?
2. What are the safety rules one can observe when buying a
sports shoe?
3. What is meant by safety through sports instruments?
4. How does sports uniform help in safety of the sportspersons?
5. What precaution can be taken to prevent injuries in the
gymnasium?
6. How can you curb the accidents in swimming pool?
7. Physical fitness may be used as a tool to prevent sports
injuries. Elaborate.
8. Write down the myths and facts about substance abuse.
9. What is doping and what are the side effects of blood doping?
10. Why do athletes dope? Explain the side effects of prohibited
substances.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. What is meant by safety measures?

2. Why is the fabric of T-shirt important for athletes?
3. Write two safety measures in relation to swimming pool.
4. Write two ways to prevent sports injury.
5. Does cigarette smoking raise your status? If no, why?
6. Why tobacco use is deadly?
7. What three things should you focus on when buying medicines?
8. What are the categories of doping?

III. Multiple Choice Questions

1. Medicine should be purchased_______________.

(a) as per prescription of the doctor
(b) as advised by the chemist on the basis of our health problem
(c) after observing the date of manufacture and the date of expiry
(d) (a) and (c) both
2. Medicines should be consumed by the patient ______________.
(a) as advised by the doctor
(b) always after the meals

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(c) always before meals

(d) whenever the patient feels like taking the medicine
3. Which type of surface is used in modern times to play Kabaddi
that helps to prevent injury?
(a) Synthetic surface
(b) Mud ground
(c) Grassy ground
(d) Cinder surface
4. How does warming up helps to prevent injury?
(a) Warming up enhances reaction ability
(b) Warming up prepares the player for making smooth
movements
(c) Proper warming up prepares and athletes mentally and
physically for sports
(d) All the above

IV. Match the Following

1. Nicotine which is present in tobacco Tar

leaf is also found in
2. Used for making roads Insecticides
3. Tobacco use severely affects Smoking
4. Can cause cancer Lungs

V. Projects
1. Make a table of the various medicines being taken by a sick
family member.

Name of Dose Timings Expiry date Remarks

Medicine Prescribed on the label
of package

2. You would have seen many women smoking beedi or cigarette.

Some may even be pregnant. Discuss with two such women
the harmful effects of tobacco use among women, especially
the pregnant women.

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3. You would have seen many small shops, including pan shops
which sell cigarettes and pan masala products to the children.
Do you know that sale of any tobacco products to children
and sale of these items within 100 yards of any educational
institution is banned? It is sometimes very difficult to remove
these shops. Hold discussion with the Residents Welfare
Association and Parent-Teacher forum to stop the sale of any
tobacco product near your school.
4. Discuss with your class teacher and students’ committee as to
what actions can be taken to make your school a tobacco-free
zone.

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 Health Related
Physical Fitness
8
Physical fitness directly influences the health of an individual.
So to keep ourself healthy, fitness sessions should be
incorporated in our daily routine.
‘Physical fitness is a state of health and well-being. It
develops your capacity to perform better in sports, your
job and day-to-day routine work. This is achieved through
moderate/vigorous physical activities, balanced diet and
proper recovery.’
Regular planned fitness activities like walking, jogging,
cycling, swimming and yoga improve health and physical
fitness of an individual. It also reduces the risk of heart
diseases, diabetes, hypertension and depression. So, we
can say that physical fitness is related to — ‘well-being’ and
‘wholesome development’ - of an individual.
There are five components of health related physical
fitness—
1. Muscular Strength
2. Endurance
3. Flexibility
4. Body Composition
5. Cardiovascular Endurance

Muscular Strength
Muscular strength is directly related to force production.
Not only in sports but it is related to our each and every
movement. Movement of our body parts is possible due to
strength be it flexing a finger or getting up from the bed.
Paralysed people cannot move their body parts because
they have lost the capacity to produce strength.

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A new born baby cannot stand up and walk because they

Activity 8.1
has less strength. So, we can say that for every movement of Compare the strength of
body part or for moving body from one position to another your classmates with an Arm
position, strength is required. Wrestling competitor.
Whenever we think about sports performance, the first
thing which comes into our mind is the muscular strength.
Normally we use the term strength instead of muscular Do You Know?
•• Aerobic capacity is the
strength. If we ask someone a question, do you have the
capacity to work in the
strength to do this physical work? He or she will knowingly presence of maximum
or unknowingly flex his or her muscle and say I have the amount of O2 and the nature
strength to do this. This shows in itself that somewhere of the work is of longer
strength is associated with muscles. duration.
Strength is normally understood as the ability of the •• Anaerobic capacity is
muscle or group of muscles of an individual to exert force capacity to work in less
against the resistance. If we are talking about exerting force amount of O2 and nature of
then the question which comes in our mind is, why do we work is of short duration.
want to exert force? For this we have to look into the nature
of the sports activities. We try to act against the resistance.
Now the resistance can be of two types. It can be internal
resistance like your own body weight or it can be external
resistance like opponent’s body weight. In some of the cases
we act against the resistance which we cannot conquer and
in some of the cases we act to overcome that resistance. In
both the cases we exert force with the help of our muscles.
Muscular strength is thus, ‘the ability of the muscle or
muscle groups of an individual to exert force on the resistance
to overcome it or to act against it as per the demand of the
sports activity’.
Moving further, we look at how the muscular strength
ability is used according to the nature of sports. We find
that sometimes we need to apply force against the maximum
resistance, but it is for shorter duration and sometimes
we need to apply the force for longer duration. Taking into
account the nature of sports as far as strength abilities are
concerned, we can divide the strength abilities into three
parts—
(a) Maximum Strength: The name itself reflects that we
are talking about something to its maximum limit. So,
we can say that when our muscle or muscles group is
able to generate the force with 100 per cent effort by
which we are able to tackle the maximum resistance
in a single contraction, it is called maximum strength
of an individual. It is the ability which is of great use
in the sports like weight lifting, throw events in
athletics, etc.

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(b) Explosive Strength: In some of the books, you may

find this with the name of elastic strength. This is
the ability where both strength and speed comes into
play. When the muscle or group of muscles contract
with high speed to overcome or to act against the
resistance with 70 per cent to 80 per cent effort, then
it is called the explosive strength. There are several
examples where the explosive strength is required
such as jumping, sprinting in athletics, boxing, etc.
(c) Strength Endurance: As it reflects from the name
itself that it is related to the work which is done
for longer duration. It is both strength as well as
endurance which comes into play. In simple words,
we can say that when our muscle or a group of
muscles act against the resistance with 50 per cent
to 60 per cent effort or try to overcome the resistance
for longer duration in spite of having fatigue, then
it is called that the individual is having strength
endurance. There are many sports where we can
easily see the use of this ability such as hill running
in cross country race, cycling, swimming, etc.
As we know that strength depends upon the
contraction of muscles and several other factors. So
let us have a look on the factors which play major
role in the liberation of force by the muscles. These
are as follows—
1. Neural Control: How much force the muscle will
generate largely depends upon three major factors.
●● Number of motor units involved in the
contraction — If the greater number of
motor units are recruited then more amount
of force will be generated.
●● Size of the motor units involved in the
contraction — If the size of the motor units
is greater, then also, the amount of force
generated will be higher.
●● Intensity of nerve impulse — If the intensity
of nerve impulse is faster, then also, the
force generated by the muscle will be higher.
2. Muscle Cross-section: It is well known to everyone
that liberation of force largely depends upon the
size of the muscles. The more the size, the more
force it will generate.
3. Muscle fibre: Muscles are made up of two types of
fibres, one is fast twitch fibre (white) and another

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is called slow twitch fibre (red). Both the fibres

Activity 8.2
are present in the muscles. The quality of Perform push-ups, pull-ups, sit-
the muscle depends upon the proportion of ups along with your classmates
the fibres in the particular muscle. If the fast and find who scores highest in
twitch fibres are more in ratio, then the muscle these activities.
will contract faster and generate more force.
This type of muscle has anaerobic capacity.
Whereas, the muscle having slow twitch fibre
will generate less force in comparison to the
muscle with fast twitch fibres.
4. Energy supply: Muscles get their energy by the
breakdown of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
and CP (Creatine Phosphate) which is stored in
the body. The amount of ATP and CP store is
very essential for the muscular activities as it
provides the energy to the muscles.
5. Psychological factors: In many of the situations,
the psychological factors contribute a lot in
getting more forceful muscular contraction.
The factors such as anger, aggression,
motivation, etc., play a very crucial role in
pushing their mind to develop very strong
nerve impulse which can lead to activate more
number of motor units.

Methods of Strength Improvement

Strength is regarded as a very essential part of sports
performance. It is a conditional ability and can be
improved to a greater extent by the training. There are
various methods by which one can achieve the level of
strength one wants. Whenever we think about improving
the strength ability of an individual, the first thing which
comes to our mind is the structure of our activity where
we are going to use this strength. In some of the activities,
our own body weight acts as a resistance and in some
cases, external resistance plays the maximum role.
For example, in cross country races while running on the
hill, our own body weight acts as a resistance and in weight
lifting, external weight acts as the resistance. So, when we
design resistance training for developing strength ability
of an individual, we keep both the conditions in our mind.
We know that countering the resistance again and
again will help us to improve our strength ability.
For improving the strength ability, the following methods
are used.

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1. Using our own body weight as a resistance: In this

method, we design our strength training in such a
way that our own body weight acts as a resistance,
for example, rope climbing, hill running, etc. In this,
the pull of gravity plays a very vital role. We try to
carry our own body against the gravity which helps
us to improve our muscular strength. This method
is very effective for the young athletes.

Sit-ups Lunges Bicycle Crunches

Leg Raises High Knees Turning Kicks

Chin-ups Full Arch

Fig. 8.1: Exercise with own body weight

2. Using external weight as a resistance: In this type

of training, the athlete uses external weight as a
resistance. This is a more effective method of improving
the strength abilities. For example, weight training
where weight plates, medicine ball, weight belts, etc.,
are used to develop strength ability. The resistance
is increased or decreased according to the need.
Along with weight training, several other methods are
also used for improving the strength where external
resistance is used. For example, swimming against
the flow of water in the river, drag running, etc.

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Activity 8.3
•• Perform shoulder press,
bench press and squats and
find out who scores highest
in these activities.
•• Compare the body weight of
Dumbbell Bench Press Leg Curl Cable Pushdown a long distance runner and a
sprinter in your school and
see the difference.

Seated Row Dumbbell Shoulder Press Lat Pull Down

Twist Abs Incline Situp Calf Raise

Fig. 8.2: Excercise with external weight as resistance

Endurance
When an individual continues doing physical activity for a
longer period of time, then he or she is said to have good
endurance for doing that particular work. By nature, it looks
like both physiological as well as psychological abilities of an
individual play a crucial role in determining the endurance
ability.
As an individual continues doing any work for longer
duration, after some time he or she may feel physical as well
as mental fatigue. But in spite of this, if he or she is able to
continue the work for longer duration then this shows that
he or she is having good endurance.
Endurance is normally understood as the ability to do any
work for longer duration. It is task specific in nature. We come
across many such examples in our daily life which shows
that this ability is task specific such as we see a teacher who
stands and continues taking his classes for hours together. If
the same teacher is asked to run for an hour or more, he or
she will not be able to do so. At the same time, if you ask a long
distance runner to run for an hour, he or she will do it easily,
but you ask the same runner to sit and work in the office for
long hours, he or she may not be able do it. Mental toughness,
interest for the task and physiological qualities all have a very
important role to play when we talk about endurance.

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So considering all such things we can say that

‘endurance is the physiological as well as psychological
ability of an individual to do some specific type of work
for longer duration with the desired quality under the
condition of fatigue’.
Endurance can be divided into three types, as far as
nature of the activity is concerned.
1. Basic endurance: This type of endurance ability
makes an individual capable to carry out any type
of work for longer duration. It is not task specific.
This type of endurance largely depends upon aerobic
capacity of an individual. In this type of endurance,
the pace of the activity is slow.
2. General endurance: This type of endurance ability
makes an individual capable to carry out any type
of work for longer duration with various movement
patterns and pace. The nature of the pace may change
according to the demand of the activity.
3. Specific endurance: This type of endurance ability
makes an individual capable to carry out a specific
type of work for longer duration with a set type of
movement patterns and pace. This involves aerobic
as well as anaerobic qualities of an individual and is
highly trainable in nature.

Factors determining endurance

Various physiological and psychological factors are involved
in determining the endurance of an individual. These factors
are muscle fibre type, aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity,
movement pattern and psychological factors.
1. Muscle fibre type: Muscles are made up of two types of
fibres, namely fast twitch and slow twitch fibre. Both
types are present in the muscle of an individual. If the
ratio of slow twitch fibres is more, then an individual
will possess the aerobic capacity which will enable
him/her to have endurance ability. In the same
manner, if there is higher ratio of fast twitch fibres,
then an individual will possess the anaerobic capacity
and will dominate in strength and speed activities.
2. Aerobic Capacity: It is the ability of muscle to
utilise more amount of oxygen while working.
This type of capacity largely depends upon the
oxygen uptake, its transportation from atmosphere
to the working muscles and oxygen consumption.
Oxygen intake is the amount of oxygen which is

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taken from the atmosphere with the help of nose and

mouth and is sent to the lungs and from where it
is transferred to the blood. Transportation of oxygen
from lungs to the target muscle is very important.
How much oxygen will be transported depends upon
the amount of oxygen absorbed by the blood and the
capacity of the heart which will pump the blood into
circulation. The amount of oxygen absorbed in blood
depends upon the amount of haemoglobin present in
the blood which carries oxygen to the target muscles.
The capacity of the heart and vascular system of the
body will determine how fast the blood will reach to
the target muscle. If the heart is strong and has larger
chamber size, it will pump more blood in circulation
which will help the oxygen to reach the target muscle
in less time. Further, when the oxygen reaches the
target muscle, it has to be taken up by the muscle
and then consumed.
3. Anaerobic capacity: It is the ability of the muscle to
work in the presence of inadequate amount of oxygen.
During such conditions, two types of energy systems
work, i.e., splitting of phosphogens and glycolysis
of glycogens. The phosphogens, i.e., Adenosine
Triphosphate and Creatine Phosphate (ATP and
CP) last for 8 to 10 seconds only. The amount of
phosphogens can be increased by training. The
increased ratio of lactic acid in the muscle decreases
the capacity of working muscle, so it is quickly
pushed into the blood which makes changes in the
pH value of the blood and makes the blood acidic.
To avoid this, alkali reserves present in the blood
neutralise the lactic acid effect. This system is called
buffer system and it is very helpful for endurance
performance. Further, an individual’s capacity to
tolerate lactic acid also plays an important role in
deciding the endurance capacity.
4. Movement pattern: Economical movement pattern is
of great help for saving energy, which in turn helps
in improving endurance capacity of an individual.
A good technique can save the wastage of energy.
5. Psychological factors: This has a big role to
play when it comes to endurance performance.
Mental toughness to tolerate pain, pushing oneself,
etc., has a great impact on continuing the long
duration activities.

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Improvement of endurance
There are various methods by which one can improve his or
her endurance. This is highly trainable ability. The methods
by which we can improve our endurance capacity are
mentioned below.

Fig. 8.3: Improvement of endurance with fast pace

1. Continuous method: The method in which we go for long

duration activity without any rest or break in between.
This method can be practiced in various forms.

Fig. 8.4: Improvement of endurance through cross country

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 Health Related Physical Fitness 281

a) With slow pace: This method is normally used for

very long duration activity in which the pace is
slow and helps in developing the aerobic capacity
of an athlete. This method has a great effect on
muscles. The major changes which take place are
— increase in muscle glycogen level, increase of
capillaries in muscle and increase in the quantity of
oxidative enzymes. Number and size of mitochondria
increases, thermo-regulation capacity of the body
improves and due to long practice, the movement
pattern also becomes economic.
b) With fast pace: In this method, the pace is faster.
The duration of practice depends upon the fitness
of the athlete. This method is very much effective
to improve the anaerobic capacity of the athlete.
c) With changing pace: In this type of method, the
athlete is trained with change in pace. This is very
much effective in improving the aerobic as well as
anaerobic capacity of the athlete.
d) Fartlek method: This method is also called ‘speed
play’. In this method, the change of pace is not
planned prior to the start of the practice. This
method is very effective for mature athletes. The
athlete himself decides the pace and duration as
per the capacity. This method helps in developing
both aerobic and anaerobic capacity.
2. Interval Method: In this type of method, the athlete
is trained with sub-maximum intensity and with a
short break in between with incomplete recovery.
This type of method is very effective and helps in
improving endurance capacity. In this type of method,
the training load is decided by monitoring the heart
rate of the athlete. The interval given in between the
exercise is also decided by monitoring the heart rate.
3. Repetition Method: In this method, the pace is near
to or more than the pace of real completion. The
distance can be decided as per the need. The interval
in between will be given for complete recovery. This
method is very much useful for improving the pace
judgement and anaerobic capacity.
4. Competition method: This method is very much
effective for learning the tactic of long distance
running. This method develops specific endurance
and also helps in improving certain psychological
factors which play a vital role in carrying out long
distance activities. Competition method can be of

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great help in checking the performance and deciding

the future training programme. Participating in
the matches of respective game/sports is a simple
example of competition method.
Table 1: Benefits of Endurance Training
System Increases Decreases
Cardio- 1. Heart size and volume 1. Resting heart-rate
respiratory 2. Blood volume and slight increase in 2. Sub-maximal exercise heart rate
System haemoglobin 3. Blood pressure (if high)
3. Stroke volume
4. Cardiac output
5. VO2 max
6. Oxygen interaction with cells
7. Lung volume
Muscular 1. Mitochondria — number and size 1. Chances of injuries
Skeletal System 2. Myoglobin storage
3. Triglyceride storage
4. Oxidative Phosphorylation
Other System 1. Strength of connective tissues 1. Body weight (if overweight)
2. Heat acclimatisation 2. Body fat
3. High-density lipoprotein Cholesterol 3. Total Cholesterol
(HDL) 4. Low Density Lipoprotein
Cholesterol (LDL)

Flexibility
It may be termed as the ability of an individual to move his
body parts to its maximum range around the related joint. It is
measured in degrees, radians or centimetres. This is a motor
ability which is of great importance for sports performance
as well as for leading a normal healthy life. It can be passive
or active in nature.

Fig. 8.5: Passive (Left), Active (Right)

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1. Passive flexibility: When the movement around the

Activity 8.4
joint is done with external help, then this type of Try to stretch your muscles
flexibility is termed as passive flexibility. Help may be with and without help and see
taken from another person. the difference.
2. Active flexibility: When the movement around the
joints is done without the external help, then this type
of flexibility is termed as active flexibility. Further,
active flexibility is sub divided into two parts — static
and dynamic flexibility.

Fig. 8.6: Static flexibility

a) Static: When the individual is executing movement

around his joints in sitting or standing position,
then it is called static flexibility.
b) Dynamic: When the individual is executing
movement around his joints while moving, then it
is called dynamic flexibility.

Fig. 8.7: Dynamic flexibility

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Factors determining flexibility

Do You Know?
The range of motion will be The range of movement around a joint depends on various
greater in passive stretching in factors which are as follows:
comparison to active stretching. 1. Anatomical structure of joint: The range of movement
around joints largely depends on the anatomical
structure of the joint. For example, ball and socket
type of joint has the maximum range of motion in
comparison to other type of joints.
2. Ligaments and muscles stretchability: The bones are
attached to each other by ligaments. These ligaments
have a great role to keep the two bones attached to
each other. Their stretchability has a great impact
on the movement possible around that joint. The
stretching ability of muscles around a particular joint
also plays a major role in their movement.
3. Coordination: Coordination between the agonist and
antagonist muscles around the joint plays a very crucial
role in determining the flexibility around the joint.
4. Strength of the muscle: For any movement, the
muscle should have the basic strength to move
the associated part or bone. If the muscle is weak,
then it will not be able to move the bone to its
maximum limits.

Improvement of flexibility
There are a few methods by which we can improve our
flexibility, these are:

Fig. 8.8: Ballistic method to improve flexibility

1. Ballistic method: When the flexibility exercises are

done with rhythmic movements, then it is called

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ballistic method. In this method, the movements

around the joints are done with a swing. This type
of method is very much effective in improving the
range of motion around the joints, e.g., gymnastic
movements.
2. Stretch and hold: In this type of method, the athlete
is asked to stretch to his or her maximum limit and
hold the position for few seconds, then regain the
previous position. This type of method is very useful
for the improvement of flexibility. This can be done
individually or with the help of another person.

Sky Reach Toe Touch Neck Roll

Shoulder Roll Shoulder Stretch Side Reach

Gastrocnemius Stretch Quadriceps Stretch Cross-thigh Hug

Fig. 8.9: Stretching exercise

3. Post-Isometric Stretch: In this, the muscle is

isometrically contracted for around 8–10 seconds
and as it returns to normal condition, muscle is
stretched to its limit gradually. It is also called as

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proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF). It

requires supervision of a trained person and advanced
methods to practice.
Physical fitness is not only required for players
but also for everyone. One must do various fitness
activities to keep oneself physically, emotionally and
mentally healthy.

Fig. 8.10: Stretching exercise with the help of another person and equipment

Body Composition
It is the classification of human body into fat weight and
lean body weight. It can be assessed using both direct and
indirect methods. Direct method for evaluating the body
composition is hydrostatic weighing or under water weighing,
and assessing body composition by a skin-fold caliper is
called indirect method.

Cardio-vascular Endurance
It is the ability of heart, lungs and blood vessels to supply
sufficient amount of oxygen and nutrients to the cells to
meet the demands of the activity characterised by moderate
contractions of large muscle groups over prolonged period of
time. Twelve minutes run/walk test can be used to evaluate
cardio-vascular endurance.

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 Assessment
I. Long Answer Questions
1. What do you understand by health?
2. List and explain the components of health related fitness.
3. Explain muscular strength.
4. Explain the benefits of endurance training.
5. Explain flexibility and its types.
6. Explain the various factors affecting flexibility.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. Define endurance.
2. What is physical fitness?
3. What is interval method?
4. What is Post-Isometric Stretch?
5. List down the four motion factors responsible for range of motion.
6. What is the full form of PNF?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. Force is produced ______________________.
2. _____________ component helps in improving the number and
size of mitochondria.
3. ________________ is a swedish method to develop the endurance.
4. ______________ method has incomplete recovery in endurance.
5. Body weight _________________ with endurance traning.
6. _____________________ is responsible for great range of motion.
7. Flexibility movements done with rhythmic movements are
called as ___________.
8. Universally practised stretching method is ______________.

IV. State whether True or False

1. Passive flexibility training is done with internal help.
2. The bones are attached to each other by ligaments.
3. Muscles are made up of two types of fibres namely, fast twitch
and slow twitch fibre.
4. Physical fitness indirectly influences the health of an individual.
5. The ability of muscles to consume oxygen while working is
known as aerobic capacity.

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Benefits
•• The practice of this āsana helps in eliminating toxic
gases from the abdomen.
•• This āsana relieves constipation and the feeling of
heaviness in the stomach.
•• Extra fat in the abdominal area gets dissolved. It also
reduces abdominal fat.
•• The spine becomes flexible.
•• Improves blood circulation.

Setubandhasana
Setubandha means formation of bridge. The body in this
posture is positioned like a bridge. Setu means bridge, and
bandha means to bind. In this asana, body imitates a bridge
structure.

Fig. 6.33: Setubandhasana

Stages for Practice

•• Bend both the legs at the knees and bring the heels
near the buttocks.
•• While holding both the ankles, firmly keep the knees
and feet in one straight line. Separation between legs
should be same as the distance between shoulders.
•• Inhale, slowly raise your buttocks and trunk up as
much as you can to form a bridge.
•• Remain in this position for 10–30 seconds, with normal
breathing.
•• Exhale, slowly return to the original position and relax
in Shavasana.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Keep the feet near the buttocks.
•• Keep the knees vertical to the ground.
•• Avoid giving any jerk to the body in the final position.
•• Avoid this practice in case of Cervical Spondylitis.

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Benefits
Activity 6.10
•• It removes strain on the back. •• Students will share their own
•• It stretches and massages the colon and other experiences with their friends
abdominal organs. and make a comparative
report.
•• It helps to improve lung capacity.
•• Teacher can conduct
•• It provides strength to the back muscles. competition between yoga
•• Brings flexibility to the spine. practitioner and non yoga
practitioner students and
Viparitkarani motivate them for doing
According to Sanskrit, Viparita means ‘opposite’ and Karani better.
means ‘doing’, ‘by which’. In this āsana, the state of body is
opposite (head downwards and legs upwards) to the normal.
That’s how the asana derived its name as Vipritasana.

Stages for Practice

•• Lie in relaxed supine position with the legs together.
•• Raise the legs up, keeping them straight.
•• Push down on the arms and hands and raise the
buttock.
•• Support the lower back with hands, keeping elbows on
the floor.
•• Remain steady for a while with normal breathing.
•• Release the position and relax on the back.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Keep the balance of the body on elbows.
•• Keep the knees straight.
•• Avoid practising this posture immediately after any Fig. 6.34: Viparitkarani
violent exercise.
•• Avoid this practice in case of heart problems.

Benefits
•• Its regular practice improves digestion, stimulates
appetite and helps in relieving constipation.
•• This practice improves blood circulation to the brain.
•• It brings the luster to the skin.
•• It balances functioning of the thyroid, parathyroid, and
thymus glands.
•• It also helps in the management of insomnia, varicose
veins, and hernia.

Shavasana
In Sanskrit, Shava means dead body. The posture is called
Savasana as the body in this asana resembles a dead body.

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Fig. 6.35: Shavasana

Stages for Practice

•• Lie down on the back with the hands comfortably away
from the body.
•• Make a distance of one to two feet between the feet with
toes pointing outward.
•• Place both the hands on the ground, 10 inches away
from the body with fingers in a semi-flexed position and
palms facing upwards.
•• Keep the head in the most convenient position.
•• Gently close the eyes, breathe normally or practise
moderately deep abdominal breathing.
•• Attend to the flow of the breath without moving the
body.
•• Become aware of the natural breath and allow it to
become rhythmic and slow.
•• Try to relax all parts of the body by diffusing tension in
each part of the body.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Relax the whole body.
•• Back should be relaxed.
•• Avoid the tightness in any part of the body.

Benefits
•• It helps to reduce stress and removes physical and
mental fatigue.
•• It relaxes all muscles and nerves of the body.
•• It is helpful to overcome the psychological disorders.
•• It is very beneficial for managing high blood pressure,
cardiac diseases, and stress and anxiety disorders.

Pranayama
Prana refers to the ‘vital force’ and ayama means to restraint.
Prana is the vital energy without which the body would
not survive. Pranayama is a breathing technique by which
breath regulates and controls the prana. It helps to improve

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the control over autonomic respiratory mechanisms through

Activity 6.11
breathing patterns that generate energy and enhance Students can check their breath
emotional stability. Some of the breathing practices are holding time and maintain
mentioned here. a record book (mentioning
the time of hold) to collect
Phases of Pranayama: Puraka, Rechaka and one month data with of
Kumbhaka their physical and mental
experiences.
•• Puraka: In puraka, inhalation is very gentle and deep
with full awareness. This helps the chest to expand
more in its clavicular (upper) region, coastal (middle
and lower) region, from front to back and also sideways.
This expansion creates more inner space allowing more
inflow of air into lungs. At the same time, diaphragm
contracts more and moves down towards abdominal
cavity to the maximum. In this process, muscles of the
front wall in abdominal cavity and the perineal region
are under pressure to move outwards and downwards
respectively.
•• Kumbhaka means retention of breath inside or
outside. Kumbhaka performed along with bandhas
(Mulabandha, Uddiyanabandha and Jalandharbandha)
helps in the process of metabolism and assists in
more efficient exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Through regulated breathing, Kumbhaka ensures
sufficient supply of oxygen and thus helps the brain to
work efficiently.
•• Rechaka: Rechaka assists in more efficient releasing
of carbon dioxide. The duration of rechaka is supposed
to be double of puraka. The process of rechaka starts at
the end of kumbhaka, when bandhas are released. In
the process of rechaka, diaphragm is pushed upwards
towards the cavity of chest making the chest to contract.
Slow and prolonged exhalation prescribed for rechaka
helps in completely pushing the carbon dioxide out of
lungs.

Yogic Deep Breathing

There are three types of breathing:
•• Abdominal
•• Thoracic
•• Clavicular
Combination of all three types of breathing becomes yogic
deep breathing.

Technique
1. Sit in a comfortable posture.

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2. Inhale: Deep, slow and long intake of oxygen with

the combination of three types of breathing. (During
inhalation, first the abdomen comes out and
diaphragm has tened moves the chest cavity outward
and upward and in the last air fills clavicular region
(collar bone) and it moves upward.
3. Exhale: Repeat the whole procedure in reverse
manner.
4. Repeat the same practice four to five times.

Nadishodhana Pranayama
Nadishodhana means to purify the nadis. Nadishodhana
pranayama is also known as anuloma-viloma. Viloma means
produced in the reverse order. This variety gets its name from
the fact that the nostrils are alternatively used during each
inhalation and exhalation in this pranayama.

Stages for Practice

•• Sit in any comfortable meditative posture.
•• Keep the head and spine erect.
•• Close the eyes.
•• Pay attention to the breath.
•• Place the hands on their respective knees.
•• Adopt nasagran mudra of the right hand and jnana
mudra of the left hand.
•• Close the right nostril with the thumb.
•• Inhale through the left nostril and exhale through the
right nostril, keeping the respiration rate slow, deep
and silent.
•• Inhale through the right nostril again.
•• Exhale through the left nostril, keeping the respiration
rate slow, deep and silent.

Fig. 6.36: Nadishodhana pranayama

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Dos and Don’ts

•• Keep the ratio of 1:1 between inhalation and exhalation.
•• Avoid producing any sound from the nose.
•• Avoid pressing hard on the nostrils.

Benefits
•• Calms and steadies the mind, improves focus and
concentration.
•• Improves blood supply to the brain.
•• Balances the left and right hemispheres and promotes
clear thinking.
•• Benefits in following conditions—asthma, allergies, high
or low blood pressure, stress-related heart conditions,
hyperactivity, insomnia, chronic pain, endocrine
imbalances and psychological conditions as anxiety,
stress, etc.

Ujjayi Pranayama

Stages for Practice

•• Sit in padmasana or siddhasana.
•• Close the mouth. Contract the region at the back of
the throat, inhale slowly through both the nostrils in
smooth and uniform manner till the breath fills the
space from the throat to the heart.
•• During inhalation, a peculiar sound is produced owing
to the partial closing of glottis.
•• This sound should be of mild and uniform pitch.
•• It should be continuous also.
•• Expand the chest while inhaling.
•• Slowly exhale through the left nostril.

Fig. 6.37: Ujjayi pranayama

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 246 Health and Physical Education - XI

Dos and Don’ts

•• Breathing should be deep, slow and long.
•• Do not make harsh sound during inhalation.

Benefits
•• Ujjayi pranayama removes heat from the head and
keeps it cool.
•• It removes phlegm in the throat and prevents all sorts
of pulmonary diseases.
•• It prevents diseases caused by deficient inhalation of
oxygen and cardiac diseases.
•• Regular practice of this pranayama defends the
practitioner from diseases of phlegm, degeneration,
dyspepsia, dysentery, enlarged spleen, cough or fever.

Bandhas
Bandhas means to hold or lock. Bandhas may be introduced
during the practice of mudra and pranayama.

Jalandhara Bandha
Jalandhara bandha is performed by contracting the throat
and bringing the chin to the chest while retaining the breath.

Fig. 6.38: Jalandhara bandha

Stages for Practice

•• Sit comfortably in Padmasana or Siddhasana.
•• Place both the hands (palms) on the knees in jnana
mudra.
•• Allow the whole body to relax.
•• Inhale slowly and deeply and retain the breath.

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 Yoga and its Relevance in the Modern Times 247

•• Lower the chin down in front and set it against the

jugular notch or the sternum notch and close the eyes.
•• Hold the breath according to capability.
•• Raise the head slowly and release the bandha.
•• Exhale deeply.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Keep the back straight
•• Avoid jerky movement of the neck.
•• Avoid this practice in case of heart diseases and cervical
spondylitis.

Benefits
•• This practice improves the functioning of thyroid gland
and helps in curing the ailments of throat.
•• It enhances the process of exchange of gases during
the retention of breath.

Uddiyana Bandha
The word ‘Uddiyana’ comes from ‘ud’ and ‘di’, which means
to fly up or to rise up. Through this bandha, prana like a bird
flies up incessantly, hence it is called uddiyanabandha.

Stages for Practice

•• Sit comfortably in Siddhasana or Padmasana.
•• Place both the hands (palms) on the knees firmly.
•• Exhale completely through mouth and hold the breath
out.
•• Pull abdominal muscles up and inside towards the
spine. This is Uddiyana Bandha.
•• Retain the breath outside as long as one feels
comfortable.
•• Raise the head, inhale slowly and release the abdominal
muscles.
•• Return to the normal position.

Dos and Don’ts

•• Pull the abdominal muscles after exhalation.
•• Avoid holding the breath beyond limit.
•• Avoid in case of heart diseases.

Benefits
•• Uddiyana Bandha improves blood circulation and
strengthens all the internal organs.
•• All the abdominal organs get toned, massaged and
strengthened.

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•• It helps in improving the digestion process.

Do You Know?
Dhyana can activate our sixth •• It enhances the lung capacity.
sense.
Dhyana
Activity 6.12 Dhyana is a part of Astanga yoga. It is related to the practice
Practice meditation for five to of mind and is the gateway to inner world. One can enter and
ten minutes daily and prepare into dhyana stage after the practice of shatkarma, asana,
an experience report on the pranayama. They involve controlling the mind to finally
changes that you feel after 15 transcend the mind. It helps to improve the concentration
days. and emotional stability and improves the functioning of
mental activities.
There are several methods to practice dhyana. All the
practices of dhyana are to be focussed on a single point
either a mantra or an object.

Process of Dhyana
•• Sit in any meditative posture.
•• Place hands in Jnana mudra on the knees.
•• Spine should be straight and relaxed with closed eyes.
•• Now focus on breathing.
•• Observe inhalation and exhalation.
•• Maintain the process for 5–7 minutes.
•• Slowly bring awareness back to the surroundings.
•• Gently rub the palms together and place them on eyes.
Fig. 6.39: Dhyana •• After few seconds remove palms and open eyes.
This is the practice of breath awareness. One can practice
it by focussing on different things, i.e., any object in between
eyebrow center, any sound, etc.
Meditation or Dhyana activates the parasympathetic
nervous system which provides the relaxation of body and
mind.
•• It helps in controlling the blood pressure.
•• It normalises the heart rate.
•• It helps to calm down all the mental activities.
•• It reduces anxiety.

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 Yoga and Its Relevance in Modern Time 249

Assessment
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Write the meaning of yoga and its relevance in day-to-day life.
2. Write about the history and development of yoga.
3. Mention the guiding principles of yoga.
4. Write the role of asana in wellness.
5. Write the role of pranayama in wellness.
6. Write the role of shodhana a kriyas in wellness.
7. What is kapalbhati? Write its technique and benefits.
8. Explain the concept of puraka, rechaka, and kumbhaka.
9. Write the benefits of dhyana.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. What is Karma yoga?

2. What is Jnana yoga?
3. What is Raja yoga?
4. Write the types of neti.
5. Write the name of yogic practices.
6. Write the root word of yoga.
7. How many poses are present in surya namaskara?
8. Nath culture is related to which school of yoga?
9. Ashtanga yoga is related to which school of yoga?
10. What is Nishkam karma?
11. What is Navdabhakti?
12. What is Vihara?
13. Which system is related to pranayama?
14. Name the practice which cleanse our nasal passage.

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. Vedas have __________ types.

2. Uddiyana bandha is related to __________ region.
3. Jalandhara bandha is related to __________ region.
4. In Kapalbhati, the meaning of kapal is __________.

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IV. State whether True or False

1. Ujjayi is a practice of asana.

2. Surya Namaskar is a process of 12 asanas.
3. Agnisar is related to water element of body.
4. Jnana Yoga is a path of devotion.
5. Kapalbhati is a pranayama.

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 Measurement and
Evaluation
9
Everybody is interested in knowing about what, how and
Activity 9.1
Discuss with your classmates why the things and activities near their surroundings are
about the need of test, happening. Because, our day-to-day life is largely associated
measurement and evaluation with all these terms to know the status or level, attitude or
programme. skill, cause or effect of someone’s effort. To know the answer
of any query or assumption, we use test, measurement and
Do You Know? evaluation.
Measurement is a score
generally known as data. What are Test, Measurement
and Evaluation?
Any idea or thought cannot take constructive shape without
evaluation and it is based on measurement which cannot
start without using an appropriate test. Basically test,
measurement and evaluation are interrelated, interdependent
and follow a continuous process.

Test
Test is a tool to obtain information to determine the specific
characteristics or qualities of an individual regarding
knowledge, physical abilities, skill abilities, etc. For example,
unit test, annual examinations, physical fitness or body
measurement (height, weight).

Measurement
Measurement can be quantitative, qualitative or both. It is
a score or data in numerical/grading values, indicating the
capacity or ability of an individual, which is obtained on
the basis of applied test. Students score in their test and
examination either on the field or in the classroom is called
measurement.

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 Measurement and Evaluation 289

Evaluation Activity 9.2

It is the process of interpreting the collected data to measure Make a list of Physical Fitness
and make the professional judgement of value or worth. Components and discuss it
After giving the test, everyone wants to know the feedback or with classmates.
effectiveness of the measures, which can be gathered through
evaluation. Evaluation may be formative or summative
evaluative process used three steps- process education,
objectives, learning experiences and change of behaviour.
These steps are performed in sequence.
Measurement and Evaluation programme is very useful
for teachers, students and parents in the field of health and
physical education, either to check academics as well as
the level of fitness. TME process is useful for achievement,
diagnosis, prescription, improvement, classification, grading,
motivational purpose and also helpful for the prediction of
performance.

Measurement and Evaluation of Selected

Physical Fitness Components
Here we will discuss about measurement and evaluation of
the major components of physical fitness:
(i) Muscular Strength: Push-ups, Abdominal Curls and
Squat Thrust
(ii) Muscular Endurance: 1000 meter run/walk test
(iii) Flexibility: Sit and Reach Test
(iv) Assessment of Body Mass Index (BMI)
(v) The Waist-Hip Ratio or Waist-to-Hip Ratio (WHR)

Muscular Strength
As discussed in the previous chapter, muscular strength
refers to the ability of the muscle or group of muscles of
an individual to overcome or to act against the resistance.
It largely depends upon a few things such as physiological
factors like cross-section of the muscle, ratio of slow and
fast twitch fibers in muscle, coordination between muscles
(agonist and antagonist), ATP and CP store, which plays an
important role in providing energy to the active muscle or
group of muscles. The psychic factors or the present state of
mind such as anger, aggression, motivation, emotional state,
etc., have positive as well as negative correlation in muscular
strength.
For measuring the strength of the muscle or group of
muscles, we must have the knowledge of muscles and also of
the particular exercise for particular muscle and supportive
muscles. For example, while performing the pull ups,

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an individual lifts his body, the deltoid, latissimus dorsi,

Activity 9.3
Discuss the types of tests to trapezius and biceps contract and produce power whereas
measure leg strength. the triceps stretch and play the supportive role.
Now if we want to measure the strength of upper limb
(arms), then pull-ups can be one of the test items, but if we
want to measure the strength of lower limbs (legs), then we
have to think of other exercises.
Muscular strength can be measured with the help of
one’s own body weight or with the help of equipment such
as dynamometer, tensiometer, weight plates and barbell, etc.

Tests related to Muscular Strength

There are different types of tests to measure muscular strength.

Push-up
The push-up or press up fitness test measures the upper
limb muscular strength and muscular endurance.
There are many variations of the push-up test, such
as different placement of the hands, how far to dip, the
duration of the test and the method of counting the number
of completed push-ups.

Fig. 9.1: Good push-ups (above), bad push-ups (below)

This helps in identifying and assessing muscular strength

and endurance of the upper body.
Depending on which protocol is to be used, you may need
a floor mat, metronome, beat drum, audio tape, clapping or
stopwatch.

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 Measurement and Evaluation 291

Procedure Activity 9.4

A standard push-up begins with the hands and toes touching •• Perform and count
the floor, the upper body and legs should be in a straight line, the push-ups with
feet slightly apart, the arms at shoulder width apart extended your classmates and
and at a right angle to the body. Push-ups can be started compare who can do
from a plank position. Align your body with your hands on more accurately.
the floor. Keeping the back and knees straight, lower the body •• Make a list of different
to a predetermined point, to touch some other object, or until type of tests to measure
there is a 90 degree angle at the elbows, then return back abdominal strength
and endurance.
to the starting position with the arms extended. This action
is repeated, and the test continues until the exhaustion or
until individual is unable to perform it in rhythm or have
reached the target number of push-ups. Body should be in
straight line from head to ankles.
As you are going down, elbows should come to 90 degrees.
Hold this position and go up, hold the upward position.
Scoring
Maximum number of correct push-ups done by the
participants at a specific given rate or time will be the score.

Abdominal Curl
Abdominal curl test helps to identify and assess muscular
strength and endurance of abdominal muscles. For this test,
floor mat and stopwatch are required.
Procedure
The individual has to lie in a supine position with flexed knees
and elbows. Fingers of both the hands are clubbed with each
other and are kept behind the head. Individual is asked to
raise his or her upper body and then come back to his initial
position repeatedly till the given set of time duration ends.
Score
Number of curl ups done by the participants at a specified
rate or in specific time will be their score.

Fig. 9.2: Abdominal curl test

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Squat thrust
This test enables an individual to identify and assess
muscular strength and endurance of the lower body.
Procedure
For this test, follow the given steps—
(a) Start from a standing position.
(b) Go down achieving low squat position and place both
palms on the floor.
(c) Take both legs back quickly as shown in the figure
and achieve plank position. Quickly come back to
the original standing position.
Score
Maximum number of successive squat thrusts performed by
an individual in 1 minute will be the score.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 9.3: Steps of squat thrust

Muscular Endurance
Muscular endurance is the ability of your muscles to perform
muscular activity over a period of time or it is the duration
upto which you can apply your muscular strength. Muscular
endurance is related with the time and duration of the activity.
Slow twitch fiber in muscles is responsible for the activities
of muscular endurance. Sometimes, the term stamina is also
used in place of endurance.

Tests related to Muscular Endurance

There are many tests to measure muscular endurance. 1000
metre run or walk test is the most common test, which is
discussed below.

1000 Metre Run or Walk Test

Through this test, one can identify and assess cardio-
vascular endurance.
For this test, one needs running track and a stopwatch.

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 Measurement and Evaluation 293

Procedure
Participants or students should start running from the
starting line on the command of teacher. They have to cover
the distance of 1000 metre in shortest possible time. Walking
is also allowed.
Scoring
The score of this test will be given on the basis of recorded
time to cover 1000 meters (in a minute and second).

Fig. 9.4: 1000 metre run or walk test

Flexibility
As discussed in the previous chapter, flexibility is the range
of motion around the various joints. Flexibility is the ability
of our joints and muscles to perform movements with greater
range. Good flexibility helps to execute the movement with
less muscle tension.

Test related to flexibility

Sit and Reach Test: Sit and reach test helps in the
measurement of flexibility of the lower back muscles and
hamstring muscle group. For this test, a sit and reach box,
and mat are required.
Procedure
The person is asked to sit in a long sitting position placing
both feet against the box with sole touching the box. The
knees should be straight, legs should be grounded and palm
facing downward on top of each other at same level above the
box (Fig. 9.5).
The person is asked to bend forward sliding the hand on
the scale without any jerky movement.
Scoring
Score is recorded in centimeters.

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 294 Health and Physical Education - XI

(1) Measure how far your (2) Stretch forward and

fingers are from the box measure again.

Fig. 9.5: Sit and reach test

Difference between measurements

Poor Fair Good Very Good Excellent
6 in 10 in 12 in 14 in 16 in
(15 cm) (25 cm) (30 cm) (35 cm) (40 cm)

Body Mass Index (BMI)

This assessment gives the information of an individual’s
level of obesity. BMI is calculated by dividing the weight of a
person by the square of his/her height.
Fig. 9.6: Measurement of body
weight
Measurement of Body Weight
Activity 9.5 It can be done with the help of a weighing machine.
If there is no Anthropometer
or Stadiometer, how can you Procedure
measure the height? Discuss it The individual is asked to stand on the weighing machine.
in class. The readings of the machine should be noted. While taking
the weight, the individual should wear minimum garments.
Reading of the weight should be noted down in Kilograms.

Measurement of Height
It can be done with the help of an Anthropometer or
Stadiometer.
Procedure
The subject is asked to stand straight against the wall, with
the back and head touching the wall, looking in forward
direction. The measuring bar of anthropometric rod should
be touched at the highest point of the subject’s head (vertex
point). The reading should be noted down in centimeters.
Weight in Kg
BMI Formula Calculator: 2
(Height in meters)

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 Measurement and Evaluation 295

BMI Calculation
Activity 9.6
BMI is a simple mathematical calculation which helps us to Check in which BMI category
find out if an individual is normal weighted, over weighted or do you fall. For reference check
obese. BMI is calculated by dividing the weight of an individual the textbook of Class IX.
by the square of the height which is expressed in kg/metre².
World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended norms
for categorising an individual as normal weighted, under
weighted or over weighted.
Table 1: BMI Calculation
Category BMI (kg/m2)

From To

Very severely underweight - 15

Severely underweight 15 16

Underweight 16 18.5

Normal (healthy weight) 18.5 24

Overweight 25.0 29.9

Obesity 30 and above

BMI for children aged between 2 to 20 years is calculated

in same way and with the same formula, but not judged on
the basis of norms mentioned in the above table. Whatever
the result comes after calculating the BMI is compared after
Fig. 9.7: Measurement of
preparing the percentile table of all the children falling under
body height
the same sex and age category.
Less then 5 percentile is under-weight, 5 to 85 percentile
is normal, 85 to 95 percentile is over-weight and above 95
percentile is obese.

Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR)

The waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) helps us to find out the fat
distribution by which we can help in evaluating the overall
health of an individual. One who carries more weight around
the middle than the hip may have higher risk of developing
several health issues.
This is the ratio of the circumference of the waist and the
circumference of the hip of an individual. This is calculated
by dividing waist measurement with the hip measurement
of an individual (W ÷ H). For example, if the measurement of
the persons waist and hip is 76 cm and 97 cm respectively
then his waist-hip ratio will be 0.78.
World Health Organisation (WHO) has recommended the
given norms for WHR:

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Men Women Health risk level

.95 or less .80 or less Low risk
.96 to 1.0 .81 to .85 Moderate risk
1.0 or higher .85 or higher High risk

Measurement procedure
While taking the measurement of an individual’s waist, he/
she should be asked to stand straight and breathe out.
Then place the tape around the waist just above his or her
belly button and take the measurement in centimetres. In the
same manner, place the tape around the hip of an individual,
where his or her hip is widest then take the measurement.

Somato Types (Endomorphy, Mesomorphy

and Ectomorphy)
In the 1940s, American Psychologist William Herbert Sheldon
developed a theory that there are three body types, or somato
types — Endomorph, Mesomorph and Ectomorph. The
names were given after the three germ layers of embryonic
development; the endoderm (develops into the digestive tract),
the mesoderm (becomes muscle, heart and blood vessels),
and the ectoderm (forms the skin and nervous system). Each
somato type has its own distinct physical characteristics and
supposedly distinet personality as well. The unique physical
characteristics of each body type are still widely used as an
important factor while designing workout routines for the
individual.

Endomorph Mesomorph Ectomorph

Fig. 9.8: Three body types

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 Measurement and Evaluation 297

1. Endomorph: An endomorphic individual typically

has short arms and legs and a large amount of mass
on their frame. Their mass hampers their ability to
compete in sports requiring high levels of agility or
speed and perform sustained weight bearing aerobic
activities such as running. Sports of pure strength,
like power lifting, are perfect for an endomorph. They
can gain weight easily and lose condition quickly if
the training stops. Such individuals have:
(i) a pear shaped body
(ii) a rounded head
(iii) wide hips and shoulders
(iv) wider front to back rather than side to side
(v) a lot of fat on the body, upper arms and thighs
(vi) Such individuals are good for sports such as
rugby where bulk is useful, provided it can be
moved powerfully. They tend to have large lung
capacity which can make them suited to sports
such as rowing. They can increase muscle mass
much more easily than ectomorphs.
2. Mesomorph: A mesomorphic individual excels in
strength, agility, and speed related games/sports.
Their medium structure and height, along with their
tendency to gain muscle and strength easily makes
them a strong candidate for a top athlete in any sport.
They can sustain low body fat levels and find it easy
to lose and gain weight. They have:
(i) a wedge shaped body
(ii) a cubical head
(iii) wide broad shoulders
(iv) muscled arms and legs
(v) narrow hips
(vi) narrow from front to back rather than side to side
(vii) minimum amount of fat
(viii) Such individuals have sport benefits. They can
respond well to cardiovascular and resistance
training and can sustain low body fat levels. All
the muscle groups can be used by them to derive
positive training adoption.
(ix) Depending on the sport’s needs, they can easily
gain or lose weight
3. Ectomorph: A predominantly ectomorphic individual
is long, slender and thin, and therefore power and

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strength sports are perhaps not suitable as they

are more susceptible to injuries. While they can
easily get lean and hard, their lack of musculature,
severely limits their chances in sports requiring
mass. Ectomorphs dominate endurance sports and
gymnastics. They can archive low levels of body fat
which can be detrimental to health and for females
in endurance sports, it can result in a cessation of
periods and iron deficiency. Such individuals have:
(i) a high forehead
(ii) receding chin
(iii) narrow shoulders and hips
(iv) a narrow chest and abdomen
(v) thin arms and legs
(vi) little muscle and fat
One can conclude that every individual should try
to find out by using these tests to see what types
of activities should be done to remain healthy
and fit.

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 Assessment
I. Long Answer Questions
1. List and explain the tests related to muscular strength.
2. List and explain the tests related to muscular endurance.
3. Write down the procedure of Abdominal Curl-up test.
4. Explain the waist-hip ratio in detail.
5. Explain the three somato types in detail.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. What is test?
2. What is measurement?
3. What is evaluation?
4. What is flexibility?
5. Write down two characteristics of each somato type.

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. _____________ is calculated by dividing weight by the square of
height.
2. _____________ is a tool.
3. Measurement can be ___________ or __________ both.
4. Two types of flexibility are ___________ flexibility and _________
flexibility.

IV. State whether True or False

1. BMI stands for body measurement index.
2. Flexibility is range of motion around the various joints.
3. Anthropometer or stadiometer is used for measuring weight.
4. The objective of squat thrust is to identify and assess muscular
strength and endurance of the lower body.
5. The objective of abdominal curl-up test is to identify and assess
the muscular strength and endurance of back muscles.
6. The objective of push-up test is to identify and assess muscular
strength and endurance of the upper body.

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 Tournaments
and
Competitions
10
You may have heard about tournaments that are organised
Activity 10.1
Collect information about the for different sports at different levels. Have you read or heard
types of tournaments played at about world cup tournaments for Cricket, Hockey, Football
school level in different games or Kabaddi? Such tournaments are also held at national and
and sports. state level and even at local level. You or your friends may
have participated in inter-school or other open tournaments
for Kabaddi, Kho-Kho, Football, Volleyball, Basketball and
Cricket organised at the zone, district or local levels.
A tournament is a competition held among different teams
in a particular game or sport according to a fixed schedule
where a winner is decided. Different types of tournaments
are — Knock-out or Elimination Tournament (Single Knock-
out or Single Elimination, Consolation Type I and Type II, C
Double Knock-out or Double Elimination), League or Round
Robin Tournament (Single League, and Double League),
Combination Tournament (Knock-out cum Knock-out,
Knock-out cum League, League cum Knock-out, League cum
League) and Challenge Tournament (Ladder, and Pyramid).
While deciding the type of tournament to be conducted,
the season, time of disposal, play fields and equipment, type
of activity, officials, and finance/budget must be taken into
consideration.
Different types of tournaments with their merits and
demerits, and the method of drawing fixtures have been
described in this chapter.

Knock out or Elimination Tournament

Single Knock out or Single Elimination
In single knock out tournament, the teams once defeated,
are eliminated and not given another chance to play.

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 Tournaments and Competitions 301

Total number of matches in the tournament = N – 1,

where N is the number of teams competing.
For example, if N = 13
Total number of matches = 13 –1 =12

Method of Drawing Fixtures

1. Drawing fixture for a certain number of teams competing
is decided by the power of two, viz. 2, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
… etc., i.e., 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, … respectively.
2. Suppose 16 teams have entered for a tournament,
there will be no byes i.e. 16 – 16 = 0.
3. If the number of teams participating is not a power of
2, the byes will be given to a specific number of teams
in the first round.
4. The number of ‘Byes’ to be given is decided by
subtracting the number of teams from its next
higher number which is the power of two. For
example, if 13 teams entered for a competition,
number of Byes = 16 – 13 = 3 and for 25 teams, number
of Byes = 32 – 25 = 7

Seeding
Single Knock out Fixture for 8 Teams
Round I I Rd.
RoundIIIIRd. Round III
III Rd.
1

2
Upper
Half
3

6
Lower
Half 7

N 8
Upper Half = = = 4 Teams
2 2
N 8
Lower Half = = = 4 Teams
2 2
No.
No. of
of matches
matches =
= N–1 = 8-1
N-1 = 8–1 == 77

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Single Knock out Fixture for 10 Teams

Round I Round II Round III

Single Knock out Fixture for 11 Teams

Round I Round II Round III Round IV

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Procedure of giving byes Activity 10.2

Ist Bye — Bottom of the lower half •• Draw a fixture of nine
IInd Bye — Top of the upper half teams for a Single
IIIrd Bye — Top of the bottom half Knock-out tourament
IVth Bye — Bottom of the upper half and show it to your
teacher.
This process continues in case the number of byes are more
•• Collect information
than four. about the rules and
A knock-out fixture is usually drawn by lots and if it is drawn regulations for drawing
purely on the basis of lots without considering the standards fixtures in Inter School
of the teams, strong teams may meet each other in the earlier Competitions.
rounds, hence allowing the weaker teams reaching upto
semifinals resulting in unfair and uninteresting competition.
To avoid this, seeding is done. Seeding is sorting of strong
teams and fitting them into the fixtures so that these teams
do not meet in the earlier rounds.
If there is no marked difference in the standard of the
seeded teams, then these teams are distributed in the fixture
by lots among them.
Table 1: Number of Teams in each Quarter

Dividend No. of teams in each quarter

Remainder
and Divisor I II III IV
N÷4 0 Q Q Q Q
N÷4 1 Q+1 Q Q Q
N÷4 2 Q+1 Q Q+1 Q
N÷4 3 Q+1 Q+1 Q+1 Q
(N = No. of Teams, Q = Quotient)

No. of Teams/entries 5 to 8
= 2×2×2 = 23

= 3 Rounds
No. of Teams/entries 9 to 16
= 2×2×2×2 = 24

= 4 Rounds
No. of Teams/entries 17 to 32
= 2×2×2×2×2 = 25
= 5 Rounds
No. of Teams/entries 33 to 64
= 2×2×2×2×2×2 = 26

= 6 Rounds
No. of Teams/entries 65 to 129
= 2×2×2×2×2×2×2 = 27
= 7 Rounds

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Merits and Demerits of Single Knock out or Elimination

Tournament

Merits
(i) Tournament finishes in a short time.
(ii) There will be economy of expenditure.
(iii) The competition will be keen and intense due to the
fear of elimination of a team from the tournament,
when defeated.
Demerits
(i) A team may be eliminated by chance and will not get
another chance to play.
(ii) If the fixture is drawn purely by lots, there is a
possibility of matches between strong teams in the
earlier rounds, which would get eliminated, thus
weaker teams reaching Semifinals or the Finals.
(iii) Winner of a match/round may have to wait for the
winner of another match to play the next round.
Special Seeding
When some top ranking players or teams participate in
a tournament, the fixtures are generally drawn in such a
manner that these players or teams play directly at Quarter
Finals or Semifinals stage.
A fixture of 24 teams participating in a tournament
including 4 teams, i.e., 1, 12, 13 and 24, are given special
seeding direct at the Quarter Finals stage.
For deciding the number of byes for the fixture of
special seeding, first subtract the number of teams that are
given special seeding (4) from the total number of teams
participating (24), i.e., 24 – 4 = 20.
Now, Number of Byes = 32 – 20 = 12 Byes.

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Single Knock out Fixture for 24 Teams

(Special Seeding 4 teams)
I Rd. II Rd.III Rd. IV Rd. V Rd. VI Rd.
Rd. I Rd. II Rd. III Rd. IV Rd. V Rd. VI
1 Seeded 2

2 Bye
Activity 10.3
I Quarter

3 Prepare a Single Knock out

Fixture for 47 teams with
4 specially seeding four teams
directly into Quarter Finals.
5 Bye
Upper Half

6 Bye

7 Bye

8
II Quarter

10 Bye

11 Bye

12 Seeded 4

13 Seeded 3

14 Bye
III Quarter

15

16

17 Bye
Lower Half

18 Bye

19 Bye

20
IV Quarter

21

22 Bye

23 Bye

24 Seeded 1

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Consolation Tournament
In single knock out or elimination tournament, a team may
be eliminated by chance and will not have another chance to
play. To avoid this, consolation tournaments are advocated.
Consolation indicates that defeated teams would play again
to show their worth and win subsidiary honours. Greater
number of matches are possible in this tournament, and
hence it’s superior to single knock out tournament.
Consolation tournament is of two types—
•• I Type of Consolation Tournament
•• II Type of Consolation Tournament

I Type of Consolation Tournament

1. Each team will have a chance to play atleast twice.
2. Teams first play a regular knock out tournament.
3. Teams that are eliminated in the first match in the
regular round will play among themselves in the
consolation round for subsidiary honours.
Fixture for 13 teams
I Rd.
Regular
II Rd.
RoundIV Rd.
III Rd.
Round I Round II Round III Round IV
1 1
2
2
2
3 3
4
4
Losers in their Match

2
5 5
6
6 6

7 7 Bye 7
2 Winner
8
8
9 9
8
10 10 Bye 10
13
11 11
12
12
13
13 Bye 13

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Consolation Round (for losers)

Round I
I Rd. Round
II Rd. II III Round
Rd. III
5
3
3
3
1
10
10
11
9
9
7 11
11 Bye 11

II Type of Consolation Tournament

In II type of consolation tournament, every loser of the regular
round will have a chance to play in the consolation round to
win subsidiary honours.
Method 1
Fixture for 16 teams (without byes)
I Rd. II Rd. III Rd.Regular
IV Rd. round
Round I Round II Round III Round IV
1
2
2
2
3
4
4
2
5
6
6
8
7
8
8
2 RW
9
10
10
10
11
12
12
10
13
14
14
16
15
16
16

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LOSERS
Round I Round II Round III Round IV
1 4 8 10
3 6 16
5 12
7 14
9
11
13
15
Consolation Round
1
3 14 14
3
5 8 8
5
5 12 5
7
8 10 10 CW
9
9 6 6
11
13 16 13
13
13 4 13
15
RW — Regular Winner CW — Consolation Winner

Fixture of 11 teams (with byes)

Regular Round
I Rd. II Rd. III Rd. IV Rd.
Round I Round II Round III Round IV
1
1
2
3
3 Bye 3

4 3
4
5 6
6 Bye 6
9 RW
7
7
8
9
9 Bye
9
10 Bye
11
11 Bye 9

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LOSERS
Round I Round II Round III Round IV
2 1 6 3
5 4 11
8 7
10
Consolation Round
2
2
10
2 6
6
5
Upper 5
Half 1
7 3 3 CW
Lower 8
4
Half 4 7
7 11
7 Bye 7
From the two methods of drawing fixtures for the II type of
consolation tournaments, the first method is recommended.
Total number of matches to be played in consolation type
II = 2 N – 3, where N is the number of participating teams.

Double Knock out or Double Elimination Tournament

•• A team must be defeated twice to be eliminated.
•• Tournament is continued until all the teams are
defeated twice except one team.
•• It is superior to single knock-out and consolation
tournament because it decides the true winners.
•• Double elimination is an extension of consolation type II.
•• Regular winner plays with the consolation winner to
decide the champion.
•• Total number of matches in this tournament shall be
(2n – 2) or (2n – 1).
Fixture for 10 Teams (consolation round)
10 RW
2
2 10 Champion
4 2 3 3

7 Bye 7 1 5 5
1
1
8 1 6 1

9 Bye 9

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Fixture for 10 Teams (Regular Round)

Round I
I Rd. IIRound
Rd. II III Rd.
RoundIVIII
Rd. Round IV
1 Bye 1
2 3
3
3 5
4 Bye 4 5
5 Bye 5
10 (RW)
6
6
7
6
8 Bye 8
10
9 Bye 9 10
10 Bye 10

(If number 5 wins instead of number 10, then they will

have to play again to decide the champion because both the
numbers 5 and 10 have been defeated only once.)

Bagnall-wild Elimination Tournament

This tournament can truly decide the first three places.

Fixture for 12 Teams (regular round)

1 Bye 1
2 1
3
3
1
4
5
5 5
6 Bye 6
1 I Place
7 Bye 7
8 7
9
9 7
10
10
11 10
12 Bye 12

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Fixture for 12 Teams (consolation round)

3
5 7 7 II Place
5

9
9 5 5 III Place
10
In the above fixture of 12 teams, the first 3 places are
decided as follows—
First place: Winners of the regular knock out tournament
gets first place.
Second place: All the teams defeated by first place winner
except the defeated finalist play among themselves on knock
out basis and their winner plays with the defeated finalist.
The winner of this match gets second place.
Third place: All the teams defeated by the runner ups of
the regular tournament play among themselves on knock out
basis and the winner plays with the loser of the final round
for second place. The winner of this match gets third place.
Note: If number 5 gets second place instead of number 7.
Third place will automatically be accorded to number 7
(without any further matches).

League or Round Robin Tournament

(a) Single League: In Single League tournaments, each
team play once with every other team.
N(N 1)
Total no. of Matches in Single League = , here
2
N is number of teams.
For example, if 7 teams are competing, the total
7(7 1)
number of matches will be = = 21
2
Merits
(i) It decides the true winner.
(ii) Teams play more number of matches.
(iii) It helps in ranking the participating teams.
(iv) The teams need not wait for the completion of other
matches or rounds.

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Demerits
(i) It requires a lot of time and facilities.
(ii) Teams that get defeated often will lose interest in the
game.
b. Double League: In double league, every team plays
twice with every other team.
Total number of matches in Double League = N (N – 1),
where N is the number of teams participating in a
tournament.
Method of Drawing Fixture for Single League
Cyclic Method
Fixture of 5 teams
N(N 1) 5(5 1)
No. of Matches = = = 10
2 2

Rd. I
I Rd. Rd. II
II Rd. Rd.Rd.
III III Rd.Rd.
IV IV Rd. V
V Rd.
5 Bye 4 Bye 3 Bye 2 Bye 1 Bye
4 1 3 5 2 4 1 3 5 2
3 2 2 1 1 5 5 4 4 3

Fixture of 6 teams
Rd. I
I Rd. Rd.
II II
Rd. Rd.
III III
Rd. Rd.
IV IV
Rd. VRd.
Rd.V
6 1 5 1 4 1 3 1 2 1
5 2 4 6 3 5 2 4 6 3
4 3 3 2 2 6 6 5 5 4

For drawing fixture by Cyclic Method, fix number. 1 in case

of even number of teams and fix Bye in case of odd number
of teams and rotate the other numbers clockwise as shown
in the above fixture.
Total number of rounds for even number of teams = N – 1
rounds
Total number of rounds for odd number of teams = N
rounds,
where N is the number of teams
Tabular Method
In this method, the fixtures are drawn in a tabular form.
The numbers of columns to be drawn horizontally as well as
vertically are—
a) For even number of teams, N+1 columns
b) For odd number of teams, N+2 columns

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Procedure for entering the numbers inside the squares

indicating the rounds—
(i) In the squares of the horizontal columns immediately
below the teams, enter the numbers serially from
number 1 onwards.
(ii) In each vertical column except the last one, enter the
numbers serially starting from the number next to
that round at the teams.
Fixture of 8 teams

A B C D E F G H

A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

B 3 4 5 6 7 2

C 5 6 7 1 4

D 7 1 2 6

E 2 3 1

F 4 3

G 5

N(N 1) 8(8 1)
No. of Matches = = = 28
2 2

Rd. I Rd. II Rd. III Rd. IV Rd. V Rd. VI Rd. VII

AB AC AD AE AF AG AH
DF BH BC BD BE BF BG
CG DG EG CH CD CE CF
EH EF FH FG GH DH DE
(iii) Note the number entered in the top square of the
last vertical column. In the next square, enter 2.
Then precede entering numbers in the other squares
every time adding 2, i.e., 4, 6, etc., until the number
becomes 1 less than the number at the top-most
square.
(iv) After this, enter number 1, 3, 5, etc., i.e., by 2 every
time until the bottom-most square is filled up.
(v) The number of bottom-most square will be 2 less than
the number of the top-most square.

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Fixture of 7 teams

A B C D E F G Bye

A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

B 3 4 5 6 7 2

C 5 6 7 1 4
Activity 10.4
•• Prepare a fixture for D 7 1 2 6
Classes VI to IX for
Single League Inter E 2 3 1
Class tournament and
show it to your teacher. F 4 3
•• Collect information G 5
about a game played
on Single League basis. Bye
Also try to understand
the rules to decide the
winner and discuss it N(N 1) 7(7 1)
No. of Matches = = = 21
without your teacher. 2 2

Rd. I Rd. II Rd. III Rd. IV Rd. V Rd. VI Rd. VII

AB AC AD AE AF AG DE
CG DG BC BD BE BF BG
DF EF EG FG CD CE CF
E Bye B Bye F Bye C Bye G Bye D Bye A Bye
Staircase Method
Fixture of 7 teams by staircase method

1 — 2
1 — 3 2 — 3
1 — 4 2 — 4 3 — 4
1 — 5 2 — 5 3 — 5 4—5
1 — 6 2 — 6 3 — 6 4—6 5—6
1 — 7 2 — 7 3 — 7 4—7 5—7 6—7
Drawbacks of staircase method
(i) It does not indicate the number of rounds to be played.
(ii) It is not easy to fix the matches of rounds.
Method of deciding winners in league tournaments
The winners in league tournaments are generally decided on
the basis of points scored by the respective teams.

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 Tournaments and Competitions 315

Generally, points awarded are:

Win = 2 points
Loss = 0 points
Draw = 1 points to each team
Team getting maximum number of points is declared the
winner.
In case of a tie between two or more number of teams,
the ranking is established according to rules and regulations
of the International/National Federation of that game
or as decided by the Tournament Authorities prior to the
commencement of the tournament.

Combination Tournament
•• Combination tournaments are usually conducted
whenever the matches are to be played on group basis
or zonal basis.
•• Combination tournaments are highly recommended
for conducting Inter-School tournaments in a district,
state or zone to save time and money.
a. Knock-out cum Knock-out
(Four zones or Groups A, B, C, D)
Zonal or Group Knock out
1
2
A Winner of Zone A
3
4

1
2
B Winner of Zone B
3
4

1
2
C Winner of Zone C
3
4

1
2
D Winner of Zone D
3
4

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Inter Zonal or Group Knock out

Winner of A

Winner of B
Winner of D
Winner of C

Winner of D

b. Knock-out cum League

(Four zones or Groups A, B, C, D)
Zonal or Group Knock out
1
2
A Winner of Zone A
3
4

1
2
B Winner of Zone B
3
4

1
2
C Winner of Zone C
3
4

1
2
D Winner of Zone D
3
4

Inter Zonal or Inter Group League

AB
AC BC
AD BD CD
c. League-cum-League
(For Zones or Groups A, B, C, D)

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 Tournaments and Competitions 317

Zonal or Group League

1—2
A 1—3 2—3 Winner of Zone A
1—4 2—4 3—4

1—2
B 1—3 2—3 Winner of Zone B
1—4 2—4 3—4

1—2
C 1—3 2—3 Winner of Zone C
1—4 2—4 3—4

1—2
D 1—3 2—3 Winner of Zone D
1—4 2—4 3—4

Inter Zonal or Inter Group League

A—B
A — C B—C
A — D B — D C—D
d. League-cum-Knock-out
(For Zones or Groups A, B, C, D)
Zonal or Group League
1—2
A 1—3 2—3 Winner of Zone A
1—4 2—4 3—4

1—2
B 1—3 2—3 Winner of Zone B
1—4 2—4 3—4

1—2
C 1—3 2—3 Winner of Zone C
1—4 2—4 3—4

1—2
D 1—3 2—3 Winner of Zone D
1—4 2—4 3—4

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Inter Zonal or Inter Group Knock out

Winner of A

Winner of B
Champion
Winner of C

Winner of D

Challenge Tournaments
•• Challenge tournaments are usually conducted for
games like Badminton, Table Tennis, Squash, etc.
•• Challenge tournaments can be carried out during any
specified period of time without any fixed schedule.
•• This tournament helps in selecting the best players in
individual or dual games.
Two common types of challenge tournaments are:
(a) Ladder Tournament
(b) Pyramid Tournament
Ladder Tournament
Before starting the ladder tournament, the players shall be
arranged in a ladder arbitrarily. Certain rules are followed in
the conduct of the tournaments.
1. The period within which the tournament is to be
finished is specified.
2. A player can challenge only the player immediately
X above him. For example, N can challenge any one of
the two or three players above him.
Z
3. Challenge must be accepted and played only in the
C order they are made.
B 4. The time to play the accepted challenge should be
specified.
A 5. After the challenge match, if the challenger has
M defeated the player he challenged, the challenger
is placed above the loser in the ladder. If not, their
N original position remains in the ladder.
R 6. The players who have already played a challenge shall
not be allowed to play or challenge again.
S 7. No excuse after the challenge for a failure is accepted.
Z 8. At the end of the specified period of the tournament,
the player remaining on the top of the ladder is
declared the winner or the best.

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Pyramid Tournament
1. Pyramid tournament is a modified form of ladder
tournament.
2. Players are arranged in the form of a pyramid
arbitrarily.
3. Players of a particular rank can challenge any one
of the players in the rank immediately above him
provided he has challenged the players of his own
rank and won. For example, H in rank 4 can challenge
C or M or L in rank 3 only after he has challenged and
won against K or F or S in his own rank.

1 A

2 DG

3
CML

4 HKFS

Competitions
Participation in international sports competitions like
Olympic Games, Asian Games and Commonwealth Games
help people to know each other and provide opportunities to
the participants to see others. It promotes friendship among
people of all the continents.

Importance of sports participation in international

competitions
1. Participation in sports develops unity of mind and
body by which optimum health is achieved.
2. It helps in promoting social peace and justice.
3. It helps in promoting social democracy.
4. It helps in breaking the barriers between social classes
and nations.
There are different types of competitions being organised
at International, National, State or Zone and University
levels. These competitions are being discussed here.

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Ancient Olympic Games

First Ancient Olympic Games were held in 776 B.C. These
games were regularly held once in four years. A sequence
of 293 Olympics was terminated in 394 A.D. by the Roman
Emperor Theodosius.

Modern or Summer Olympic Games

Baron Pierre de Coubertin was the founder of the Modern
Olympic Games. Modern Olympic Games are also held once
in four years and were first held in Athens (Greece) in 1896.
But during the two world wars, the Olympic Games (i.e.,
VIth, XIIth and XIIIth Olympiads respectively in the year
1916,1940 and 1944) were not held.
International Olympic Committee is the supreme
controlling body of the Modern Olympic Games which was
formed in Paris on 25th June 1894 with its headquarter in
Lausanne (Switzerland). IOC is a permanent and self-elected
body, which has at least one member from each country that
has National Olympic Committee. From India, Sir Dorabji
Jamshedji Tata, G.D. Sondhi and Raja Bhalindera Singh had
the honour of being members of IOC.
India first participated in the Olympic Games in 1900
with Norman Pitchard winning two Silver Medals in 200
m and 200 m hurdles. Indian Men’s Hockey team has won
8 gold medals (six successive gold from 1928–1956, 1964
and 1980), 1 silver medal (1960 Rome Olympic games) and
2 bronze medals (1968, Mexico and 1972, Munich Olympic
games).
In 1952 Helsinki (Finland) Olympic Games, Khashaba
Jadhav won bronze medal in Men’s Freestyle Bantamweight
category in Wrestling. In 1996 Atlanta (USA) Olympic Games,
Leander Paes won bronze medal in Men’s Singles event in
tennis.
In 2000 Sydney (Australia) Olympic Games, Karnam
Malleswari won bronze medal in Women’s Weightlifting 69
kg weight category. In 2004 Athens (Greece) Olympic Games,
Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore won Silver medal in men’s
double trap in Shooting. In 2008 Beijing (China) Olympics,
India won 1 gold medal (Abhinav Bindra in Men’s 10 m
Air Rifle Shooting) and 2 bronze (Vijender Singh in Middle
weight, 75 kg category in Boxing and Sushil Kumar in Men’s
freestyle, 66 kg category in Wrestling).
In 2012 London (Britain) Olympic Games, India won 2
silver medals (Vijay Kumar in Men’s 25 m rapid fire pistol
in Shooting and Sushil Kumar in Men’s freestyle 66 kg weight
category in Wrestling) and 4 bronze medals (Gagan Narang

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 Tournaments and Competitions 321

in Men’s 10 m Air Rifle Shooting, Saina Nehwal in Women’s

Activity 10.5
Singles in Badminton, Mary Kom in Women’s Flyweight category Collect photographs of Summer
in Boxing and Yogeshwar Dutt in Men’s Freestyle 60 kg weight and Paralympic medal winners
category in Wrestling). In 2016 Reo de Janeiro (Brazil), India of India. Prepare a collage with
won 1 silver medal (Pusarla Venkata Sindhu in Women’s Singles caption. Share it with your
event in Badminton) and 1 bronze medal (Sakshi Malik in classmates.
Women’s freestyle 58 kg in Wrestling). In 2020, Olympic Games
will be held at Tokyo (Japan), 2024 Games at Paris (France) and
2028 Games will be held at Los Angeles (USA).

Winter Olympic Games

The Winter Olympic Games started in Chamonix (France)
in 1924. Winter sports like Figure Skating, Ice Hockey, Ski
Jumping, Speed Skating, Alpine Skiing, Freestyle Skating are
included in Winter Olympic Games. In 2018, Winter Olympic
Games were held at Pyeongchang (Korea) and 2022 Winter
Olympic Games will be held at Beijing (China).

Paralympic Games
Paralympic Games are the international competitions specially
organised for para atheletes. In other words, we can say that
“These are the special Olympic Games organised for para
athletes. Paralympic Games started in Rome (Italy) in 1960.
In Paralympic sports, athletes who participate are grouped
into different categories, based on their type of disability such
as Physical Impairment, Visual Impairment and Intellectual
Disability. In 2016 Paralympic Games in Reo de Janeiro (Brazil),
India won 2 gold medals (Mariyappan Thangavelu in Men’s
High Jump and Devendra Jhajharia in Men’s Javelin), 1 silver
medal (Deepa Malik in Women’s Shot Put) and 1 bronze medal
(Varun Singh Bhati in Men’s High Jump). The International
Paralympic Committee (IPC) is the global governing body of the
paralympic movement. Its purpose is to organise the summer
and winter Paralympic Games and act as the International
Federation for ten sports, supervising and coordinating World
Championships and other competitions.”
Founded on 22 September, 1989 as a non-profit
organisation, it is based in Bonn, Germany and aims to develop
sports opportunities for all the people with impairment from
the beginner to elite level.
Till 2016, the Summer Paralympic Games included 22
sports and 526 medal events, and the Winter Paralympic
Games included 5 sports and disciplines and about 72
events. The number and types of events change from one
Paralympic Game to another.

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Commonwealth Games
Melville Marks Robinson was the founder of the
Commonwealth games. The First Commonwealth games
were held in 1930 in Hamilton (Canada). Since then, the
Commonwealth Games have been conducted every four
years except for 1942 and 1946 due to World War II. From
1930 to 1950, the games were known as the British Empire
Games. From 1954 to 1966, the games were called the British
Empire and Commonwealth Games and from 1970 to 1974,
the games were termed as the British Commonwealth Games.
It was from 1978 Edmonton (Canada) Games onwards, these
are known as the Commonwealth Games.
India’s Performance in Commonwealth Games
Medals
Year Edition Venue Rank
Gold Silver Bronze Total

Gold Coast
2018 XXI 26 20 20 66 3rd
(Australia)

Glasgow
2014 XX 15 30 19 64 4th
(Scotland)
Delhi
2010 XIX 38 27 36 101 3rd
(India)

Melbourne
2006 XVIII 22 17 11 50 4th
(Australia)
Manchester
2002 XVII 30 22 17 69 4th
(England)
Kuala
1998 XVI Lumpur 7 10 8 25 7th
(Malaysia)
Victoria
1994 XV 6 11 7 24 6th
(Canada)
Auckland
1990 XIV (New 13 8 11 32 5th
Zealand)
Edinburgh
1986 XIII Did not participate
(Scotland)
Brisbane
1982 XII 5 8 3 16 6th
(Australia)
Edmonton
1978 XI 5 5 5 15 6th
(Canada)
Christchurch
1974 X (New 4 8 3 15 6th
Zealand)

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 Tournaments and Competitions 323

Edinburgh
1970 IX 5 3 4 12 6th
(Scotland)
Kingston
1966 VIII 3 4 3 10 8th
(Jamaica)
Perth
1962 VI Did not participate
(Australia)
Cardiff
1958 VI 2 1 0 3 8th
(Wales)
Vancouver
1954 V 0 0 0 - -
(Canada)
Auckland
1950 IV (New Did not participate
Zealand)
1946
Not held due to World War II
1942
Sydney
1938 III 0 0 0 - -
(Australia)
London
1934 II 0 0 1 1 12th
(England)
Hamilton
1930 I Did not participate
(Canada)

Asian Games
The inaugural Asian Games were held in New Delhi, India
in 1951. The Asian Games, also known as Asiad are held
every four years. 2018 Asian Games were held at Palembang,
Jakarta (Indonesia). 2022 Asian Games will be conducted in
Hangzhou (China).
India’s Performance in Asian Games

Medals
Year Edition Venue Rank
Gold Silver Bronze Total
Palembang,
2018 XVIII Jakarta 15 24 30 69 8th
(Indonesia)
Incheon
2014 XVII 11 9 37 57 8th
(Korea)
Guangzhou
2010 XVI 14 17 34 65 6th
(China)
Doha
2006 XV 10 17 26 53 8th
(Qatar)
Busan
2002 XIV 11 12 14 37 7th
(South Korea)

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 324 Health and Physical Education - XI

Bangkok
1998 XIII 7 11 17 35 9th
(Thailand)
Hiroshima
1994 XII 4 3 16 23 8th
(Japan)
Beijing
1990 XI 1 8 14 23 11th
(China)
Seoul
1986 X (South 5 9 23 37 5th
Korea)
New Delhi
1982 IX 13 19 25 57 5th
(India)
Bangkok
1978 VIII 11 10 7 28 6th
(Thailand)
Tehran
1974 VII 4 12 11 27 7th
(Iran)
Bangkok
1970 VI 6 9 10 25 5th
(Thailand)
Bangkok
1966 V 7 3 11 21 5th
(Thailand)
Jakarta
1962 IV 10 9 11 30 3rd
(Indonesia)
Tokyo
1958 III 5 4 5 14 7th
(Japan)

Manila
1954 II 5 4 8 17 5th
(Philippines)

New Delhi
1951 I 17 17 18 52 2nd
(India)

National Games
Early National Games termed as Indian Olympic Games
started in 1924 at Lahore. The games were held every two
years. Indian Olympic Games were renamed as National
Games from the IX Games in Bombay in 1940. National Games
on the lines of the Olympic Games started in 1985 in Delhi.
Last National Games were held at Thiruvananthapuram
(Kerala) in 2015.

National Championships
National Sports Associations and Federations conduct the
National Championships in their game or sport every year.
National Federations conduct National Championships
in Mini, Sub Junior, Junior, Youth, Senior and Veteran
categories in boys/men as well as girls/women section.

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 Tournaments and Competitions 325

National Championships in different individual games like

Badminton, Table Tennis, etc., are conducted for individual
events as well as team events. In games like Wrestling, Judo,
etc., National Championships are conducted in different
weight categories by the concerned National Associations or
Federations.

Inter University Tournaments

Inter University Tournaments in India started in 1941.
Sports Department of Indian Universities allocates the
tournaments to different universities for organising inter-
university tournaments in different games and sports for
participation of University students. The tournaments are
organised annually on all India basis/4 zone basis and played
on Knock-out/League/League cum Knock-out basis. Only
member universities/institutes of the association are eligible
to enter their teams to participate in the Inter University
tournaments, with only one team from each university.

SGFI Games
School Games Federation of India (SGFI) is a voluntary
organisation which was formed in December, 1954 to
promote games and sports for boys and girls at National
and International level. Different States and affiliated units
participate in National School Games organised every year.
It conducts competitions at National level for various games
and sports like Athletics, Badminton, Football, Wrestling,
Kabaddi, Table Tennis, etc. Competitions are organised for
different age groups i.e. (U-14, U-17 and U-19). Only school
boys and girls below 19 years can participate in these games.

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 Assessment
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Draw a fixture for Single Knock-out Tournament with 11
teams.
2. Draw a fixture of 5 teams for Single League Tournament using
Tabular Method.
3. Draw a fixture of Single League Tournament with 7 teams
using Cyclic Method.
4. Write the merits and demerits of Single League Tournament.
5. Draw a fixture for Single League Tournament with 6 teams
using Staircase Method.
6. List and explain different types of competitions that are being
organised at International level.
7. List and explain different types of competitions that are being
organised in India.
8. Explain in detail about the Olympic and Paralympic Games.

II. Short Answer Questions

1. What is a tournament?
2. List different types of tournaments.
3. What is the full form of the SGFI Games?
4. What were the early National Games called?
5. Where were the inaugural Asian Games held?
6. Who was the founder of Commonwealth Games?
7. Where and when were the Winter Olympic Games started?
8. Who was the founder of Modern Olympic Games?
9. When were the first Ancient Olympic Games held?

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. Knock-out tournament is also termed as _____________.
2. In Single Knock-out tournament, total number of matches
with 16 teams will be _____________.
3. Staircase Method is a type of _____________ tournament.
4. Number of byes in Single Elimination Tournament with 29
teams will be _____________.
5. No. of byes in a Single Knock-out Tournament for 51 teams
with special seeding for 4 teams will be _____________.
6. Olympic Games were started in_________________.
7. Paralympic Games were started in________________.
8. Commonwealth games were founded by _____________________.

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 Tournaments and Competitions 327

9. National games in India are held at an interval of _____________

years.
10. School games in India are organised by ____________________ .

IV. State whether True or False

1. There will be no byes in a Single Knock-out tournament having
32 teams.
2. League tournament is also termed as Round Robin Tournament.

3. Total number of matches in a Single League Tournament with
6 teams will be 15.
4. Number of matches in the first round in a Single Knock-out
Tournament with 27 teams will be 12.
5. Total number of matches in Double League Tournament with 7
teams will be 21.
6. School games in India are organised by SGFI.
7. Abhinav Bindra won gold medal in Shooting in 2016 Reo de
Janeiro (Brazil) Olympic Games.
8. Sakshi Malik won Olympic medal in Wrestling.
9. Devendra Jhajharia won medal in Paralympic Games, Reo de
Janeiro (Brazil), in Javelin event.

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 Adventure Sports
11
Adventure sports are extraordinary activities performed by
individuals who are in search of excitement, extra enthusiasm
and have the desire to explore nature. These sports are
invented out of adventurous interest of individuals who want
to explore nature out of curiosity. During the exploration,
different types of adventure sports were discovered, such as,
rafting, surfing, mountaineering, trekking, etc. Participation
in such sports also helps to fulfil the purpose of satisfying
robust human behaviour. These sports are classified as—
1. Adventure water sports
2. Adventure land sports
3. Adventure air sports
Further, the adventure sports in all three categories
are also divided separately for water (rafting, surfing, etc.),
land (mountaineering, trekking, etc.) and air (paragliding,
jumping, etc.). The camping has already been discussed in
the Class IX book. Here, in this chapter, paragliding and
surfing are explained for understanding as these are most
exciting and classical adventure sports.

Fig. 11.1: Paragliding

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 Adventure Sports 329

Paragliding
Paragliding is the recreational and competitive adventure
sport for flying paragliders. Paragliding is engine less or
motor free sport and practised by the adventurous people.
This type of sports need courage and need to be decisive.

Historical Development of Paragliding

Domina C. Jalbert, in 1954, invented advanced governable
gliding parachutes with multi-cells and controls for lateral
glide.
In one of the articles, in Flight magazine, Walter Neumark
predicted that a glider pilot would be able to launch himself
by running over the edge of a cliff or down a slope. French
engineer Pierre Lemoigne produced improved parachute
designs that led to the Para-commander.
David Barish, during 1965, developed the ‘sail wing’
that was used to sail slope-soaring as a summer activity for
ski resorts.
In the year 1985, Canadian authors Patrick Gilligan and
Bertrand Dubois from Switzerland, wrote the first flight
manual with the title ‘The Paragliding Manual’, officially
coining the word ‘Paragliding’.

Classification of Paragliding
Paragliding is classified as—
1. Light-weight gliding
2. Free flying glider
3. Foot-launched glider: Foot launched glider is like an
aircraft with no rigid primary structure.

Sitting Position
The paraglider (pilot) sits in a harness, suspended below a
fabric wing comprising a large number of interconnected
baffled cells. Wing shape is maintained by the suspension
lines. Despite not using an engine, paragliders, flight can last
many hours and cover hundreds of kilometers. Though, the
norms for flight of one to two hours that covers around some
tens of kilometers are considered valid for gliding purposes.
By skillful exploitation of sources on lift, the pilot may gain
height, often climbing to altitudes of a few thousand meters.

First World Championship 1989

The first official Paragliding World Championship was held
in Austria, in 1989.

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 330 Health and Physical Education - XI

Strength of Paraglider Structure

Do You Know?
Canadian Domina Jalbert Paraglider lines are usually made from spectra that are
invented and patented (in 1963) immensely strong. For example, a single 0.66 mm diameter
parafoil in an aerofoil shape; line (about the thinnest used) can have a breaking strength
an open leading edge and a of 56 kg. Paraglider wings typically have an area of 20–35
closed trailing edge, inflated by square meters (220–380 sq ft) with a span of 8–12 meters
passage through the air. (26–39 ft) and weigh 3–7 kilograms (6.6–15.4 lb). Combined
weight of wing, harness, reserve, instruments, helmet, etc.,
weigh around 12–22 kilograms (26–49 lb).

Speed of Paragliders
The speed range of paragliders is typically 20–75 kilometres
per hour (12–47 mph).

Carrying Capacity and Storage of Paragliders

For storage and carrying, the wing is usually folded into a
stuff-sack (bag), which can then be stowed in a large back-
pack along with the harness. The complete equipment packs
into a rucksack that can be carried easily on the pilot’s back,
in a car, or on public transport.

Instruments
Instruments used in paragliding are—
1. Variometer: The main purpose of a variometer is to
help a pilot find and stay in the ‘core’ of a thermal
to maximise height gain and, conversely, to indicate
when a pilot is in sinking air and needs to find rising
air. A variometer also indicates the climb rate or sink-
rate with short audio signals (beeps, which increase
in pitch and tempo during ascent, and a droning
sound, which gets deeper as the rate of descent
increases) or a visual display. It also shows altitude
— either above takeoff, above sea level or flight level at
higher altitudes.
2. Radio: Radio communications are used in training
to communicate with other pilots, or to report where
and when they intend to land. These radios normally
operate on a range of frequencies in different
locations. In rare cases, pilots use radios to talk
to airport control towers or air traffic controllers.
Many pilots carry a cell phone so they can call for
pickup if they land away from their intended point of
destination.
3. GPS (Global Positioning System): GPS is a necessary
accessory while flying in competitions. The recorded

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 Adventure Sports 331

GPS track of a flight can be used to analyse the flying

technique or can be shared with other pilots. GPS
is also used to determine drift due to the prevailing
wind when flying at altitude, providing position
information to allow restricted airspace to be avoided
and identifying one’s location to aid the retrieval
teams after landing out in unfamiliar territory.

Flying Techniques
There are different ways of flying as with all the aircrafts,
launching and landing are done into wind. Paragliders, like
hang gliders do not ‘jump’ at any time. There is one assisted
launch technique used in flatland areas and two launching
techniques used on the higher ground.
1. Forward launch: In low winds, the wing is inflated with
a forward launch, where the pilot runs forward with
the wing behind so that the air pressure generated by
the forward movement inflates the wing.
2. Reverse launch: In higher winds, a reverse launch is
used, with the pilot facing the wing to bring it up into
a flying position, then turning around under the wing
and running to complete the launch. Reverse launches
have a number of advantages over the forward launch.

Landing
Landing a paraglider, as with all unpowered aircrafts which
cannot abort a landing, involves some specific techniques
and traffic patterns. Paragliding pilots most commonly lose
their height by flying a figure of 8 in over landing zone until
the correct height is achieved, then line up into the wind and
give the glider full speed. Once the correct height (about a
meter above ground) is achieved the pilot will ‘stall’ (pause)
the glider in order to land.

Control through Speed Bar Mechanism

Paraglider can be controlled with the help of breaks and
accelerator attached with the paraglider. These are the speed
bar mechanism called control breaks, which are held in
pilot’s hand. Breaks are used to adjust the speed of the glider.

Types of Competitions
1. Cross-country flying is the classical form of paragliding
competitions with championships in club, regional,
national and international levels.

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 332 Health and Physical Education - XI

2. Aerobatic competitions demand the participants to

Do You Know?
George Freeth (8 November perform certain manoeuvres. Competitions are held
1883–7 April 1919) is often for individual pilots as well as for pairs that show
credited as being the ‘Father of synchronous performances. This form is the most
Modern Surfing’. He is thought spectacular for spectators on the ground to watch.
to have been the first modern 3. In Bivouac flying competitions, a certain route has to be
surfer. flown or hiked, which may take over several days.
Sky Parachutes have the maximum resemblance with
paragliders but the sports are very different. Whereas with
sky-diving, the parachute is ‘only’ a tool to safely return to
earth after free fall, the paraglider allows longer flights and the
use of thermals.

Surfing
The term surfing refers to the act of riding a wave, regardless
of whether the wave is ridden with a board or without a board,
and regardless of the stance used. Surfing is an event to be
inducted in the Olympic Games from the year 2020. Surfing
is a surface water sport in which the wave rider, referred to as
a surfer, rides on the forward or deep face of a moving wave,
which carries the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable
for surfing are primarily found in the ocean, but waves can
also be found in lakes or rivers in the form of standing wave
or tidal bore. However, surfers can also utilise artificial waves
such as those from boat and the waves created in artificial
wave pools.

Fig. 11.2: Surfing-1

Historical Development of Surfing

For centuries, surfing was a central part of ancient Polynesian
culture. Surfing may have first been observed by the British
explorers at Tahiti in 1767.

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 Adventure Sports 333

Governing Body
The highest governing body for surfing sport is known as
International Surfing Association. It is played all over the
world. In 1975, professional contests started. That year,
Margo Oberg became the first female professional surfer.

Types of Surfing

Fig. 11.3: Surfing-2

1. Stand-up Surfing: The modern-day definition of

surfing, most often refers to a surfer riding a wave
standing up on a Surfboard; this is also referred to
as stand-up surfing. Long surf-boarding and short
surf-boarding are the two types of stand-up surfing.
Both long and short surf-boarding have several major
differences, including the board design and length,
the riding style, and the kind of wave that is ridden.
2. Body Surfing or Body Boarding: The surfer riding a
wave on a body board, either by lying on the belly, or
drop knee, is called body surfing. In body surfing, the
wave is surfed without a board, using the surfer’s own
body to catch and ride the wave, this is very common
and considered to be the purest form of surfing.
3. Surf Matting: An other type of surfing that is surfed in
inflatable mats, using foils, is called surf matting.
4. Tow-surfing: Tow-surfing is most often associated
with big wave surfing with a motorised water vehicle,
such as a personal watercraft, which tows the surfer
into the wave front. Water-craft help the surfer to
match a large wave’s speed, which is generally higher
than a self-propelled surfer can produce.

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 334 Health and Physical Education - XI

Types of Surfboard
A long board (10 feet) causes more friction with the water,
and is slower than a smaller lighter board (6 feet). Longer
boards are good for beginners, who need help in balancing.
Smaller boards are good for more experienced surfers who
want to have more control and manoeuverability.

Dangers during Surfing

Seabed
The seabed can pose danger for surfers. If a surfer falls
while riding a wave, the wave tosses and tumbles the surfer
around, often in a downwards direction. At reef breaks and
beach breaks, surfers have been seriously injured and even
killed because of a violent collision with the sea bed, the
water above which can sometimes be very shallow, especially
at beach breaks or reef breaks during low tide.
Rip currents
Rip currents are water channels that flow away from the
shore. Under the wrong circumstances, these currents can
endanger both experienced and inexperienced surfers. Since
a rip current appears to be an area of flat water, tired or
inexperienced swimmers or surfers may enter one and be
carried out beyond the breaking waves. Although many rip
currents are much smaller, the largest rip currents have a
width of forty or fifty feet. However, by paddling parallel to
the shore, a surfer can easily exit a rip current.

Surfing related Sports

Surfing-related sports, such as, paddle boarding and sea
kayaking do not require waves. Other water related sports
such as kite surfing and wind-surfing rely primarily on wind
for power, yet all of these platforms may also be used to ride
waves. Recently the use of V-drive boats wave surfing, in
which one surfs on the wave of a boat, has emerged.

Safety and Security in Paragliding and Surfing

The security and safety of the gliders and surfers have to
be kept in mind as there is high risk involved during these
adventure sports. Safety measure should be followed and
observed by the individuals taking adventure sports.
1. A paraglider should be certified and highly skillful
before taking adventure sports.

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 Adventure Sports 335

2. A paraglider should keep all type of safety instruments

before going for paragliding. These instruments are
Virometer, Global Positioning System and Radio to
get update about all kinds of dangers.
3. During practice, proper safety equipments like helmet,
knee guards, chest guards and other protective
equipment should be worn.
4. Gliding should not be permitted without proper
assistance (licensed personnel).
5. A surfer should recognise the wave current flowing in
sea for keeping himself in the safe zone.
6. A surfer should also be able to recognise the deep face
of the moving wave that can be dangerous sometimes
to the surfer.
7. Surfer should practise his surfing skills in the
artificially created waves before introducing himself
in the deep sea.
8. Paragliders should inspect their paraglide breaks and
other necessary lining for safety measures regularly.
9. Enough practice should be done before taking long
route paragliding.
10. Fitness standard (physical and mental) should be
maintained, which is considered as the key factor
that helps in meeting out and taking quick decision
during any untoward situation.

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 Assessment
I. Long Answer Questions
1. Write down the use of Variometer in paragliding.
2. Explain ‘tow- surfing’.
3. Discuss the safety measures to keep in mind during paragliding.
4. Briefly explain Sea beds and Rip Currents.
5. How does Global Positioning System work?

II. Short Answer Questions

1. Name the person who invented paragliding.
2. Name the two flying techniques in paragliding.
3. Classify the categories of adventure sports.
4. In which year, the first world championship for surfing was
held?
5. What are the different types of surfing?

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 Feedback Questionnaire
Please give your comments on the textbook by filling this
feedback questionnaire. Please send the duly filled questionnaire
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Department of Education in Social Sciences, NCERT, Sri
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 338 Health and Physical Education - XI

6.(i) Certain practical activities and games have been

suggested. How many activities and games have you
undertaken in your class? Mention them.
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7. Certain questions have been given in boxes in the text of the
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