Module-4

Digital Voltmeter: Ramp Technique, Dual slope integrating Type DVM, Direct
Compensation type and Successive Approximations type DVM
(Text 2: 5.1-5.3,5.5, 5.6)
Digital Multimeter: Digital Frequency Meter and Digital Measurement of Time,
Function Generator.
Bridges: Measurement of resistance: Wheatstone’s Bridge, AC Bridges- Capacitance
and Inductance Comparison bridge, Wien’s bridge.
(Text 2: refer 6.2, 6.3 upto 6.3.2, 6.4 upto 6.4.2, 8.8, 11.2, 11.8-11.10, 11.14).
Digital Voltmeters

• Introduction
• RAMP technique
• Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM
• Direct Compensation Type DVM
• Successive Approximations Type DVM
(Text 2: 5.1-5.3,5.5, 5.6)
 Digital Voltmeters
Introduction
• The digital voltmeters generally referred as DVM, convert the analog signals into
digital and display the voltages to be measured as discrete numerical instead of
pointer deflection, on the digital displays.
• Such voltmeters can be used to measure A.C and D.C voltages and also to measure
the quantities like pressure, temperature, stress etc.
• The output voltage is displayed on the digital display on the front panel.

There are several varieties of DVM which differ in the following ways:
1. Number of digits
2. Number of measurements
3. Accuracy
4. Speed of reading
5. Digital output of several types.
RAMP Technique:
 Working Process of RAMP Type DVM:
• At the start of measurement a ramp voltage is initiated.
• The ramp voltage value is continuously compared with the voltage being measured
(unknown voltage).
• At the instant the value of ramp voltage is equal to that of unknown voltage.
• The ramp voltage continues to decrease till it reaches ground level (zero voltage).
• At this instant another comparator called ground comparator generates. a pulse and
closes the gate.
• The time elapsed between opening and closing of the gate is t as indicated in Fig.
• During this time interval pulses from a clock pulse generator pass through the gate and
are counted and displayed.
• The decimal number as indicated by the readout is a measure of the value of input
voltage.
• The sample rate multivibrator determines the rate at which the measurement cycles
are initiated.
• The sample rate circuit provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start its
next ramp voltage.
• At the same time it sends a pulse to the counters which set all of them to 0.
• This momentarily removes the digital display of the readout.
Advantages :

1. The ramp technique circuit is easy to design and its cost is

low.
2. The output pulse can be transmitted over long feeder
lines.

Disadvantages:
1. The single ramp requires excellent characteristics
regarding linearity of the ramp and time measurement.
2. Large errors are possible when noise is superimposed on
the input signal.
3. Input filters are usually required with this type of
converter.
 Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM

• In ramp techniques, superimposed noise can cause

large errors.
• In the dual ramp technique, noise is averaged out by
the positive and negative ramps using the process of
integration.
Principle of Dual Slope Type DVM
Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM
During charging

During discharging

Subtracting Eqs 5.2 from 5.1 we have

From Eq. 5.3 it is evident that the accuracy of the measured voltage is
inde-pendent of the integrator time constant.
If the oscillator period equals T and the digital counter
indicates n1 and n2 counts respectively,

Now, n1 and er are constants

The dual slope technique has excellent noise rejection because noise
and superimposed ac are averaged out in the process of integration. The
speed and accuracy are readily varied according to specific
requirements; also an accuracy of ± 0.05% in 100 ms is available.
Most Commonly used principles of ADC.
Successive Approximations
Digital Multimeter:

• Digital Frequency Meter

• Digital Measurement of Time
• Function Generator
Digital Multimeters
• The digital multimeter is an instrument which is capable of
measuring ac voltage, dc voltages, ac and dc currents and several
ranges of resistances.
• Offer high accuracy, have a high input impedance and are
smaller in size.
• They gives an unambigious reading at greater viewing distances.
The three major classes of digital meters
1. Panel meters (fixed range)
2. Bench type meters (multimeters)
3. System meters (multimeters)
The following arrangements are made for measuring
various parameters.
• The current is converted to voltage by passing it
through low shunt resistor.
• The ac quantities are converted to dc by
employing various rectifier and filtering circuits.
• For resistance measurements the meter consists
of a precision low current source that is applied
across the unknown resistance which gives dc
voltages.
• All the measured quantities are digitized using
analog to digital converter and displayed form on
the display.
Advantages of digital multimeter over analog
multimeters.
1. No loading effect since input impedance is
very high.
2. Very high accuracy.
3. An unambiguous reading
4. Cost is less due to improvement in the
integrated technology.
5. Available in very small size.
The block diagram of a digital multimeter is as shown in
figure.
Current to Voltage Converter :
• We know that multimeters are basically a dc voltmeters.
• ln order to measure unknown current, the current to voltage
converter circuit is implemented.
1. Digital Panel Meters (DPM)(fixed range)
2. Bench Type Meters
• Bench type meters range from inexpensive hand held units with a
31/2 digit readout and 0.5% accuracy, to 51/2 digit (200,000 count)
devices with 1 μV resolution.

• Digital nanovoltmeters are designed to measure extremely low

voltages and they provide resolution down to about 10 nV
(comparable analog meters go to about 1 nV).

• Digital picoammeters measure very small currents and can resolve

about 1 pA (analog instruments go to 3 femto (10-15) amperes).
Digital electrometer can resolve 10-17 A, 10 μV and 1 femto
charge and measure resistance as high as 200 T Ω (Tera = 1012).
3.System Type Meters
• System type DVMs or DMMs are designed to provide the basic A/D
conversion function in data systems assembled by interfacing
various peripheral devices with DVM capabilities and their cost vary
widely.
• A microprocessor is used to provide several mathematical functions
in addition to managing the meter operations.
• A modified dual slope A/D converter is used with selectable
integration times, ranging from 0.01 to 100 power lines cycle.
• At maximum speed (330 readings per second) accuracy is ± 0.1%,
while 0.57 readings per second gives a 61/2 digit resolution and
0.001% accuracy. Ac and dc voltages and resistance modes are
available.
Digital Frequency Meter:
• The signal waveform is converted to trigger pulses and
applied continuously to an AND gate.
• A pulse of 1 s is applied to the other terminal, and the
number of pulses counted during this period indicates the
frequency.
Basic Circuit of a Digital Frequency Meter
Basic Circuit for Frequency Measurement
High Frequency Measurement (Extending the
Frequency Range)
The direct count range of digital frequency meter (DFM) extends from dc to a few 100 MHz.
The limitations arises because of the counters used along with the DFM.
The counters cannot count at the speed demanded by high frequency measurement. This range
of a few 100 MHz covers only a small portion of the frequency spectrum. Therefore, techniques
other than direct counting have been used to extend the range of digital frequency meters to
above 40 GHz. The input frequency is reduced before it is applied to a digital counter. This is
done by special techniques. Some of the techniques used are as follows. Prescaling The high
frequency signal by the use of high speed is divided by the integral numbers such as 2, 4, 6, 8
etc. divider circuits, to get it within the frequency range of DFM (for example synchronous
counters). Heterodyne Converter The high frequency signal is reduced in frequency to a range
within that of the meter, by using heterodyne techniques. Transfer Oscillator A harmonic or
tunable LF continuous wave oscillator is zero beat (mixed to produce zero frequency) with the
unknown high frequency signal. The LF oscillator frequency is measured and multiplied by an
integer which is equal to the ratio of the two frequencies, in order to determine the value of the
unknown HF. Automatic Divider The high frequency signal is reduced by some factor, such as
100:1, using automatically tuned circuits which generated an output frequency equal to 1/100th
or 1/1000th of the input frequency.
 Digital Measurement of Time:

• The beginning of the time period is the

start pulse originating from input 1, and
the end of the time period is the stop pulse
coming from input 2.
Time Base Selector
 Measurement of Time (Period Measurement)
The only disadvantage is that for measuring the frequency in the low
frequency range, the operator has to calculate the frequency from the
time by using the equation f = 1/T.
In this circuit, five more decade dividing assemblies are added so that
the gate is now enabled for a much longer interval of time than it was
with single DDA.
Function Generator:
• A Function Generator produces different waveforms of
adjustable frequency.
• The common output waveforms are the sine, square,
triangular and sawtooth waves.
• The frequency may be adjusted, from a fraction of a Hertz
to several hundred kHz.
• The various outputs of the generator can be made
available at the same time.
• For example, the generator can provide a square wave to
test the linearity of an amplifier and simultaneously
provide a sawtooth to drive the horizontal deflection
amplifier of the CRO to provide a visual display.
Bridges:

• Measurement of resistance:
• Wheatstone’s Bridge
• AC Bridges
• Capacitance
• Inductance Comparison bridge
• Wien’s bridge.
Bridges:
Introduction.
Bridge circuits are extensively used for measuring component value
such as R, L and C.
• A bridge circuit in its simplest form consists of a
network of four resistance arms forming a closed
circuit, with a dc source of current applied to two
opposite junctions and a current detector
connected to the other two junctions as in Fig.
Wheatstone’s bridge. (MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE)
 Wheatstone’s bridge is the most accurate method available
for measuring resistance and is popular for laboratory use.
 The Source of emf and switch is connected to points A and
B while a sensitive current indicator meter connected to
points C and D.
 The galvanometer is sensitive microammeter with a zero
center scale.
 When there is no current through the meter, the
galvanometer pointer rests at 0. i.e. mid scale.
 When SW1 is closed, the current flows and divides into the
two arms at point A, i.e. I1 and I2..
 The bridge is balanced when there is no current through
the gaIvanometer, or when the potential difference at
points C and D is equal, i.e. the potential across the
galvanometer is zero.
To obtain the bridge balance equation:

I1 R1= I2 R2 ---------------------1
For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following
conditions should be satisfied.

---------------------A

---------------------B
Substituting in A and B in equation 1

This is the equation for the bridge to be balanced.

Example :
Figure consists of the following Pararmeters. R1= 10k R2 =
15k and R3 =40 k. Find the unknown resistance Rx .

Solution:

RX = 60k
Sensitivity of a wheatstone’s bridge:
• The amount of deflection is a function of the sensitivity
of the galvanometer.
• Sensitivity is a deflection per unit current.
• Expressed in units of S mm/A or degree/A or radians
/ A.

Total deflection D is,

D =S x I
where S is sensitivity.
I is the current in microamperes.
Unbalanced Wheatstone's Bridge:

 To determine the amount of deflection

that result for a particular degree of
unbalance.
 A Thevenin’s theorem is used.
To determine current through the galvanometer:
To find Thevinin’s equivalent voltage:
Applying the voltage divider equation, the voltage at point a can be
determined as follows,
The voltage at a and b can be determined by,

The voltage between a and b is the difference between Ea and Eb ,which

represents Thevinin’s equivalent voltage.

Therefore,
To find equivalent resistance :

• Replacing voltage source E with its internal resistance or

otherwise short circuit.
• Calculating the resistance looking into terminals a and b.
• The equivalent resistance of the circuit is R1 II R3 in series
with R2 IIR4 i.e. R1IIR3+ R2 IIR4
Example:
An unbalanced Wheatston’s bridge is given in fig. calculate the current through the galvanometer.
The current through the galvanometer.
Slightly unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge:
If three of the four resistors in a bridge are equal to R and the fourth differs by 5% or less.

Consider the circuit in fig.

If r is 5% of R or less, r in the denominator can be neglected
without introducing appreciable error.

Therefore Thevenin’s voltage is

Applications of Wheatstone's Bridge:
• Wheatstone’s bridge may used to measure the dc
resistance of various type wires.
Ex: the resistance of motor windings, transformers
,solenoids.
• Used by Telephone companies.

Limitations of Wheatstone's Bridge :

1. For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the
leads and contacts becomes significant and introduces an
error.
2. For high resistance measurements, the resistance
presented by the bridge becomes so large that the
galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance.
3. Heating effect of current through the resistance.
Advantages of Wheatstone's Bridge:
1. The results are not dependent on the
calibration and characteristics of a
galvanometer as it works on null deflection.
2. The sources emf and inductance due to the
source fluctuations doesn't affect the
balance of the bridge
3. Due to null deflection method used the
accuracy and sensitivity is higher direct
deflection meters.