From equalion (3) the length L of the end bar was obtained and proceeding

in this wav, the length of any sub-multiple (Three 12 inch bars) of a yard can
be derived

Thus 36 inch end bar has been calibrated and by this method th unknown
errors in 35% inch end standard and 1/2 inch blocks are systermaticall, eirGinated.

1.10 Calibration of End Bars

The following procedure may be adopted for calibrating two end bars of each
500 mm basic length
A one mctre ( 1 0 0 0 r ) calibrated bar is wrung t o a surface plate and two 500
mm bars (A and B) are .ung together to form a basic length of one metre, which
TS then wTUng to a surface plate adjacent to a metre bar as shown in the Fig. 1.6(a)
and photograph 3. The
difference in height X,, is noted.

A X

B B La
Surface plate A

TmTTTITTITTITITTTimTTT 7IIITTTTTNTIITTiTTTIIT
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.6 Set-up for Calibrating two bars

Then comparison is made between the two

500 mm length bars A and B to determine the
difference in length as shown in Fig.1.6(b)
If L= the length of 500 mm length bar A

L =
the length of 500 mm length bar B
X, = difference between one metre length bar and

the combined length of bars A and B.

X, = difference in length between bar A and bar B.

L = Actual length of one meter bar.

Photograph 3
12 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

Then from Fig. 1.6(a)

LtX = La +hg -(1)

From Fig. 1.6(b)

-(2)
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1)

=2LA t Xz
or
2LA LtX t X2
LtXt X2
2

and Lg L
=
t X2
Ihe above procedure can be used for calibrating any other number of length
standards of the same basic size.

1.11 Numerical Problems

Problem 1
A calibrated metre end bar has an
actual length of 1000.0003 mm. It is to be
used in the calibration of two bars A and
B, each having a basic length of 500 mm.
When compared with the metre bar
0.0002 mm. In comparing A with B it was
L L was found to be shorter by
found that A was 0.0004 mm
than B. Find the actual length of A and B. longer
Solution: X = 0.0002 mm

L:La Lia Y,
- , L pLR

B 500 mm
X, = 0.0004 mm

A 500 mmL
A
B LB
T77U117777Il tlliillIIIITIINNNTNUM
Fig. 1.7
 Standards of Measurement 13

Let, L - X1 = La + p --(1)
and
L=lg X2 + -(2)
Substituting eqn(2) in eqn(1)
L- X (-B X2) + LgB
= +

2 Lg +X2
2Lg = L - X - X2

1000.0003 0.0002-0.0004
LB = L- X X2 -

2 2

Lg = 499.99985 mm

Fromeqn(2) L = Lg +X2
499.99985 +0.0004

LA = 500.00025 mm

Problem 2
Three 100 mm end bars are measured on a level comparator by first wringing
them together and comparing with a 300 mm bar. The 300 mm bar has a known
error of + 40 um and the three bars together measure 64 um less than the 300 mm
bar. Bar A is 18 um longer than bar B and 23 um longer than bar C.
Find the actual length of each bar.

Solution
Suppose the actual length of each bar A, B and C are
L, L and
respectively. (Fig. 1.8)

64 um

C
(L

B
Bar

18 um 23 um

A
L A
B C

Fig. 1.8
 Metrology
and
14
S u r e m e n t s

hanical

-64 jum
+Le=300
mm + 40um
nen
L + Lp -(1)
mm
-
24 um
300
-(2)
=

and L-Lg =18um

--(3)
A-Lc =23 um
and eqn(3)
Adding eqn(1), eqn(2) + 23 um
24 um + 18 um
3Ly = 300 mm -

300 mm +17 um

300 mm +0.017mm
300.017 mm

LA=LA 100.006 mm =

From eqn(2) A L g = 18jum

100.006-Lg = 0.018 mm

Lg =
100.006 0.018

Lg =99.988 mm
From eqn(3) LA -Lc = 23 um
100.006 Lc =0.023 mm
Lc =100.006 0.023

Lc99.983
Problem 3
Four length bars A, B, C, D of
with standard calibrated metre barapproximately 250 mm each are to be
which is calibrated
0.0002 mm actually 0.0008 mm less than a metre.
It is also found that, bar B is
longer than bar A and bar D is 0.0001 longer than bar A, bar C is
four bars put together is 0.0003 mm mm shorter
than bar A. The
0.0004 mm
Determine the actual dimensions of each longer than the length of all
bar. calibrated standard metre
Solution : (VTU Jan 2005)
The length of the standard
calibrated metre bar
= 1000 0.0008 L is
= 999.9992 mm

Let L Lc and L are the

length of each bar as
shown in the figure 1.9
 Standards of Measurement 15

X=0.0003 mm

X=0.0004 mm
X=0.0002 mm
B X=0.0001 mm

C
A L A B L D

71mm7. InnWIniinnnimmnnITTintnTTÝTTI innn7

Fig. 1.9
We know that L+X =
L +Lg +Lc +Lp
But

L+ = LA +(L4 +X2) +(L4+Xg)+(LA -X4)

L+X = 4LA+X2+Xg -X

or 4L = L+X1 -X2-X3 +X4

= 999.9992 +0.0003 0.0002 0.0004 +0.0001

4LA 999.999

LA =249.99975 mm|
And Lg = L + X2 = 249.99975+ 0.0002

Lg =249.99995 mm

Similarly Lc = LA + X3 = 249.99975 +0.00044

Lc 250.00015 mm
 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology
16

0.0001
Lp=La - X =249.99975
Lp = 249.99965 mm

Problem 4 basic length 125 mm are to be

length bars A, B, C and D each having a
Four
The 500 mm bar has
Calibrated using a calibrated length bar of 500 mm basic length.
an actual length of 499.9991 mm. Also it was found that

LB LA +0.0001 mm
Lc =
LA + 0.0005 mm

Lp = LA 0.0002 mm
and LA +LB + Lc +Lp = L+0.0003 mm.

Determine La, Lg, Lc and

Lp
Solutionh:

X =
0.0003 mm

C X 0.0005 mm
|X2=0.0001 mm

iX = 0.0002 mm

D B C
A D

Fig. 1.10
From Fig. 1.10
L +X =
LA + LB +
Lc +
LD
But LB LA + X2
Lc La + X3
Lp LA -X4
 Standards of Measurement 17

L+X = LA + (La + X,) + (La + X3) + (LA - X4)

L+
X =
4 L + X2 + Xa -

X4
and 4 LA =
L+ X1 -

X2 -

X3+Xg
499.9991 + 0.0003- 0.0001 0.0005 + 0.0002
= 499.999 mm

La =124.99975 mm
Further B =
LA + X2 =
124.99975 + 0.0001

Lg = 124.99985 mm

c LA + X3 = 124.99975 +0.0005

Lc = 125.00025 mm

Lp = La - X4 =124.99975 0.0002

Lp =124.99955 mm

Problem 5
A metre end standard is to be obtained from a calibrated line standard by using
a composite line standard. The calibrated line standard has an actual length of
1000.001 mm.
The composite line standard consists of a length bar having a basic length of 950
mm and two end blocks, (a+b) and (c+d), each having a basic length of
50 mm. Each end block has a central engraved line.
Four comparisons were made between the calibrated bar and composite bar
using all combinations of the end blocks. The four measurements obtained were
as follows
L = 1000. 0025 mm Lo =1000.0035 mm

Lg = 1000.0015 mm L4 =
1000.0025 mm

The two end blocks were compared with each other and block (a +b) was
found to be 0.001 mm shorter than block (c+d).
Solution:
Given L =1000.0025 mm

Lg =
1000.0035 mm

Lg = 1000.0015 mm

La 1000.0025 mm
=

Total 4000.0100 mm
 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology
18

1/2 X = 0.0005

1/2 X 0.0005

a+b
Ictd=(atb)+X
77zinninnITri niitmnnITITTITTTIT
Fig. 1.11

And
l a +L 4A+4(a +b) + 2x
4 4

4000.0100 4 A + 4(a + b) + 2X
4

1000.0025= A +
(a +b)+X
2

End standard using (a + b) =1000.0025 x

2
=
1000.0025 -

0.0005
= 1000.002 mm

End standard using (c + d) 1000.0025 1/2 X

=

= 1000.0025 +0.0005

= 1000.003 mm

C0 Edod
1.12 Slip Gauges (Johannson Gauges) or
Gauge Blocks
They are rectangular blocks of steel having a
and 10 mm face width, as shown in
cross-section of 30 mm face length
Fig. 1.12 and are most commonly used
standards in engineering praclice. The size of a end
r hetween two plane measuring laces. They aresiipPmade
gauge is defined as the
distance
up of high grade steelswith
 UNIT

Tolerances and
System of Limits, Fits,
Gauging
2.1 Introduction
machine and material.
combination of three elements i.e., man,
is a
Every process
constitute a change in the process.
A change in any one of these will
characteristic variations.
The above said three elements are subjected to inherent and
It is therefore obvious
These variables result in the variation of size of components.
that it is impossible to produce a part to an exact size
and some allowance known
as tolerance has to be allowed. This tolerance
allowed depends on the functional
requirements. In engineering practice any component manufactured is requiredto
of
fit or match with some other component. The correct and prolonged functioning
the two components depends upon the correct size relationships between the
matching parts in the desired way.
For example : If a shaft has to rotate in a hole there must be enough clearance
between the shaft and hole to allow the lubricating oil film to be maintained. If the
clearance is too smal, excessive force would be required for rotating the shaft.
On the otherhand if the clearance is too wide, there would be vibrations and
rapid wear.

The desired condition of match

between shaft and hole could be obtained
by specifying a definite size to one and
varying the other. But actually, this is not
Cost
possible in practice as it is impossible to
make a perfect size and if at all,
it is made, no means are there to measure
it accurately and economically.
The variations in dimensions, however
small, do exist because of the variations
in machining, raw material and operators.
If a machine is under control i.e., no
assignable causes of variation exist, then Tolerance
the resultant frequency distribution
Fig. 2.1 Variation of cost with
of dimension produced will be
approximately în the form of normal curve
respect to tolerance
i.e., 99.79% parts will be within £ 3o limits of mean setting. The value of a depend
upon the machine used to produce a component. If value of o has to be reduced
then precision machines have to be used to produce the components having less
 System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 33

varnallon n dimensions. It is thus important to note that the cost of production

increases
tremendously for very precise tolerance, as shown in the Fig. 2.1
From this it is clear that the
magnitude of tolerance must be set so as
tO pen
as low a manufacturing cost as possible and still achieve the necessary functional

performance.
2.2 Need for Limit
Systems
he
correct and prolongedfunctioning of manufactured product depends
upon
its correct size relationship between various components of the assembly. This
means that the parts must fit together in a certain way.
For example: The needle valve
shown in fig 2.2 is a close slide fit
in the bronze bush. This bush in turn
is a drive fit in the body of the
instrument. Movement of the valve Needle valve
Orifice
in the direction of the arrow closes
the orifice, thus regulating the
pressure of fluid through the orifice.
If this assembly has to be mass-
produced cheaply and efficiently, Bronze bush
and the customer or user has to be
provided with a spare part service,
we must decide on the sort of fit
present in the assembly. More Steel bush
importantly, we must decide on the Fig 2.2 Valve Assembly
dimensions that will produce
the sort of fit needed. If every engineering designer was given freedom in this
matter of deciding the sizes of mating components to produce different kinds of

fit, then complete disorder would result.

Hence it is the purpose of a limit system to establish the types of fits most
and to recommend the dimensions
likely to be needed in engineering manufacture,
of the mating parts.

2.3 Definition of Limits

sizes within which the actual size of
The maximum and minimum permissible
limits.
a component lies are called

2.4 Tolerance
It is impossible to make anything to an exact size, therefore, it is essential to
allow a definite tolerance or permissible variation on every specified dimension.

Consider the dimensioning shown in the +0.05

to
Fig. 2.3. When making the part we try o 40.00
This is
achieve a diameter of 40.00 mm.
called the basic or nominal diameter.

Fig 2.3
 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology
34

The shaft will be satisfactory if its diameter lies between 40.00 + 0.05
dimension 40.05 rmm is called the
=40.05 m m and 40.00 0.05 = 39.95 m m . The
upper limit and the dimension 39.95 m m
is called the lower limit. The difference
betwecn the upper and lower limits is called the tolerance.

Tolcrance in the above example is

40.05 39.95 = 0. 10 mm
The tolerance is always a positive quantitative number.

2.4.1 Toleranced Dimensions

Tolerances on a dimension may be either unilaterial or bilateral.

A toleranced dimension is bilaterial if the limit dimensions are given above

and below the nominal size as shown in the Fig. 2.4.

+0.05
- -
40.00

Fig. 2.4 Bilateral Tolerance

When the two limit dimensions are only above the nominal size [Fig. 2.5 (a)]
or only below the nominal size lFig. 2.5 (b)| then the tolerances are said to be
unilateral.

+0.03 -0.02
+0.01 -0.03
60.00 o 50.00

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.5 Unilateral Tolerance

Unilateral tolerances are preferred over bilateral tolerances because the operator
can machine to the upper limit of the shalt (or lower limit for a hole) still having
the whole tolerance left for machining before the parts are rejected.
For example In drilling the dimensions are most likely to deviate in one direction
only i.e., over size rather than undersize.

Unilateral and bilateral tolerances can be schemalically represented as shown

in Fig. 2.6
 System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 35

Unilateral tolerance

Tolerance

oZero line Tolerance

(Basic sizc)
Bilateral tolerance Unilateral tolerance

Unilateral tolerance

Fig. 2.6 Schematic representation of tolerances

2.4.2 Specifying Tolerances in an Assembly

The type of assembly or fit between the two mating parts will be decided based
on the functional requirements. Accordingly tolerances on the shaft and hole are
decided using the following two methods:
) Complete interchangeability
(ii) Statistical approach
In complete interchangeability, no risk is taken even for a single non-coníorming
assembly. If the fit between shaft and hole is clearance type as shown in the Fig. 2.7,
then for complete interchangeability.
Tolerance on shaft = Tolerance on hole

= Half the maximum clearance Half the minimum clearance

Hole

Tolerance
onnoie
Minimum Maximum
clearance clearance
Tolerance
on shaft
Shaft-
Basic Basic Basic
hole sizc assembly size shaft size

Fig. 2.7
 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology
36

tolerances on the
normal
The approach bases the permissible
statistical
3o
would lie outside
distribution curve, considering that only 0.3% of the parts
tolerances and permits cheaper
limits. This approach, obviously, allows wider
If all the assignable causes of
production methods especially in mass production.
curves of shafts and holes
variation are fully controlled, then expected frequency
of the
will be normal frequency curves, and accordingly the expected frequency
that about 33% more
clearances will also be a normal curve. It was estimated
tolerance may be permitted by statistical approach compared to complete

interchangeability.

2.4.3 Tolerance Accumulation or Tolerance "Build-up"

If a part comprises of several steps, each step having some tolerance over its
then overall tolerance on complete length will be the sum of the tolerances
length,
on individual lengths as shown in the Fig. 2.8.

Cd
L L L

+a+c+e
-b-d-f
L
Fig. 2.8 Tolerance Accumulation
This method of specifying tolerances would result in high tolerances on the
overall length. The effect of accumulation of tolerances can be minimized by
adopting progressive dimensioning from a common datum as shown in the
Fig. 2.9.

+a
L

Fig. 2.9 Progressive Dimensioning

 System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 37

2.4.4 Compound Tolerances

A Compound tolerance is one which is derived by considering the eifect or

tolerances on more than one dimension. For example, in Fig. 2.10 the tolerances
on dimension L' are dependent on tolerances on D, H and 0. This compouna
tolerance on L' is the combined effect of all the three tolerances. The
L
dimension
wIll be maximum when the base dimension is D + a, angle is 6+ a and
H d. Similarly, L will be minimum when base dimension is
the
vertical dimension is
D b, angle is e
-

-
-

B and the vertical dimension is H + C.

TTTITTTTTT 77TTTTTTTTTTT
Fig. 2.10
Compound Tolerance
H

D
2.5 Interchangeability
Interchangeability occurs when one part in an assembly can be substituted for
a similar part which has been made to the same drawing.
Suppose there are 100 parts each with a hole, and 100 shafts which have to fit
into any of the holes. If there is interchangeability then any one of the 100 shafts
should fit into any of the holes and the required kind of fit can be obtained.
Hence, for the interchangeability of holes and shafts, we need a system of limits
and fits which gives standard values for the limits on the hole and shaft, so that any
particular type of fit can be obtained.
Interchangeability is possible only when certain standards are strictly followed.
In universal interchangeability the mating parts are drawn from any two different
manufacturing sources. Universal interchangability is desirable and to achieve this
all standards used by various manufactures should be traceable to a single source

which will be an international standard.

When all parts to be assembled are made in the same manufacturing unit,
then local standards may be followed which is known as local interchangeability.
The required type of fit in an assembly can be obtained either by universal or
full interchangeability or by selective assembly.

2.6 Selective Assembly

In selective assembly the parts are graded according to the size and only
matched grades of mating parts are assembled. lnis technique is most suitable
assembles are required. It results in complete
where close fit of two component
protection against non-conforming assemDlies and reduces machining costs,
maintained.
Since close tolerances can be
38 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

For example : If some parts to be assembled are manufactured to a tolerance of 0.01

mm, then an aulomatic gauge can seperate tlhem into ten different groups with 0.001
mm limit for selective assembly of the individual parts. T'hus parts with tolerances
of 0.001 mm are obtained and both the condilions of high quality and low cost can
be achieved by selective assembly technique.

Selective assembly is often followed in aircraft, automobile and other industries

where the tolerances are very narow and are not possible to manufacture by any
sophisticated machine at reasonable costs. The selective assembly, however enables
Such tolerances to be achieved without actually being produced.

2.7 Limits of Sizze

In deciding the limits for a particular dimension it is necessary to consider the
following
(1) Functional requirements the intended function that a component
should perform.
ii) Interchangeability Replacement of the component in case of failure
without difficulty.
(ii) Economy in production time and cost.
Thus the degree of tolerance provided on the mating components calls for a
compromise. Number of standards on limit and fit systems have been published to
help the designer in selecting the uniform limits and fits. A limit system consists of
a series of tolerances arranged to suit a specific range of sizes and functions.
Further such limits of size may be selected and given to assembling components
to ensure specific classes of fit.

2.8 Indian Standard (IS 919 1963)

The Indian Standard system of limits and fits comprises suitable combination
of 18 grades of fundamental tolerances or grades of accuracy of manufacture, and
25 types of fundamental deviations represented by letter symbols for both holes
and shafts (capital letters A to ZCfor holes and lower case letters a to zc for shafts)
in diameter steps upto 500 mm. The 25 fundamental deviations are represented
by,
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J J, K, M, N, P, R, S, T, U, V, X, Y, 2, ZA, ZB, zc.
Number of fits ranging from extreme interference to those of extreme clearahce
may be ofblained by a suitable combination of fundamental tolerances and
fundamental deviations.

2.8.1 Conditions for the success of any system of limits and fits
The limits and fits system itself must meet a number of conditions if it is to be
Comprehensive
1) The range of sizes covered by the system must be sufficient for most
purposes.
 System of LImits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 39

2) For any basic size

it must be possible to select from a carefully designed
Tange oI fits the most
appropriate one for a
given applicano
3) Lach basic size of hole and shaft must have
for each of the
a range of tolerance values
different fits.
4) he System must
provide for both unilateral and bilateral methods o
applying the tolerance.
) I t nust be possible for a manufacturer to usc the system to apply either
a hole-based or a shaf-based system according to his manulacturing
requirements.
6) The system should cover work from high class tool and gauge work upto
a work where very wide limits of size are
permissible.
7) Any manufacturer should be alble to select from the full standard a
smal
range which will cover the whole of his requirements and which therefore
forms a
simple internal standard for the design team.

2.9 Concept of Limits of Size and Tolerance

Fig. 2.11 illustrates the concept of limits of size and tolerances.

Schematic
representation
of tolerances

Hole
Zero
line

Shaft

Shaft

Hole
Fig. 2.11 Limits of Size and Tolerance
Limits of size : The two extreme permissible sizes of a component, between
which the actual size should lie including the maximum and minimum sizes of the
component.
Maximum limit of size: The greatest or maximum permissible size of a component.
Minimum limit of size: The smallest or minimum permissible size of a component.
40 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

2.10 Some Definitions

Hole Tolerance on shaft
Lower deviation Tolerancc for hole
Upper devialion
Hole

Zero line
Shaft

Hole
Max Min Max Basic size
dia Min
dia dia
dia

Shaft
Fig. 2.12 Shaft and hole system
Consider the shaft and the hole system as shown in the figure
Nominal size : The nominal size of a component is the size by which it is referred
to as a matter of convenience.

Basic size : A basic size for convenience may be defined as theoretical or

nominal size which for the practical reasons is only approximated or it is the size
which would be obtained if perfection were possible. It is the size of a part in
relation to which all limits of variation are determined.
Distinction between Basic and Nominal size : A nominal size is the size which
is used for the purpose of general identification. Thus the nominal size of a hole
and shaft assembly is 50 mm, even though the basic size of the hole may be
50 mm and the basic size of the shaft is 49.5 mm.
Actual size : It is defined as the size actually obtained by machining. It is found
by actual measurement using measuring instruments.
Zero line : It is defined corresponding to basic size and all tolerances, etc., are
considered with reference to this zero line. In the system of limits and fits we are
interested in the tolerance on shafts and holes and not on their sizes
Thus, it is clear that the setting of tolerance value alone is not sufficient to
define particular limits, but the positions of the tolerance zone relative to the basic
size has to be specified.
Allowances : An intentional difference between the hole dimension and shaft
dimension for any type of fit is called allowance. Maximum allowance is obtained
by subtracting the minimum shaft size from the largest hole size and the minimum
allowance is the difference between the largest shalt and the smallest hole size.
Thus, allowance is positive for clearance fit and negative for interference fit.
 System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 41

Deviation: Il 1s delined as the algebraic difference between size

maximum ctc) and the
a
(acud'
corresponding basic size.
Upper Deviation : It is the
algebraic difference between the maximum limit o
size (of either hole or
shalt)
and the
corresponding basic size. It is
letters ES for hole and es for shaft. It is a
Dy designated
limit of size is greater than the basic size and apositive quantity when the maximu
when the

limit of size is less than the basic size. negative quantity maxiu
Lower Deviation: It is the algebraic
difference between minimum limit ol size
and the coresponding basic size. It is a positive quantity when the minimum imt
of size is greater than the basic size and a
negative quantity when the minimu
limit of size is less than the basic size. It is designated by EI for a hole and el
for a shaft.

Fundamental Deviation : This is the deviation, either the upper or the lower
deviation, which is nearest one to the zero line for either a hole or a shaft. It 11xeS
the position of the tolerance zone in relation to the zero line.
Size Tolerance : The diference between the maximum limit and the minimum
limit of size i.e., the difference between the upper deviation and lower deviation
i.e., Tolerance T = ES El (for hole)
=
es
- ei (for shafts)

Tolerance

Upper
Fundamental Upper deviation, ESs deviation, ES
deviation (positive) (negative)
wwN
Zero line

Lower deviation, EI
Fundamental
(positive)
Lower deviation
deviation, El|
(negative)
Tolerance

Fig. 2.13 Upper deviation, lower deviation and fundamental deviation

for hole
 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology
42

Negative clearance
((30,35-( 30.30= -0,05)

wwH Schematic representation

30.35 Shaft
30.25
30.:30 Shalt
30.15
Zero
Hole Hole line
Shaft

Hole
fig. 2.14 Upper deviation, Lower deviation and fundamental deviation for
shaft

2.11 Definition of Fit

When two parts are to be assembled, the relationship resulting from the
difference between their sizes before assembly is called a fit.

2.11.1 Types of Fit and their Designation (IS 919-1963)

Depending upon the actual limits of hole or shaft, the fit may be a clearance
fit, a transition fit or an interference fit.

a) Clearance Fit: In this type of fit, the largest permitted shaft diameter is smaller
than the diameter of the smallest hole (as shown in Fig 2.15), so that the shaít
can rotate or slide through with different degrees of freedom according to the
purpose of mating members. Fig. 2.15(b) indicates the designation of
clearance fit.

o 30.25 29.90
30.15 o 29.85 Schematic representation

Hole Hole Zero

line
Shaft Shaft
Shaft

Hole
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.15 Clearance Fit
 System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 43

b) Interference lit : It is delined as the fit established when a negative clearance

exist betvween the sizes of the holes
and the shaft. In this type of fit, the
pemitted diameter of the shaft is larger than the maximum allowable minimu diameter
of the hole as shown in Fig. 2.16. In this case the shaft and the hole memder
are intended to be attached permanently and used as a solid componen.
Example : Bearing bushes, small end in the connecting rod.

Negative clearance
(O 30.35- 30.30 = -0.05)

Schematic representation
30.35 Shaft
30.25 30.30
30.15 Shaft
Zero
Zero
line
Hole Hole
Shaft

Hole
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.16 Interference Fit
c)Transition Fit: In this type of fit, the diameter of the largest allowable hole
is greater than that of the smallest shaft, but the smallest hole is smaller than
the largest shaft, so that a small positive or negative clearance exists
between the shaft and the hole as shown in Fig. 2.17.
Example : Coupling rings, spigot in mating holes, etc.,

Positive clearance Negative clearance

30.50- 30.65 = -0.15
30.60- 30.55 0.05
=

)30.60
o30.55 30.50 lo30.65

Shaft Shaft

Hole Hole

Fig. 2.17(a)
44 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

Schematic representation

Shaft Shaft

Zero
Shaft Hole line

Fig. 2.17(b) Transition Fit

2.11.2 Specific Types of Fit

Following are some of the specific types of fits.
i) Driving Fit : In driving fit, the shaft is made slightly larger than the hole
such that the parts can be assembled by driving force. For assembling usually
hydraulic presses are used. Driving fits are employed when the parts are to
remain in a fixed position relative to each other.

ii) Forced or Pressed Fit : It is similar to driving fit but has a larger allowance
than a driving fit, thereby, requires greater pressure for assembling.
Examples : Crankpins, Car wheel axles etc.
iii) Push Fit or Snug Fit : This type of fit represents a closest fit which permits
assembling of parts by hand.

iv) Selective Fit: Selective assembly is necessary when the objective is to make a
shaft and hole with a finite fit and not a permissible range of fit. This kind of fit
is called selective fit and is generally used for tight or interference fits whenever
it is desired to avoid extremes of maximum tightness or looseness.

v)Shrinkage Fit : A shrinkage fit is obtained by making the shaft (internal member)
slightly larger than the hole (extemal member). In shrinkage fit, pressure is not
required for assembling but instead the hole (external member) is heated and
expanded sufficiently to permit the shaft (internal member) to be inserted easily.
Then the hole (external member) is cooled to shrink tightly around the shait
(internal member).
vi) Freeze Fit : In freeze fit the shaft (internal member) is contracted by cooling
and assembled with the hole (external member). When the assembled parts
are exposed to the atmospheric temperature, the contracted shaft (internal
member) expands and thus fit into the hole (external member)
Example : Insersion of valve seat inserts in engine cylinder heads.
Among the above, the force fit, shrink fit or freeze fit are widely used in the
assembly of machine parts.
 system of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 45

The specific types of fits in terms

of clearance. transition and interierenc fits
are as lollows

) Driving Fit interference fit

(i) Forced fit - interference fit

(ii)Push fit transition fit

(iv) Selective fit -

transition or interference fit

(v Shrinkage fit - interference fit

(vi) Freeze fit interference fit

2.12 Geometrical Tolerances

It is necessary to specify and control the geometric features of a component,
such as straightness, flatness, roundness etc., in addition to linear dimensions.
Geometric tolerances are concerned with the accuracy of the relationship of one
component to another, and it should be specified separately.
overall
Geometrical tolerance may be defined as the maximum permissible
variation of form, or position of form, or position of a feature.
classified as
The characteristics to be geometrically toleranced are

() Single features

(ii) Related features

the function
The table 2.1 shows the symbols used to indicate the characteristics,
of geometrical tolerances with typical examples
46 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

Table 2.1

Characteristic unction of geomctrical| Tolerance zone Typlcal example

and synmbol tolerance

1) Straightness To control the straightness| Area between two parallel

of the line on a surface, straight lines in the plane
or an axis. containing the considered
line or axis.Tolerance value|
is the distance betwcen
them. Tolerance value

2) Flatncss To control the latness of Area between two planes.

a surface Tolerance value is the
distance between them.

Tolerance value

Tolerance value|
3) Roundness To control errors of Area between two
roundness of a circle in concentric circles.
the plane in which it lies. Tolerance value is the
Itis not concemed with radial distance between
the position of the circle. the circles.

4) Cylindricity To control combination of| Annular space between

roundness, straightness two cylinders that are
and parallelism of a co-axial. Tolerance value
cylindrical surface. is the radial distance
between them.

Tolerance value

5) Profile of a line To control the shape of a Area between two profile

profile lines which envelop
circles of diameter equal
to the tolerance

Tolerance value
 oystem of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 47

6) Profile of a To control the

shape of a |Arca between two
surface profile
surfaceswhich envelop a
series of spheres

Tolerance
value

Tolerance value
7) Parallelism To control parallelism of a | Area between two parallel
| line or surface withh | lines or space between
respect to some datum. two parallel lines which
are parallel to the datum.

Datum

papnditulal
To control squareness of Area between two parallel | Tolerance value
8) Squareness
a line or surface with lines orspace between
respect to a datum. two parallel planes which
are perpendicular to the
datum.

Datum

Tolerance value
To control inclination of a | Area between twoparallel
9)Angularity line or surface with lines orspace between

respect to a datum two parallel planes which

are inclined at a specified
angle to the datum.

Datum

the deviation Centre or axis to lie Tolerance value

T0) Concentricity| To control within circle or cylinder.
of the position of the
centre or axis of the Tolerance value is the
toleranced circles or |diameter ofsuch a circle
or cylinder.
cylinders.
Datum
48 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

The geometrical tolerance used for a single feature and related features are as
shown in Fig. 2.18 (a) and (b) respectively.
Characteristic
Tolerance value
Characteristic
Tolerance value Datum

10|005

(a) Single tolerance (b) Related feature

Fig. 2.18
2.13 Positional Tolerances
The conventional method of giving a positional tolerance by tolerancing
co-ordinates is as shown in the Fig 2 19 In the case of hole illustrated, it will be
seen that the tolerance zone for the hole center is a square. If the tolerance
cO-ordinates are not e qual then the zone would be rectangle. Thus the permissible
error inposition of center varies with the direction of error But, in most of the cases
the designer wishes to restrict the amount by which the hole may vary from its true
position irrespective of the direction of error
in holr
Max hole

Centre
toleratnce
2otie

Y0.01
X0.01

Fig. 2.19 Square Tolerance Zone produced by Co-ordinate Tolerances.

The method of tolerancing shown in figures 2.20 (a) and (b) provides a circular
tolerance zone for the center and consequently permits the same error in dlly
direction. A careful studV Of 1igures snow how such tolerancing allows a larger
positional error tor a hole which is not on maximum metal condition
 System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 49

Centre tolerance zone

minimun hole

- Virtual minimum component

Permitted shift minimum hole

X

(a)

Centre tolerance zone

maximum hole

Permitted shift maximum hole

(b)
Showing Effects of Variation of Size from
Fig. 2.20 Circular Tolerance Zone
Maximum Material Condition

relative positions of two or more holes, spigots,

The same
pins or other
principles apply to the
similar types of location. Tolerance on concentricity or symmetry are

principle, the only being that the two features have

difference
exactly the same in
their centre lines separated by a finite
d common centre line instead of having parallelism and
dimension. Incidentally, although the terms concentricity, symmetry,
S0 On are used it is quite illogical to do this. It two diameters of a shaft are not
eccentric and the permissible tolerance is one of
Derfectly concentric, they are
50 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

eccentricity. The word concentricity should be used only when the error is absolutely
zero. However, these tems have become so widely used, although rather loosely,
that they must be accepted and are generally understood.

2.14 Symbols and terms used in IS 919-1965

Basic shaft: is a shaft whose upper deviation is zero eg: shaft "h
Basic hole: is one whose lower deviation is zero eg : hole "H"

.um

+350
4300 A
Positive +250
+200 HOLES
+150

100 C
+50
Basic size
-50
GHJK
VX
-100 JS
-150
-200
Negative -250
-300
um

+300
Positive +250
+200
+150
100 S
+50
W
Basic size
k m
-50
-100
-150
-200 SHAFTS
Negative
250
-300

-350

Fig 2.21 Letter Symbols for Tolerances

 System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 51
The letter symbolsfor tolerances
on shafts and
For shafts "a" to "g the deviation holes are shown in the Fig
is above the zero line. For holes "A"
is below the
zero
4.4
line and for shafts "" to zC
to "G" lower
deviation is above the zero line and
t
far "" to "ZC" t 1s below the zero
to 'H' coespond exactly in value withline. The fundamental deviations for holes
those for shafts 'a to 'h' but are in
ections. Hole 'A' and shaft 'a'
dinect.
have the opposite
sitive and shaft being negative, and the largest fundamental
fundamental deviations,
deviations for bothhole
'H and
beingn
are zero. Thus the lirst eight designations represent a clearance fit systerm. The
remaining groups JS" to
'ZC (holes) and js' and 'zc (shafts) do not correspond in
their deviations in
quite the same
transition fits. The above facts arethey are intended for use in
way,
interference and
valid irrespective of any basic Size.
In the specifications (Table
2.2), formulae are given to determine the
deviation. The other deviations may be derived directly fundamental
T using the absolute value ol
the tolerance by means of the algebraic
relationship
ei = es - T

es ei + T
Table 2.2
Formulae for shaft & hole dimensions for sizes from 500 mm
upto
3150 mm

Shafts Holes Formulae for

deviation in
Type F.D Sign Type F.D Sign For D in rmm
d es D EI + 16.D0.44

es E EI T 11 DO.41

es F El 5.5 DO.41

es G EI 2.5 D.34
eS H EI
s ei JS ES 0.5 ITn
k ei K ES 0
m ei M ES 0.024D + 12.6
ei N ES 0.04 D + 21
ei P ES 0.072 D + 37.8
ei R ES Geometric mean
between p and S
or P and S

ei ES IT7 +0.4Db
ei T ES IT7 +0.63 D
ei U ES IT7+D
 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology
52
Maximum and Minimum metal condition: Maximun metal condition (MMC)
comesponds lo a condition when a part has maximum amount of metal
For example maximum limit on shaft and minimum limit on the hole. Similarly
minimum metal condition corresponds to minimum size of shaft and maximum size
of hole. MMC is important with regard to geometrical tolerances since it critically
affects the interchangeability of manufactured parts.

2.15 System of Fits

To obtain various types of fits, the amount of maximum and minimum clearances
either positive or negative must exist between the mating parts. VWhile allotting the
tolerances between the two mating parts, from the production and economic point
of view, one of the mating parts limit dimensions is fixed and by varying the limit
dimensions of the other, various types of fits are obtained. Based on this the systerm
of fits are classified as :
() Hole basis system and
(ii) Shaft basis system

2.15.1 Hole Basis System

In hole basis system hole limit dimensions are considered constant and various
types of fits are obtained by suitably varying the limit dimensions of the shaft.
Fig. 2.22 shows the clearance and interference fits in the hole basis system.

Tolerance zone
on the shaft
Tolerance zone
on the shaft

2
Basic
SIze

Clearance fit Interference fit

Basic Hole

Fig. 2.22 Hole Basis System

2.15.2 Shaft Basis System

In shaft basis system, the shaft limil dimensions are kept constant and various
types of fits are obtained by varying the limit dimensions of hole. Fig. 2.23 shows thne
clearance and interference fits in the shaft basis system.
 System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 53

Tolerance 201e TolerariC zone

on the hole on the hole

Basic
size

Basic shaft

Clearance fit Interference fit

Fig 2.23 Shaft Basis System

2.15.3 Significance of Hole Basis System

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) recommends both hole basis and shaft
pasis system, but their selection depends on the production methods. Generally
noles are produced by drilling, boring, reaming, broaching etc., Whereas the shafts
are either turned or ground. Suppose the shait basis system is used to specify the
imit dimensions, to obtain various types of fits, number of holes of different sizes
are required, which in turn requires tools of different types and sizes. If the hole
basis system is used, there will be reduction in the production costs, as only one tool
s required to produce the hole and also the shalt can be easily machined to any

desired size. Hence, the hole basis system is prefemed when compared to the shaft
basis system.

2.16 Tolerance Grade

The tolerance grade is an indication of the degree of accuracy of manufacture.
In Indian Standard (IS) specification, 18 grades of tolerances are designated as IT01,
T0, ITI upto IT16. These are known as standard tolerances, and their numerical
Values have been determined in terms of thc slandard tolerance unit i, where i in

nicrons is expressed as

p +0.001 D (lor basic size upto and including 500 mm),

i(microns) = 0.45
where D is in mm and it is the geometric mean of the lower and upper diameter of
lies.
dparticular step in which the dianeter
For basic sizes from 500 mm uplo and mcludng 3150 mm, the standard

Olerance unit is / and is calculated by:

I= 0.004 D + 2.1 where 'D' is in mm.

dermved on the basis of the former

The above formula has been empirically
account ol the fact that in most
ldlional standards of other countries and taking
 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology
54

usual cases the tolerance varies more or less parabolically in terms of diameter for
the same manufacturing conditions. This is so because of the difficulties encountered
during manufacture and measuring of higher size diameters. The relative magnitude
of each grade is given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3

Tol.Grades | IT5 ITG | IT7| IT8 | IT9|IT10 IT11IT12 |IT13 IT14 IT15 IT16
640i 1000i
Values7i10 16i 25i | 40i 64i 100i 160i 250i 400i
The idea of various grades of tolerance can be had from the applications stated
in the Table 2.4.
Table 2.4

Tolerance Grade Class of work

01, 0, 1 Gauge blocks

High quality gauges, plug gauges

3. Good quality gauges, Gap gauges.
4. Gauges, precise fit produced by lapping.
Ball bearings, machine lapping, Fine boring and Grinding.
6. Grinding, Fine boring.

7. High quality turning, broaching, boring.

Centre-lathe turning and boring, Reaming, capstan lathes
in good condition.

9. Capstan or automatic lathes, Boring machines.

10 Milling, slotting, planing, rolling, extrusion.

11. Drilling, rough turning and boring, precision tube drawing
12 Light press work, tube drawing.

13. Press work, Tube rolling

14. Die casting, or molding, rubber molding.

15. Stamping
16. Sand casting, Flame cutting.

It may be noted that the value ol tolerance grade is not calculated on the basis
of actual size but is taken as geometric mean of upper and lower value of the range
in which it falls.

The various diameter steps specified by ISI are 1-3, 3-6, 6-10, 10-18, 18-30,
30-50, 50-80, 80-120, 120-180, 180,250, 250-315, 315-400, and 400-500 mm.
 system of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 55
The diameter D is taken as the
average size (geometric mean) for la
ange of Size to aVoIa
conunuous variation of
a
particular
tolerance with size.
2.17 Numerical Problemss
Problem1

Calculate the limits of tolerance and allowance for a 25 mm shaft and hole pair
designated by Ha.
(V.T.U March2001)
Solution: The given 25 mm diameter lies in the standard diameter step or
1S-30 mm.

D =
18 x 30 23.238 mm
The value of fundamental tolerance unit i = 0.45 D + 0.001 D

i = 0.45 23.238 + 0.001 x 23.238

= 1.307

1.3
For a hole quality 8, the fundamental tolerance from the table 2.3 is 25 i
= 25 x 1.3

= 32.5 33 u =
0.033 mm
For the "H" hole, the fundamental deviation = 0. (From Table 2.2)

Hence the hole limits are 25mm and 25 + 0.033 mm = 25.033 mm

Hole tolerance = 25.033 25 = 0.033 mm.

For the quality "9" shaft, the fundamental tolerance = 40 i = 40 x 1.3 = 52

table 2.2
For "d" shaft the fundamental deviation from the
= -16 DO.44

= -16(23.238).= -63.86 u
= -

64 = -

0.064mm.

The shaft limits are 25 0.064 =

24.936 mm.
0.052) 24.884 mm
and 25 (0.064 +

24.936 24.884 = 0.052 mm

and Tolerance =
 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology
56

Hole

Tolerance Zero line

0.033 mm
Fundamental deviation
= -0.064 mm

Shaft
Tolerance
25.033 mm = 0.052 mm dg
25.000 mm
24.936 mm
24.884 mm

Fig. 2.24

Probem 2
Determine the tolerances on the hole and the
shaft for a precision running fit
designated by 50 H, &s
Given 1) 50 mm lies between 30 50 mm

2) i(microns) =
0.45 (D)+0.001 D
Fundamental deviation for 'H hole = 0
3)
Fundamental deviation for "g" shaft = -
2.5 D34
4)
5) IT7 = 16/ 6) IT6= 10/
State the actual maximum and minimum sizes of the hole and shaft and
maximum and minimum clearances. (V.T.U July 2002, 04)
Solution: 50 mm lies in diameter step 30 50 mm

D = 30x 50 38.7 mm
i (microns) = 0.45 (D)"" + 0.001 D ;where D is in mm

i =0.45 (38.7) + 0.001x 38.7

i =1.5597
For hole 'H the fundamental deviation = 0

Tolerance grade and its value for H, hole is

IT7 = 16i

= 16 x 1.5597 = 24.9552 = 25

Limits of 50 H, Hole = 50 mm
 System of Limlts, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 57

Fundamental deviation for shaft

'g'=-2.5 pO.34
2.5(38.7)0.34
=
- 8.664 -9
Tolerance grade and its value for g. shaft is

IT6 =
10i= 10 x 1.6 16=

Limit of 50 g shaft = 500009

-0.025

Hole H7- 25
Zeroline
9
50 mm

16 Shaft 86

Fig. 2.25
Actual maximum and minimum size of hole is 50.025 to 50.000 mm and for
shaft is 49.991 to 49.975 mm
Maximum clearance = 50.025 - 49.975 = 0.05 mm

Minimum clearance =50.000 - 49.991= 0.009 mm

Probem3
In a hole and shaft combination of 25 mm nominal size.
+0.021 mm -0.040 mm
H, hole limits are -0.000 mm eshaftlimits are -0.073 mm
) State the values of maximum and minimum clearances obtainable.
(i) Allowance (mini hole - max.shaft).

ii)Tolerance on the hole and shaft. (iv) Type of fit.

Solution : Maximum size of hole = 25.000 +0.021 = 25.021 mm

Minimum size of hole = 25.000 0.000 = 25.000 mm

Maximum size of shaft = 25.000 0.040 = 24.960 mm

Minimum size of shaft 25.000 0.073 = 24.927 mm

Maximum clearance = largest hole - smallest shaft

58 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

= 25.021 - 24.927

0.094 mm
Minimum clearance = smallest hole largest shaft
25.000 - 24.960

=0.04 mm
Allowance = minimum hole maximum shaft
= 25.000 - 24.960

=0.04 mm
Tolerance on hole = 25.021 25.000 =0.021 mm

Tolerance on shaft =
24.960 - 24.927 =0.033 mm|
Type of fit is clearance fit.

Probem 4
Determine the dimensions of the shaft and hole for a fit 30 Hlda and
sketch the fit, given the following data
) Diameter 30 falls in the dia range 18 -30, upper deviation for "d" shaft
is 16 DD44
(ii) i = 0.45 D + 0.001 D. Tolerance for IT8=
IT10 = 64i
25 i. Tolerance for
(V.T.U. Jan.2003)
Solution : D= /18 x 30 =
23.24 mm
i = 0.45 (23.24)+ 0.001 (23.24)
= 1.307

Hole limits : F.D = 0

Fundamental tolerance, F.T =

25i =
32.68 =
0.0327 mm
Hole limits are 30.000 to 30.0327 mm or 30+0.0327
-0.000
mm.

Shaft limits F.D = -

16 (D)"= 16 (23.24).4 -

=
-0.0639 mm.
F.T =64i =
64 x 1.307 =
83.648 u =
0.0836 mm.
.. Shaft limits are 30.000 0.0639 =
29.9361 mm
and 30 (0.0639 +0.0836) =
29.8525 mm
Shaft limits = 30 -0.0639
-0.1475 mm
 System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and 59
Gauging

Hole lHg
0.0327 mm
7ero line

0.0639 rnm
30 mnN

0.0836 mm
Shaft djo

Fig. 2.26
Probem 5
Determine the type of fit after deciding the fundamental deviations and
tolerances in the following. (V.T.U Feb 2002)
Fit o 70 H e, Diameterstep (50 -80)
Fundamental deviation for e shaft = -11 D4
IT7 = 16i IT9 = 400i

i0.45 D +0.001 D
Solution D= /50 x 80 = 63.246 mm

i = 0.45 V63.246 +0.001(63.246)=1.856

F.D =0 for hole H
Hole limits for H,:
Fundamental tolerance, F.T = 40i =40 x 1.856 = 74.246 = 0.0743 mm

+0.0743 or 70 and 70.0743 mm

Hole limits are
70-0.0000 mm
Shaft limits for e, : F.D = -11(63.346).4= -60.23 = -0.0603 mm

F.T 16i =
16 x 1.856 29.696 u =
0.0297 mm

Shaft limits are

70 - 0.0603 = 69.9397 mm

and 70 (0.0603 + 0.0297) = 69.91 mm

-0.0603
Shaft limits are 7 0 mm

T h e type of fit is a clearance fit.

60 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

Hole Hy

0.0743 mm| Zero line

0.0603 mm
70 mm
0.09 mm
0.0297 mm Shaft e7

Fig. 2.27

Probem 6
Calculate all the relevant dimensions of 35 H fit, dimension 35 falls in the
step of 30 - 50 mm. Fundamental deviation for " f" shaft is - 5.5 D.41,

S = 0.45¥D + 0.001D, IT7 = 16 S°, IT8 = 25 S°. (V.T.U March 2000)

Solution: D= 30x50 38.73 mm

i =0.45 D +0.001D =
0.45 38.73 0.001 (38.73) =1.5612
i = 0.0015 mmn

Hole limits for H,: F.D = 0 for hole "H"

F.T = 16 i = 16x 0.0015 = 0.024 mm

35 +0.0240
Limits of H, hole
.'.
=3-0.0000
Shaft limits for f.: F.D =
-5.5 D"= -5.5 (38.73).l = -24.63 u =
-0.0246 mm
F.T = 25 i = 25 x 0.0015

= 0.0375 mm

Shaft limits are

35 - 0.0246 =
34.9754 mm
and 35 -

(0.0246 + 0.0375) =
34.9379 mm

.'. Limits of f shift =|35-0.0246

-0.0621
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 CHAPTER
Metrology of Surface
9 Finish

After studying this chapter, the reader will be able to

• appreciate the importance of surface texture measurement
and its significance
• understand the basic reasons for surface irregularities
• explain the terminology associated with the quantification and
measurement of surface irregularities
• describe the surface texture characteristics and their symbolic
representations
• elucidate the various methods of measurement of surface
roughness
• explain the relationship between wavelength of surface
roughness, frequency, and cut-off

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In contrast to the concepts we have studied hitherto, surface metrology is basically concerned
with deviations between points on the same surface. On the other hand, in all other topics,
the fundamental concern has been the relationship between a feature of a part or assembly
and some other feature. Even though surface texture is important in many fields of interest
such as aesthetics and cosmetics, among others, the primary concern in this chapter pertains to
manufactured items that are subject to stress, move in relation to one another, and have close
fits joining them. Surface roughness (a term used in a general way here, since it has specific
connotations that will be explained shortly) or surface texture depends, to a large extent, on the
type of the manufacturing operation. If rough surface for a part is acceptable, one may choose
a casting, forging, or rolling operation. In many cases, the surfaces that need to contact each
other for some functional requirement have to be machined, possibly followed by a finishing
operation like grinding.
The reasons for pursuing surface metrology as a specialized subject are manifold. We would
like to make our products operate better, cost less, and look better. In order to achieve these
objectives, we need to examine the surfaces of the parts or components more closely, at the
microscopic level. It would be naive to assume that two apparently flat contacting surfaces are
in perfect contact throughout the apparent area of contact. Most of the earlier laws of friction
were based on this assumption (perhaps until 1950). In reality, surfaces have asperities, which
218 ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

refer to the peaks and valleys of surface irregularities. Contact between the mating parts is
believed to take place at the peaks. When the parts are forced against each other, they deform
either elastically or plastically. In case of elastic behaviour, they return to the full height after
deformation by the mating surface. If they behave plastically, some of the deformation is
permanent. These aspects have a bearing on the friction characteristics of the parts in contact.
As mechanical engineering is primarily concerned with machines and moving parts that are
designed to precisely fit with each other, surface metrology has become an important topic in
engineering metrology.

9.2 SURFACE METROLOGY CONCEPTS

If one takes a look at the topology of a surface, one can notice that surface irregularities are
superimposed on a widely spaced component of surface texture called waviness. Surface
irregularities generally have a pattern and are oriented in a particular direction depending on
the factors that cause these irregularities in the first place. Figure 9.1 illustrates some of these
features.

Lay direction

Traversing Waviness spacing

length

Waviness height

Roughness
Peak average

Centre line
Valley Roughness
spacing

Fig. 9.1 Waviness and roughness

Surface irregularities primarily arise due to the following factors:

1. Feed marks of cutting tools
2. Chatter marks on the workpiece due to vibrations caused during the manufacturing operation
3. Irregularities on the surface due to rupture of workpiece material during the metal cutting
operation
 METROLOGY OF SURFACE FINISH 219

4. Surface variations caused by the deformation of workpiece under the action of cutting forces
5. Irregularities in the machine tool itself like lack of straightness of guideways
Thus, it is obvious that it is practically impossible to produce a component that is free from
surface irregularities. Imperfections on a surface are in the form of succession of hills and
valleys varying in both height and spacing. In order to distinguish one surface from another,
we need to quantify surface roughness; for this purpose, parameters such as height and spacing
of surface irregularities can be considered. In mechanical engineering applications, we are
primarily concerned with the roughness of the surface influenced by a machining process.
For example, a surface machined by a single-point cutting tool will have a roughness that is
uniformly spaced and directional. In the case of a finish machining, the roughness is irregular
and non-directional. In general, if the hills and valleys on a surface are closely packed, the
wavelength of the waviness is small and the surface appears rough. On the other hand, if the
hills and valleys are relatively far apart, waviness is the predominant parameter of interest
and is most likely caused by imperfections in the machine tool. If the hills and valleys are
closely packed, the surface is said to have a primary texture, whereas surfaces with pronounced
waviness are said to have a secondary texture.

9.3 TERMINOLOGY
Roughness The American Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers (ASTME) defines
roughness as the finer irregularities in the surface texture, including those irregularities that
result from an inherent action of the production process. Roughness spacing is the distance
between successive peaks or ridges that constitute the predominant pattern of roughness.
Roughness height is the arithmetic average deviation expressed in micrometres and measured
perpendicular to the centre line.
Waviness It is the more widely spaced component of surface texture. Roughness may be
considered to be superimposed on a wavy surface. Waviness is an error in form due to incorrect
geometry of the tool producing the surface. On the other hand, roughness may be caused by
problems such as tool chatter or traverse feed marks in a supposedly geometrically perfect
machine. The spacing of waviness is the width between successive wave peaks or valleys.
Waviness height is the distance from a peak to a valley.
Lay It is the direction of the predominant surface pattern, ordinarily determined by the
production process used for manufacturing the component. Symbols are used to represent lays
of surface pattern, which will be discussed in Section 9.5.
Flaws These are the irregularities that occur in isolation or infrequently because of specific
causes such as scratches, cracks, and blemishes.
Surface texture It is generally understood as the repetitive or random deviations from the
nominal surface that form the pattern of the surface. Surface texture encompasses roughness,
waviness, lay, and flaws.
Errors of form These are the widely spaced repetitive irregularities occurring over the full
length of the work surface. Common types of errors of form include bow, snaking, and lobbing.
220 ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

9.4 ANALYSIS OF SURFACE TRACES

It is required to assign a numerical value to surface roughness in order to measure its degree. This
will enable the analyst to assess whether the surface quality meets the functional requirements
of a component. Various methodologies are employed to arrive at a representative parameter of
surface roughness. Some of these are 10-point height average (Rz), root mean square (RMS)
value, and the centre line average height (Ra), which are explained in the following paragraphs.

9.4.1 Ten-point Height Average Value

It is also referred to as the peak-to-valley height. In this case, we basically consider the average
height encompassing a number of successive peaks and valleys of the asperities. As can be
seen in Fig. 9.2, a line AA parallel to the general lay of the trace is drawn. The heights of five
consecutive peaks and valleys from the line AA are noted down.
The average peak-to-valley height Rz is given by the following expression:
(h + h + h + h + h ) − (h2+ h4+ h6+ h8+ h10) 1000
Rz = 1 3 5 7 9 × µm
5 Vertical magnification

9.4.2 Root Mean Square Value

Until recently, RMS value was a popular choice for quantifying surface roughness; however,
this has been superseded by the centre line average value. The RMS value is defined as the
square root of the mean of squares of the ordinates of the surface measured from a mean line.
Figure 9.3 illustrates the graphical procedure for arriving at an RMS value.
With reference to this figure, if h1, h2, ..., hn are equally spaced ordinates at points 1, 2, ... ,
n, then
2 2 2
(h1 + h2 + … + hn )
h5 h7 hRMS =
h9 n
h1 h3
9.4.3 Centre Line Average Value
h2 h4 h6 h8 The Ra value is the prevalent standard for
h10
A A measuring surface roughness. It is defined
Fig. 9.2 Measurement to calculate the 10-point height average
as the average height from a mean line of all
ordinates of the surface, regardless of sign.
Mean line With reference to Fig. 9.4, it can be shown that
A + A +…+ AN
Ra = 1 2
L
0 12 34 = ΣA/L
5 6 7 8 9 Interestingly, four countries (USA,
Canada, Switzerland, and Netherlands) have
exclusively adopted Ra value as the standard
L
for measuring surface roughness. All other
countries have included other assessment
Fig. 9.3 Representation of an RMS value methods in addition to the Ra method. For
 METROLOGY OF SURFACE FINISH 221

instance, France has seven add- Mean line

itional standards.
It should be mentioned here A2 A4 A6
that the Ra value is an index for
surface texture comparison and not
a dimension. This value is always A1 A3 A5
much less than the peak-to-valley
height. It is generally a popular
choice as it is easily understood L
and applied for the purpose of Fig. 9.4 Representation of Ra value
measurement. The bar chart shown
in Fig. 9.5 illustrates the typical Ra values obtained in basic manufacturing operations.

Process Ra value in micrometres

50–25 25–10 10–2.5 2.5–1 1–0.2 0.2–0.05 0.05–0.01
Flame cutting

Sawing

Drilling

Milling

Reaming

Laser machining

Grinding

Lapping

Sand casting

Forging

Fig. 9.5 Bar chart indicating the range of Ra values for various manufacturing operations
Note: The bars indicate the entire range. In most cases, the Ra value is restricted to the mid
50% portion of the bars.

9.5 SPECIFICATION OF SURFACE TEXTURE CHARACTERISTICS

Design and production engineers should be familiar with the standards adopted for specification
of the characteristics of surface texture. Symbols are used to designate surface irregularities
such as the lay of surface pattern and the roughness value. Figure 9.6 illustrates the symbolic
222 ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

Lay parallel to the line representing the surface

to which the symbol is applied

Lay perpendicular to the line representing the

surface to which the symbol is applied

Lay angular in both directions to line representing

the surface to which the symbol is applied

M Lay multidirectional

C Lay approximately circular relative to the centre of

the surface to which the symbol is applied

R Lay approximately radial relative to the centre of

the surface to which the symbol is applied

Fig. 9.6 Symbolic representation of the various types of lays of a surface texture

Maximum waviness Maximum waviness

height, mm width, mm
0.02–5
Maximum Roughness width cut-
25
roughness height 0.08 off, mm
12 Maximum roughness
Minimum
0.042 width, mm
roughness height

Lay

Fig. 9.7 Surface texture symbols

representation of the various types of lays and Fig. 9.7 highlights surface texture symbols with
specifications.

9.6 METHODS OF MEASURING SURFACE FINISH

There are basically two approaches for measuring surface finish: comparison and direct
measurement. The former is the simpler of the two but is more subjective in nature. The
comparative method advocates assessment of surface texture by observation or feel of the
surface. Microscopic examination is an obvious improvisation of this method. However, it still
 METROLOGY OF SURFACE FINISH 223

has two major drawbacks. First, the view of a surface may be deceptive; two surfaces that
appear identical may be quite different. Second, the height of the asperities cannot be readily
determined. Touch is perhaps a better method than visual observation. However, this method
is also subjective in nature and depends, to a large extent, on the judgement of a person, and
therefore not reliable.
These limitations have driven metrology experts to devise ways and means of directly
measuring surface texture by employing direct methods. Direct measurement enables a
numerical value to be assigned to the surface finish. The following sections explain the popular
methods for the determination of surface texture.

9.7 STYLUS SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT

The stylus system of measurement is the most popular method to measure surface finish.
The operation of stylus instruments is quite similar to a phonograph pickup. A stylus drawn
across the surface of the workpiece generates electrical signals that are proportional to the
dimensions of the asperities. The output can be generated on a hard copy unit or stored on some
magnetizable media. This enables extraction of measurable parameters from the data, which
can quantify the degree of surface roughness. The following are the features of a stylus system:
1. A skid or shoe drawn over the workpiece surface such that it follows the general contours of
the surface as accurately as possible (the skid also provides the datum for the stylus)
2. A stylus that moves over the surface along with the skid such that its motion is vertical rela-
tive to the skid, a property that enables the stylus to capture the contours of surface rough-
ness independent of surface waviness
3. An amplifying device for magnifying the stylus movements
4. A recording device to produce a trace or record of the surface profile
5. A means for analysing the profile thus obtained

9.7.1 Stylus and Datum

There are two types of stylus instruments: true datum and surface datum, which are also known
as skidless and skid type, respectively. In the skidless instrument, the stylus is drawn across the
surface by a mechanical movement that results in a precise path. The path is the datum from
which the assessment is made. In the skid-type instrument, the stylus pickup unit is supported
by a member that rests on the surface and slides along with it. This additional member is
the skid or the shoe. Figure 9.8 illustrates the
relationship between the stylus and the skid.
Skids are rounded at the bottom and fixed to
the pickup unit. They may be located in front
of or behind the stylus. Some instruments use
a shoe as a supporting slide instead of a skid.
Shoes are flat pads with swivel mountings in
the head. The datum created by a skid or a
shoe is the locus of its centre of curvature as Skid Stylus
Surface
it slides along the surface.
The stylus is typically a diamond having a Fig. 9.8 Skid and stylus type
224 ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

cone angle of 90° and a spherical tip radius of 1–5 µm or even less. The stylus tip radius should
be small enough to follow the details of the surface irregularities, but should also have the
strength to resist wear and shocks. Stylus load should also be controlled so that it does not leave
additional scratch marks on the component being inspected.
In order to capture the complete picture of surface irregularities, it is necessary to investigate
waviness (secondary texture) in addition to roughness (primary texture). Waviness may occur
with the same lay as the primary texture. While a pointed stylus is used to measure roughness,
a blunt stylus is required to plot the waviness.

9.8 STYLUS PROBE INSTRUMENTS

In most stylus-based instruments, a stylus drawn across the surface of a component being
inspected generates electrical signals that are proportional to the changes in the surface
asperities. An electrical means of amplifying signals, rather than a purely mechanical one,
minimizes the pressure of the stylus on the component. Changes in the height of asperities may
be directly read by a meter or a chart. Most instruments provide a graph of the stylus path along
the surface. The following paragraphs explain some of the popular stylus probe instruments
used for measuring surface roughness.

9.8.1 Tomlinson Surface Meter

This is a mechanical–optical instrument designed by Dr Tomlinson of the National Physical
laboratory of the UK. Figure 9.9 illustrates the construction details of the Tomlinson surface
meter. The sensing element is the stylus, which moves up and down depending on the
irregularities of the workpiece surface. The stylus is constrained to move only in the vertical
direction because of a leaf spring and a coil spring. The tension in the coil spring P causes a
similar tension in the leaf spring. These two combined forces hold a cross-roller in position
between the stylus and a pair of parallel fixed rollers. A shoe is attached to the body of the
instrument to provide the required datum for the measurement of surface roughness.
A light spring steel arm is P Spring
attached to the cross-roller
and carries a diamond tip. The Fixed rollers Trace
Body
translatory motion of the stylus Crossed
causes rotation of the cross- rollers A
roller about the point A, which in
turn is converted to a magnified
motion of the diamond point.
The diamond tip traces the
profile of the workpiece on a Stylus P
Spring Diamond
smoked glass sheet. The glass
steel arm tip
sheet is transferred to an optical Smoked
projector and magnified further. Skid Leaf glass
spring
Typically, a magnification of
Workpiece
the order of 50–100 is easily
Fig. 9.9 Tomlinson surface meter
achieved in this instrument.
 METROLOGY OF SURFACE FINISH 225

In order to get a trace of the surface

E-shaped irregularities, a relative motion needs
stamping to be generated between the stylus and
A A the workpiece surface. Usually, this
B C requirement is met by moving the body
Armature
of the instrument slowly with a screw
driven by an electric motor at a very slow
Skid Workpiece
surface
speed. Anti-friction guide-ways are used
to provide friction-free movement in a
Fig. 9.10 Taylor–Hobson talysurf straight path.
Meter 9.8.2 Taylor–Hobson Talysurf
The Taylor–Hobson talysurf works
Filter
on the same principle as that of the
Demodulator
Amplifier

Tomlinson surface meter. However,

unlike the surface meter, which is purely a
Recorder
mechanical instrument, the talysurf is an
electronic instrument. This factor makes
the talysurf a more versatile instrument
and can be used in any condition, be it a
Oscillator metrology laboratory or the factory shop
floor.
Fig. 9.11 Bridge circuit and electronics
Figure 9.10 illustrates the cross section
of the measuring head. The stylus is attached to an armature, which pivots about the centre of
piece of an E-shaped stamping. The outer legs of the E-shaped stamping are wound with electrical
coils. A predetermined value of alternating current (excitation current) is supplied to the coils. The
coils form part of a bridge circuit. A skid or shoe provides the datum to plot surface roughness.
The measuring head can be traversed in a linear path by an electric motor. The motor, which
may be of a variable speed type or provided with a gear box, provides the required speed for the
movement of the measuring head.
As the stylus moves up and down due to surface irregularities, the armature is also displaced.
This causes variation in the air gap, leading to an imbalance in the bridge circuit. The resulting
bridge circuit output consists of only modulation. This is fed to an amplifier and a pen recorder
is used to make a permanent record (Fig. 9.11). The instrument has the capability to calculate
and display the roughness value according to a standard formula.

9.8.3 Profilometer
A profilometer is a compact device that can be used for the direct measurement of surface
texture. A finely pointed stylus will be in contact with the workpiece surface. An electrical
pickup attached to the stylus amplifies the signal and feeds it to either an indicating unit or a
recording unit. The stylus may be moved either by hand or by a motorized mechanism.
The profilometer is capable of measuring roughness together with waviness and any other
surface flaws. It provides a quick-fix means of conducting an initial investigation before
attempting a major investigation of surface quality.
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 UNIT

6
Intermediate Modifying and Terminating
Devices

6.1 Introduction
In most of the cases the mechanical quantity which was detected is
transduced into an electrical form. The output of the first stage has to be
modified before it becomes usable and satisfactory to drive the third stage
devices such as indicator, recorder, data processing elements or control elements
In this chapter the methods used in the intermediate, signal conditioning
step to modify the transduced signal into an usable form for third stage devices
are discussed.
Measurement of dynamic mechanical quantities requires faithful representation
their analogue or digital output obtained from the intermediate stage
(signal conditioning stage) and this places a severe strain on the signal conditioning
equipments.
Signal conditioning equipment may be required to do linear processess
like amplification, attenuation, integration, diferentiation,
addition, and subtraction.
They are also required to do non-linear processes like modulation, demodulation,
sampling, filtering or multiplication by another function etc. These tasks are
not simple and require proper selection of components and most faithful
methods of reproducing output signals, for the third stage devices.

6.2 Mechanical Systems : Inherent Problems

An input signal is often converted to a mechanical displacement
primary detector-transducers. It is then usually fed to a by the
which converts it into an electrical form, which inturn can secondary transducer
be easily processed by
the intermediate stage devices. However, in some
cases, mechanical
displacement
is fed to
mechanical intermediate elements using
These mechanical elements present linkages, gearing, cams etc.
design problems of considerable magnitude,
particularly if dynamic inputs have to be handled.
For example consider mechanical type, dynamic
a

namely piston and measuring instrument

spring engine pressure indicator. The
transducer is the piston-cylinder and
primary detector
spring combination. The pressure in the engine
cylinder is detected and transduced to a displacement. Further, it is modified
before it is used by the recorder. The maximum
engine-indicator's lever is 7.5 mm and an amplification ofdisplacement of thea
6 is achieved using
pantograph linkage mechanism. The size of the mechanism used to get this
 Intermediate Modifylng and Terminating Devices 201

plification is quite big compared to a corresponding electrical amplification. Further

re are several problems associated with mechanical systerns when used as
intermediate modilying elements.
The following are some of the problems inherent in any mechanical
intermediate modilying system.

6.2.1 Kinematic Linearity

The inkages used for amplification should be such that a linear relationship
evists between the input and the output i.e., at every point on the linkage the
since the
designed amplification should be obtained. This is difficult to achieve
are likely to under go deformation due to usage. And also control of
linkages
tolerances on link dimensions and fixed pivot-point locations are important.

6.2.2 Mechanical Amplification or Gain

in terms of "Gain". This gain is
Mechanical amplification may be expressed a

equal to the mechanical advantage.

Gain Mechanical advantage

Output displacement
Input displacement

Output velocity
Input velocity
When mechanical amplification is used, errors are caused on account of
inertial loading, elastic deformation, frictional loading and backlash. Errors resulting
from inertial loading and elastic deformation could be classified as systematic
errors, whereas those due to frictional loading
and backlash would be
random errors.

6.2.3 Reflected Frictional Amplification

Any source of friction in the linkages will result in a force which gets
amplified by the designed amplification between the source and the input.
This effect is referred as 'reflected frictional amplification'. If there are
several sources of such friction, all these sources will leads to forces which gets
aimplified and reflected to the input. This is expressed by the equation

F = AF

rTotal reflected frictional force at the input of the system.

A Mechanical amplification or gain.

F actual frictional force at its source
 202 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

6.2.4 Reflected Inertial Ampllfication

Inertial forces causes problems similar to those caused by friction forces.
Their effects are also reflected back to the input in proportion to the amplilication
between the source of the force and the input. However, inertial forces are
distributed and are dynamic in nature, whereas frictional forces are concentrated
and static in nature. The inertial force may be expressed as,

Fi 2AAF
where ir Total reflected inertial force to be overcome at the system input.

A Mechanical amplification or gain

A Inertial force increment at any point in the system
The inertial force varies with acceleration which varies directly as the square
of the velocity. Hence, whenever speeds are involved, inertial forces are more.
Therefore, the total reflected force is given by,
F = Fr + Fr

6.2.5 Amplification of Backlash

Backlash results from a temporary non-constraint in a linkage, caused
by clearances required in mechanical fits where relative motion occurs.
Backlash results in a lost motion at the output equal to the actual backlash
multiplied by the amplification between the source of backlash and the output.
In considering the effects of backlash, it is convenient to
express in terms of
displacement losses being projected ahead to the output rather than being
reflected back to the input.
If, ya Backlash resulting in loss of motion in the kinematic train.

Ybp Total projected displacement loss resulting from backlash.

A Amplification or gain between the source of loss and the
output.
Then
Ybp 2A y

6.2.6 Amplification of Elastic Deformation

Elastic deformation is the 'give' or 'spring' in
the parts resulting directly
from the loads that are
being handled. It also causes a lost
output like backlash, but elastic deformations are distributed motion at the
kinematic train unlike backlash which is a through out the
point
source.

Yep 2A Aye
 Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices 203

Where yeptotal projected displacement loss at the output caused by

elastic deformation.
A amplification between source of loss and output
Ayeelastic deformation increment at any point in the system.
Therefore, the total displacement loss,

p bp* Yep
6.2.7 Tolerance Problems
In any mechanical system relative motion like a journal rotating in
involving
tolerances have to be provided. These tolerance results in a lost
a bearing,
we can minimize the
motion. By keeping the tolerance range as low as possible
motion due to tolerances cannot
lost motion due to tolerances. However, the lost
be totally avoided.

6,2.8 Temperature Problems

and
In practice measuring system cannot react to the design signal alone
a
affects the instrument operation.
ignore all other signals. Temperature adversely
environment for the measuring
It is impossible to maintain a constant temperature
the temperaturevariation and too
system. 1Therefore the usual solution is to accept
variations.
design the methods to compensate for temperature
and affects physical
Temperature variations cause dimensional changes
'zero shift' and 'scale error'
properties, resulting in errors referred to as
) Zero shift
variations is the
It results in a change in the no-input reading, temperature
cases the zero indication on the output
primary cause for this error. In nomal condition. For example, consider
scale is made corresponding to the no-input
when there is no weight
the spring scale which should be set to zero reading
after the scale has been set to zero,
in the pan. If the temperature changes
between the spring and the scale
there may be a differential dimensional changes
is referred to as zero shift. Zero shift
altering the no-load reading. This change caused by expansion
is primarily a function of linear dimensional change
or contraction with changing temperature and can be expressed as,

( 1 + a ar)
at any temperature T, L is the dimension at
where, L, is the dimension
Some reference temperature Ta a is the co-efficient of thermal expansion and

ATis the temperature (T

-

change in
204 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

(1) Scale Error

Temperalure changes also alfects the scale calibration when elastic
load-carrying members are involved. For example in spring scales, the coil and
wire diameters of the spring will be altered with temperature change resulting in
a different spring constant. And they may also change the modulus of elasticity
of the spring material. These changes alter the scale calibration and the resulting
error is referred to as scale error.
The thermoelastic co-efficient may be expressed as,

Eo (1+ CAT)
where, E, is the tensile modulus of elasticity at any temperature T, E
is the tensile modulus of elasticity at temperature To, C is the co-efficient for
tensile modulus of elasticity and AT is the change in temperature.

6.2.9 Methods for Limiting Temperature Errors

)Minimization : This is achieved by careful selection of materials and the
operating temperature range. The effect can also be minimized by selecting
materials with low temperature co-efficients.

(i) Compensation: This is achieved by selecting inversely reacting elements

such that the error due to one of the elements is compensated by the error due
to the other elements.
(iii) Elimination : This is done by operating the equipments in a temperature
controlled atmosphere.

6.2.10 Advantages of Electrical Methods

Friction and inertia are the two major factors which affect the working of
mechanical intermediate modifying systems. In addition, the
required rigidity,
results in relatively heavy and bulky apparatus. These drawbacks are almost
absent in the electrical systems. Further, voltage amplification of large order
and the power amplification required to drive the
recording systems in third stage
are possible only with electrical methods.
Though a certain amount of power
amplification can be obtained with hydraulic or pneumatic systems the order
of amplification is almost negligible. Hence, electrical methods
are invariably
employed in almost all measurement systems.

6.3 Electrical Intermediate Modifying Devices

Many mechanical input signals are transduced to electrical signals by the
first stage devices. Such transduced signals must be modified so as to be
acceptable for the third stage devices. The modification may consists of voltage
amplification or power amplification or both. In special types the modification
may involve filtering, integration, differentiation, remote recording etc.
 Intermediate Moditying and Terminating Devices 205

6.4 Input circuitry

nepending on the type of transducer used in first-stage for secondary
ansduction, special types of input circuits are used. These electrical transducers
can be of two types
n Passive transducer which require an auxiliary source of energy for further
working. Example bonded wire strain gage.
Active transducer which are self powered. Example piezoelectric transducer.
2)
The type of circuits employed with these transducers are respectively known
nassive circuits and active circuits. A passive transducer requires
the type of
cDecial arrangements to introduce the auxiliary power supply and
aangement depends on the principle involved. For example, resistive pickups
may be powered by an a.c. or d.c. source, whereas capacitive and inductive
types require oniy an Following are the most common forms of
a.c. Source.
input circuits used in transducers (i) Simple current-sensitive circuits
(Ballast circuits (ii) Voltage-dividing circuits (iv) Voltage-balancing potentiometer
circuits (v) Bridge circuits and (vi) Resonant circuits.

6.4.1 Simple Current-sensitive Circuit

Fig. 6.1 shows a simple current sensitive circuit. This circuit uses the flow
of the value
of current through a passive resistance transducer as an indication
of
of the resistance. The transducer may employ any of the various forms
variable-resistance elements. The resistance of transducer changes when there
is a change in the physical quantity which is being measured, thereby causing
a change in the current. This current is sensed and the physical quantity can be
measured - directly by calibrating.

Current indicator
Rm to sense
output current

kR

Resistance-type
transducer

Fig. 6.1 Simple Current Sensitive Circuit

Let R, = maximum resistance of transducer.

resistance of the transducer when measuring a particular value of

kR, =

physical quantity.
RM resistance of the measuring circuit excluding the transducer.
206 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

k represents a percentage factor which may vary from0 to 1 or

0 to 100%, depending on the magnitude of physical quantity being measured.
If the transducer element is in the form of a sliding contact resistor, the value of
varies through the complete range of 0 to 100%. On the other hand, if the
transducer represents a thermistor, then the value of k varies over a limiting
range which does not include 0%.
Using ohm's law the current flowing through the circuit , and hence the
current indicated by the indicator is,

kR + Rm

The maximum value of the current occurs when k = 0,

max
Rm
Rewriting Rm 1
max Rn +kR 1+
Fig. 6.2 shows the variation of inax ratio with k for various values of
R,IR, represents the output and k depends on the input signal and so
represents the input. Thus the Fig. 8.2 represents the input-output relationship for
a current sensitive circuit. It can be observed that the input-output relationship is
non-linear which is undesirable. In addition higher
the ratio R,/R, the greater
m
is the output variation. It can also be noted that the output i is a function of
imax which in turn is dependent on e, This means that careful control
driving voltage is necessary if calibration has to be maintained.

= 0.5
Rn

max

Fig. 6.2 Variation of Output Current with Input Signal k for a Current
Sensitive Circuit
6.5 Electronic Amplifiers
of amplification is
Some form
mechanical measurement. The term
always used in a circuitry intended for
electronic that in some part of the
means
circuit electrons are caused to flow through space in the absence of a physical
conductor. With the advent of solid-state devices such as diodes, transistors
the word electronics has taken on a broader meaning.

In mechanical measurements electronic amplifiers used to

are provide
voltage gain, current gain and impedance transformation. In most of the
transducers electrical voltage is the output. But the voltage level available fromn
the transducer is very low, hence a voltage amplifier is used to increase the
level for subsequent processing. Some times input signal be used to
may
drive a recorder or some control apparatus. In such cases
power must be
increased by using current or power amplifiers. Piezoelectric transducers
produces sufficient signal level, but are accompanied by undesirable high
output impedance level. Disadvantage of high-impedance is their susceptibility
to noise. Low-impedance are much less
prone to this problem. Hence, it is
desirable to include an impedance transformation in the form of an amplifier
which converts high-impedance input to a low-impedance This
output. type
of amplifier is called a buffer.
 Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices 209
Following are the
general principles of ideal
an electronic amplifiers
G) Infinite input impedance n o
input current, hence no load on the
previous stage,
(ii) Infinite gain,
(ii) Low noise or zero
output impedance,
(iv) Instant response,
(v) Zero output for zero input,
(vi) Ability to ignore or reject unwanted inputs.
6.6 Vacuum-tube Amplifiers
In this, electronic amplification is based
on the fact that electrons emitted
from a heated cathode are attracted to a positively charged plate, causing a
current to flow in the plate circuit as shown in the Fig. 6.5. The flow of electrons
are controlled by a grid which is placed between the cathode and the plate
and is negatively charged relative to the cathode. This negative voltage on
the grid is called bias voltage. Variations in the charge on the grid supplied by
the input signal controls the current flow in the plate circuit. As shown in the
Fig. 6.5, C supplies the necessary bias voltage, B provides the plate supply, and
A heats the cathode. In practice, these voltages are drawn from a common
supply using voltage dividers

Plate
Grid-
Cathode

Signal
input Amplifier
load
Heater supply
(A)

Bias voltage Plate supply

(C) (B)

Fig. 6.5 Single Stage Amplifier Circuit

This illustrates a single stage of amplification. Number of stages may be connected
the
together for greater amplifications so that the load of the first stage becomes
input for the II stage and so on.
The electronic amplifiers are classified as follows

6.6.1 Voltage and Power Amplifiers

If the terminating device is an indicator, only voltage amplification is

Sufficientand such an amplifier is called voltage amplifier. If the terminating

is
uevice consists of a recorder or sonme form of controller then additional power
210 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

to drive these devices. Ampliliers which anplify the power in addition

required
to voltage for driving such devices are known as power anplifiers

6.6.2 A-C and D-C Amplifiers

classified depending on the type of input signal which they
Amplifiers are

will accept. D.C.amplifiers are difficult to design and can handle both constant
as well as varying inputs. But it is difficult to maintain constant amplification.
An A.C. amplifier can handle only varying inputs.

6.6.3 Chopper Amplifiers

An A.C. amplifier may be used to amplify a D.C. input with the help of an
additional circuit component known as chopper and such an amplifier is called

chopper amplifier. Chopper is an electrically driven on-off switch as shown in the

Fig. 6.6(a)

(b) D.C signal

Output displayed by
Input CRO
A.C voltage
amplifying
stages

(c) Dynamic signal

displayed by
(a) Schematic of chopper amplifier CRO

Fig. 6.6
Application of an A.C. voltage to the driver coil causes the chopper to
vibrate between a pair of contacts. When a D.C. input signal is connected,
the amplifier receives a chopped or square-wave voltage which being an
A.C. amplifier, it amplifies without any difficulty.
Figures 6.6 (b) and (c) indicates the amplifier output displayed on a cathode ray
oscilloscope (CRO) screen for constant and a dynamic input respectively.
In each case, the lower trace is present providing a reference line. When the signal
frequency approaches that of chopping frequency, problem arises. A minimum
ratio of 10:1 between the chopped frequency and the signal frequency is the limit
for chopper amplifiers i.e., the input signal îrequency should not be more than
1/10th of chopped frequeney.
 Intermediate Modityling and
Terminating Devices 211
6.6.4 Carrier Amplifiers
signal information is often carried on an a.c.
Input
the input signal is said to modulate the carrier frequency.frequency, in which case
Certain special-purpose
amplifiers include carrier source as a part of the amplifier, such
are called carrier amplifiers. Carrier systems provide arrangements
amplitude is blind to sign of the input signal.
an a.c. output whose

The output from a differential transformer is

example
signal. The transtormer is energised by an a.c. exciting
an
frequency. The core
of a modulated
position either static or varying determines the
amplitude of the output.
Certain special carrier amplifiers may incorporate the phase discriminator circuit,
to discriminate the signals resulting from different core positions in the case of
a differential transformer. Fig. 6.7 shows the block
system for a differential transformer.
diagram of a carrier amplifier

Signal from A-C voltage Phase discriminator

differential transformer amplifier circuit Output

Energy source for Carrier oscillator

differential transfomer SOurce of carrier
frequency)

Fig. 6.7 Block Diagram of a Carrier Amplifier System for a Differential

Transformer

6.6.5 Tuned Amplifiers

Amplifiers which are designed to allow or amplify only a predetermined
frequency as in the case of a carier system, are said to be tuned. They consists
of a separate component called the tuned filter which ideally allows the
predetermined frequency to pass rejecting all others. In practice the sharpness
of tuning is limited and a band of frequencies are allowed to pass. The main
advantage of a tuned amplifier is that unwanted signals at other frequencies
are eliminated.

6.6.6 Cathode-follower Amplifier

Fig. 6.8 shows a slight modification of the simple single-stage-amplifier
is
Crcuit. If the output is taken across the cathode resistor, such an amplifierthe
Known as cathode-follower amplifier. The signal input is introduced through
grid as explained earlier. In the arrangement shown the voltage gain is always
212 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

less than unity. The main advantage from this type of. circuit is of transforming a
high impedance source at the grid to a low impedance output. It is commonly
used for coupling high impedance transducers such as piezoelectric type, to
low impedance terminating or intermediate devices.

Plate
Grid-
Cathode

Signal
input

Cathode
resistor Output

Fig. 6.8 Cathode-follower Amplifier

6.7 General Performance Characteristics of Amplifiers

i) Response : The dynamic response of an amplifier must be equal or greater than
that of the transducer feeding it. And the response should be flat over a wide
range of frequencies.

(i) Loading Effects: In order to prevent loading effects the amplifiers input
impedance should be very high as compared to the output impedance of the
transducer feeding it. The loading effects causes loss of sensitivity and create
non linearity.

(ii) Zero drift It is generally large and is mainly on account of equipment not
sufficiently wamed up and there is a short time lag till the equipment is
thoroughly warmed up. The amplifiers have to be provided with balancing
controls so that the output is made equal to zero when the input is zero.

(iv) Noise: It is due to many random processes such as gas noise in electron tubes,
resistors, and transistor circuits. Noise limits the amplifier behaviour mainly with
respect to the threshold or the smallest signal that can be detected.

/6.8 Telemetry
Telemetry is the technique of measuring from a distance. Telemetering may
be defined as indicating, recording or integrating of a quantity at a distance
by electrical means. It is a very important part of the intermediate measurement
stage in the systems used for missile and aircraft flight testing. They require radio
links which permits the use of readout devices located on the ground.
Telemetry is also used in industrial, medical and transportation applications.
 Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices
213

Aeneral telemetering system is as shown in the Fig. 6.9

Mcasurnng8 Primary Telemetcr Telemeter Telenetcr End

detector transmitter channel
quantity receiver devices

Indicator
Intermediate stage recorder or
Controller

Fig. 6.9 Block Diagram of General Telemetering System

The primary detector and end devices of the telemetering system have
the same functions as in any general measurement system. However the
intermediate stage consists of three elements, such as telemeter transmitte,
telemeter channel and telemeter receiver. The function of the telemeter transmitter
is to convert the output of a primary detector into an analogous transmitted
signal which can be transmitted over the telemeter channel. The function of
the telemeter receiver at the remote location is to convert the transmitted signal
into a related suitable quantity.
Advantages of telemetering over recording of data at the source are as
follows
1) For the same capacity the weight of telemetering equipment is iess.

2) Many channels may be individually and continuously monitored without

the direct attention of the operator.

3) Exceeding of safe limits may be immediately recognized and corrective

measures can be taken.

4) In the case of destructive failure, telemetered data gives a complete record

upto the final moment. This is very inmportant in missile testing when
the test item may not be recoverable.

5) Practical recording time is not limited.

Disadvantages of Telemetering Systems are

) It is more complex and expensive
2) The required extra processing of the data leads to greater chance for error.

3) Greater opportunity for the introduction of unwanted signals.

One of the telemetering systems used in flight testing using radio link is as
shown in the Fig. 6.10.
214 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

The telemetering systems widely uses subcarier oscillators (SCo

wnose frequencies are controlled by the input signals through appropriale
transducer elements. A variety of audio-frequency channels may be emploved
with the
frequency of each SCO modulated by the magnitude of th
corresponding input signals. The outputs from all these SCO's are then mixed and
ea to a phase modulated transmitter (Fig. 6.10a) which relays the combined
information to a remote receiving station (Fig. 6.10 b).
At the receiving end, the various subcarrier frequencies are separate
using filters or discriminating circuits, and the information from the individual
Channels may be recorded by conventional methods. The operation is time
controlled initiated by the pilot, or controlled from the recording installation
with the help of radio links.

Flap position
Subcarier Subcarrier
Oscillators discriminator

sco sco

Antenna Antenna
Temperature
sco scD
Transmitter Receiver

Sco SCD
N

ww- Recorder
Acceleration

etc

(a) Block diagram of telemetering (b) Block diagram

transmitting system
of telemetering
receiving system
Fig. 6.10
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R
ww.

Fitca
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The Most
Commenly Used jilHcu aac electvical i ar)
The basc clectaical lHcaA ac 0 l00 m al cpads

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 UNIT

Measurement of Force, Torque and Pressure

7.1 Introduction
A force is defined as the reaction between two bodies. This reaction may be in
the form of a tensile force (pull) or it may be a compressive force (push)
Force is represented mathematically as a vector and it has a point of application.
Therefore the measurement of force involves the determination of its magnitude as
well as its direction. The measurement of force may be done by any of the following
two methods.

i) Direct method : This involves a direct comparison with a known gravitational

force on a standard mass example by a physical balance.
ii) Indirect method: This involves the measurement of the effect of force on a
body. For example
a) Measurement of acceleration of a body of known mass which is subjected
to force.
b) Measurement of resultant effect (deformation) when the force is applied
to an elastic member.
7.3 Proving Ring
This device has long been the standard for
machines and is in
calibrating tensile testing
accurate measurement
general, the means by which
A proving
of large static loads may be obtained.
circular ring of rectangular
ring is a
cross section as shown in the photograph 34 and
Fig. 7.4 which may be subjected to tensile
or
,

compressive forces across its diameter. The force-

deflection relation for a thin ring is given by,
16 EI
F = y Photograph 34 Proving ring
n/2-4/r) D3
where, F is the force, E is the young's modulus, I is the moment of inertia of ine
section about the centroidal axis of bending section. D is the outside diameter
 Measurement of Force, Torque and Pressure 239

of the ring, y is the deflection. The above equation is derived under the assumption
that the thickness oI the ring is small compared to the radius. And also it is clear
that the displacement is directly proportional to the force.

Proving ring
-Vibrating reed

Micrometer wheel

LhllllllilhllE|

Fig. 7.4 Proving Ring

Since the deflection obtained is very small, the usefulness of the proving ring as
a calibration device depends on the accuracy with which this small deflection is
measured. This is done by using a precision micrometer shown in the figure.
In order to obtain precise measurements one edge of the micrometer is mounted on
a vibrating reed device which is plucked to obtain a vibratory motion.
The micrometer contact is then moved -forward until a noticeable damping of the
vibration is observed.
Proving rings ar normally used for force measurement within the range of
1.5 KN to 1.5 MN. The maximum deilection is typically of the order of 1% of the
outside diameter of the ring
Tunnung oC)
7.4 Torque Measurement
The force, in addition to its effect along its line of action, may exert a turning
effort relative to any axis other than those intersecting the line of action as shown
in Fig. 7.5. Such a turning effect is called torque or couple
Torque or couple = Fb, - F b

= Fb2
 240 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

b - b2

ol

F
Fig. 7.5
The important reason for measuring torque is to obtain load information necessary
for stress or deflection analysis. The torque T may be computed by measuring the
force F at a known radius '" from the relation
T Fr
However, torque measurement is often associated with the determination of
mechanical power, i.e., the power required to operate a machine or power developed
by the machine. The power is calculated from the relation,
P 2t NT
where N is the angular speed in revolutions per second. Torque measuring
devices used in this connection are commonly known as dynamometers.

There are basically three types of dynamometers.

Absorption dynamometers: They absorb the mechanical energy as the torque
is measured, and hence are particularly useful for measuring power or torque
developed by power sources such as engines or electric motors.

ii) Driving dynamometers : These dynamometers measure power or torque and

as well provide energy to operate the devices to be tested. They are, therefore,
useful in determining performance characteristics of devices such as
pumps, compressors etc.

iit) Transmission dynamometers: These are passive devices placed at an

appropriate location within a machine or in between the machines to sense the
or
jue at that location. They neither add nor subtract the transmitted energy
power and are sometimes referred to as torque meters.
The first two types can be grouped as mechanical and electrical dynamometers.
 7.6 Hydraulic Dynamometer

Radial blades
Housing
-Inlet water
Reaction Shaft
am LILLLLL

7
Trunnion bearings
Force
measuring\ water
device

Output
Fig. 7.7 Section through a typical water brake

Fig. 7.7 shows a hydraulic dynometer in its simplest form which acts as a
water brake. This is a power sink which uses fluid friction for dissipation of the input
energy and thereby measures the input torque or power.
The capacity of a hydraulic dynamometer is a function of two factors, speed and
water level. The power consumed is a function of cube of the speed approximately.
The torque is mmeasured with the help of a reaction arm. The power absorption at a
given speed may be controlled by adjusting thewater level in the housing. 1This type
of dynamometer may be made in considerably larger capacities than the simple
be easily removed by circulating the
prony brake because the heat generated can
water into and out of the housing. Trunnion bearings support the dynamometer
housing, allowing it to rotate freely except for the restraint imposed by the
reaction arm.

In this dynamometer the power absorbing element is the housing which tends
to rotate with the input shaft of the driving machine. But, such rotation is constrained
by a such as some form of scales or load cell, placed at
force-measuring device,
the end of the reaction arm. By measuring the force 'F" at the known radius r,
the torque T may be comnputed by the simple relation.

T F.r
 IPa- INm
at 013xiopa 60mm
Measurement of Force, Torque and Pressure 249

7.8 Introduction
to Pressure Measurement
Pressure is represented as a force per unit area exerted by a fluid on a
container. The standard St unit for pressure is Newton/square meter (Nm)

or pressures can be conveniently expressed in KN/m* while

Pascal (Pa). High
low pressures are expressed in terms of mm of water or mm of mercury.

Absolute Pressure
the
Itrefers to the
container wall by a fluid.
absolute value of the force per unit area exerted on

PresS Mcckucment Scal8

Ipa IN/m
adm 760em Ha
-o13x1 po
Positive guage pressure
ImnH9:1 TO9A
Atmospheic pressure
Total or I ToR 316Xa r
absolute Negative guage pressure or vacuum 133 3pa
pressure

ibas 105po
Barometric
pressure Absolute pressure

Zero absolute pressure

7.14 Relationship between Pressure Terms

Fig.
Atmospheric Pressure

It is the pressure exerted by the earth's atmosphere and is usually measured by

its value is close to 1.013 x 10° N/m* absolute and decreases
a barometer. At sea level,
with altitude.
Gage Pressure
between the absolute pressure and the local
It represents the difference
atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum
It is an absolute pressure less
than the atmospheric pressure i.e., a negative
gage pressure.
Pressures
7.9 Static and Dynamic
at a point is identical in all directions and
If a fluid is in equilibrium, the pressure
referred as static pressure.
independent of orientation is
exists a pressure gradient with in the system.
dynamic
In pressures, there
To restore equilibrium, the fluid flows Irom the regions of higher pressure to regions
of lower pressure.
A 250 Mechanlcal Measurements and Metrology

7.10 Types of Pressure Measuring Devices

type
The first
M e c h a n i c a l Instruments: These devices may be of two types.
measurement ismade by balancing
includes those devices in wlhich the pressure
an unknown pressure with a
known force. The Second type
deformation of an elastic menber for
includes those employing quantitative
pressure measurements.
instruments employs a mechanical
(ii) Electro-mechanical Instruments: These
electrical m e a n s for indicating or
means for detecting the pressure and
recording the detected pressure.
on some physical change
(iii) Electronic Instruments : These instruments depends
which can be detected and indicated or recorded electronically.

7.11 Pressure-measuring Transducers

Pressure is measured by transducing its effect into a deflection with the help of
following types of transducers.

a) Gravitational types malia Dacz

i) Liquid columns Marrmetd
and weights, )6 vov:ta tion- yP
) Pistons or loose diaphragms,

b) Direct-acting elastic types ethovnical disploCemen

0) Unsymmetrically loaded tubes oRing ba orcc
i ) Symmetrically loaded tubes 5)Bett ype
(ii) Elastic diaphragms 3 elastre preul 1tp nslocets
(iv) Bellows oadsr n s piri
(v) Bulk compression
c) Indirect-acting elastic type
(i) Piston with elastic restraining member
)ReAMerCe ype prd tvo

.7elu crve
7.12 Use of Elastic Members in Pressure Measurement
Application of pressure to certain materials causes elastic deformations.
The magnitude of this elastic deformation can be related either analytically
or experimentally to the applied pressure. Following are the three important
elastic members used in the measurement of pressure. d) Ple oe lecivi C

() Bourdon tube, bad r

(i) Diaphragms and
ii) Bellows
The above elastic members are already described under the heading"pressure
sensitive elements" in the section 5.17.2 on page no. 177 of Chapter 5.
pani
 K P.(14,T 44,T
Measurement of Force, Torque and Pressure 251

7.13
The Bridgman Gage
The resistance of fine wire changes with pressure according to the following
linear relationship.

R=R,(1+ap)
where R,> Resistance at 1 atmosphere (100 KN/m2) in ohms

aPressure coefficient of resistance in ohms/100 KN m2

P gage pressure in KN/m.
The above said resistance change may be used for the measurement of pressures
as high as 100,000 atm., i.e., 10.000 KN/m. A pressure transducer based on this
principle is called a Bridgman gage. A typical gage uses a fine wire of manganin
(84% Cu, 12% Mn, 4% Ni) wound in a coil and enclosed in a suitable
container. The pressure coefficient of resistance for this material is about
pressure
2.5 x 107 Pa". The total resistance of the wire is about 100 2 and conventional
bridge circuits may be employed for measuring the change in resistance, Such gages
calibration is
are subjected to aging over a period of time, and hence frequent
required. However, when properly calibrated, these gages can be used for high
The transient response of
pressure measurements with an accuracy of 0.1%.
these gages are exceedingly good. The resistance wire itself can respond to
variations in the mega hertz range. Of course, the overall frequency response of
much lower values
the pressure-measurement system would be limited to
because of the acoustic response of the transmitting fluid.

7.14 Low-pressure Measurement

low pressures or
In general, pressures below atmospheric may be called as
vacuums. Its unit is micron, which is one-millionth of a meter (0.001 mm) of mercury
Column. Very low pressures may be defined as that pressures which are below
I mm (1 torr) of mercury. An ultralow pressure is the one which has pressure less

than a millimicron (107 micron). Following are the two methods of measuring low
pressures.
are made which results from the
) Direct Method : In this, direct measurements
of pressure. Devices used in this method are
displacement caused by the action
and various forms of
Bourdon tubes, flat and corrugated-diaphragms, capsules
are limited to low pressure measurements of about
manometers. These devices
10 mm of mercury.
(i) Indirect or Inferential Method : In this, pressure is determined through the
measurement of certain other pressure-controlled properties, such as volume.
thermal conductivity etc.

7.15 The McLeod Gage

The operation of McLeod gage is
based on Boyle's law
252 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

P,V2
V
Where, p, and p, are the pressures at initial and final conditions respectivehe
and and
V, V, are thhe volumes at corresponding conditions By compresSing a known
volume of low pressure gas to a higher pressure and measuring the resu
and pressure we can
sulting volume
calculate the initial pressure.)
The
McLeod gage is a modified mercury manometer as shown in the
35 and photograph
Fig. 7.15. The movable reservoir is lowered until the mercury column droDS
below the opening O.
To vacuum space, P

Reference capillary 'R

Movable
reservoir
Capillary tube, C
Mercury

Bulb, B
Pount

Opening, O

Photograph 35
The McLeod Gage
Fig. 7.15 The Mcleod Gage
The bulb B and capillary tube C are then at the same
the vacuum pressure P. The reservoir is pressure as that o
fills the bulb and rises in the subsequently raised until the mercury
capillary tube to a point where the level in the reference
capillary R is located at the zero point. If the volume
tube per unit length is 'a', then the volume of the capillary
of the gas in the
capillary tube is
Vc ay
-(1)
where y' is the length of the
capillary tube occupied by the gas
 Measurement of Force, Torque and Pressure 253
Volume of the capillary tube, bulb and the
tube down to the opening
Acsuming isothermal compression, the
is pressure of the gas in the capillary
lube is

Pe =p
Vc :PVa PNe] -(2)

The pressure indicated by the capillary tube is,

Pc-P y -3)
where, we are expressing the pressure in terms of the height of the mercury
column.

We know that
PVB PcVc -4)
Substituting the values of V and P, from the equations (1) and (3) respectively
n the equation (4) we get,

PVg = (y+P)ay = ay + Pay

PV-Pay =ay
P(Vg -ay) =ay

Pay
or

VB-ay
Usually ay < VB

Vacuum pressure, P=

In commercial McLeod gages the capillary tube is directly calibrated in

micrometers. This gage is sensitive to condensed vapours which may be present in
the sample because they can condense upon compression. For dry gases the gage
can be used from 107 to 10 um of pressure.

7.16 Thermal Conductivity Gages

The temperature of a given wire through which an electric current is
current (ii) resistivity and (ii) the rate
llowing depends, on (i) the magnitude of the
at which the heat is dissipated. The rate of heat dissipation largely depends on
the conductivity of the surrounding media. As the pressure reduces, the thermal
Conducitivity also reduces and consequently the filament temperature becomes higher
Ior a given electrical energy input. This is the basis for two different forms

O gages to measure low pressures.

254 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

() Pirani thermal conductivity gage

(ii) Themocouple vacuun gage

7.16.1 Piranl Thermal-conductivity Gage

on the principle that if
Thepirani gage as shown in the Fig. 7.16 operates
the thermal conductivity of the
a heated wire is placed in a gas chamber, then
the transfer oi energy Irorm the wire to
8as depends o n the gas pressure. Therefore If the supply of heat energy to the
he gas is proportional to the gas pressure.
lament is kept constant and the pressure of the gas is varied, then the temperature

method of pressure measurement.

O1 the filament will alter and is therefore a

Heated platinum
filament

To bridge To vacuum
circuit pressurre

Fig. 7.16 Schematic of Pirani Gage

To measure the resistance of the filament wire a resistance bridge circuit
is used. The usual method is to balance the bridge at some datum pressure
and use the out-of-balance currents at all other pressures as a measure of the relative
pressures.
Measuring gage

To vacuum
R pressure

Ra Heated filaments

Sealed and
evacuated
gage
R3

Fig. 7.17
Fig. Pirani Gage arrangement to
Compensate for ambient temperature
Changes.
 Measurement of Force, Torque and Pressure 255

1T'he heat loss from the flament is als0 a function of ambinet temperature and
pensation
for this effect may be achieved by connecting two gages in series as
i n Fig. 7.17. The measuring gage is first evacuated and both the rmeasuring
caled gages are exposed to the same environment conditions. The bridge circuit
is then adjuste through the resistor R, to geta null condition. When the measuring
is exposed to the test vacuum pressure, the deflection of the bridge from the
gage
Sl osition will be compensated lor the changes in the environment temperature.

Pirani gages require calibration and are not suitable for use al pressures
below 1 um
and upper limit is about 1 torr. For higher sures, the thermal
conductivity changes very litle with pressure. It must be noted that the heat
loss from the filament is also a function of the conduction losses to the filament
supports and radialion losses to the surroundings. The transient response of the
pirani gage is poor. The time required for achieving thermal equilibrium may beof
several minutes at low pressures.

7.16.2 Thermocouple Vacuum Gage

This gage works on the same principle as that of a pirani gage, but differ in the
means for measuring the filament temperature. In this gage the filament temperature
is measured directly by means of thermocouples welded directly to them as shown
in the Fig. 7.18. It consists of a heater filament and a thermocouple enclosed in a
glass or mnetal envelope. The filament is heated by a constant current and its
temperature depends upon the amount of heat lost to the surroundings by conduction
and convection. At low pressures, the temperature of the filament is a function of
the pressure of the surrounding gas. Thus, the thermocouple provides an output
voltage which is a function of temperature of the filament and consequently the
pressure of the surrounding gas. The moving coil meter may be directhly calibrated
to read the pressure.

Moving coil
meter
wwwww-

Thermocouple
To vacuum
pressure Metal or glass
envelope
Heater filament

(A)

Fig 7.18 Thermocouple Vacuum Gage