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Module 2 Unit 1
SEMICONDUCTORS – NOTES (MAIN)
(As per SVU-R2020 Scheme & Syllabus)

 Introduction
Solids are classified into three distinct categories based on their electrical properties. They are
conductors, insulators and semiconductors. The range of conductivity is quite large. For metals such
as copper and silver, it is about 10+ 8 S/m while that for insulator such as glass, it is about 10–11 S/m. It
is convenient to consider another intermediate class of materials having moderate conductivity,
which are known as semiconductors. A typical semiconductor such as silicon (pure) has conductivity
of 10– 3 S/m.

Thanks to the development of material engineering and semiconductor technology, it is possible to

fabricate a wide variety of electronic devices from the same semiconductor wafer (chip). This is the
main reason for semiconductors being so much important. All sorts of gadgets made from
semiconductor devices are so much integrated with our daily needs that any branch of science and
engineering cannot bypass the basic knowledge of semiconductor physics in their curriculum.
In different solids, the energy bands may be overlapping each other or they may remain separated by
small or large gaps. The overlapping or separation between valence band and conduction band is of
particular importance as it ultimately decides the electrical, thermal and optical properties of
materials. The classification of solids based on energy bands is shown in figure below.

 E-k diagrams
⃗
For solids, plot of the variation of total energy of electrons (E) with their wave vector (denoted by k
and related to its momentum) is know as E-k diagram. This relation is complex but near the lowest of

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the condution band (CB) and the highest of the valence band (VB) (shaded area in the E-k diagram), it
can be approximated as parabolic. Energy of electrons in CB is given by
ħ2 k 2
E = EC +
2m∗
while energy of electrons in VB is given by
ħ2 k 2
E = EV −
2m∗
h
where, m* is called effective mass of electron and ħ = 2π is called reduced Planck's constant. Typical
E-k diagram for a semiconductor is shown in following figure.

Usually, the range of ⃗k-values is very large and most of the electrons (and holes) at room temeprature
and at moderate biasing happen to be near to CB minima (and VB maxima). Thus, the E-k diagram is
simplified by plotting it only at the CB minima and VB maxima position for all electrons and holes in
the solid. This simplified energy band diagram is enenrgy v/s position (x) of electrons and holes in the
semiconductors. This is sufficient for most of the device physics analysis.

 Direct and Indirect bandgap semiconductors:

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E-k diagrams for different solids significantly differ from each other. But, a broad classification of solids
can be made based on the position of CB minima (CBM) and VB maxima (VBM). In some
semiconductors, the CBM and VBM occur at the same value of k. These solids are called “direct
bandgap semiconductors”. Examples of direct bandgap secimonductors are GaAs and InP. In some
solids, CBM and VBM occur at different values of k. Such semiconductors are called inderect bandgap
semiconductors. Examples of indirect bandgap semiconductors are Si and Ge.
light emitting devices such as LEDs or laser diodes are always made from direct bandgap materials like
GaAs whereas Si cannot make an efficient light emitting device although Si (and Ge) are very much
useful as light absorbing device i.e. photodiodes.

 Concept of effective mass:

Electrons, in a strict sense, are governed by laws of quantum mechanics and the ordinary laws of
motion in classical mechanics cannot be directly used for describing dynamics of electrons. In
quantum mechanics, eletrons (and for matter, all material objects) are better described by the
concept of wave-particle duality in order to account for wave phenomena exhibited by electrons (and
all material particles). According to quantum mechanics, the “electron wave” spreads over the solid
and it is influenced by the lattie. It is possible to simplify this motion by letting the net interaction of
an electron with the lattie into an “internal” force F ⃗ int . The total force acting on an electron can be
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
written as F = Fext + Fint .

The wave nature associated with an electron can thus be “absorbed” in this internal force and we can
still treat electrons as perfect particles and continue using laws of mechanics i.e. Newton’s second law
2
⃗F = dp⃗ and energy-momentum relation E = p provide, we make following (fundamental) shifts in
dt 2m
the interpretation of physical quatities to incoprporate the wave nature of particles:
1) m → m∗ , Where m∗ is effective mass
2) p ⃗ → ħk ⃗ , Where k
⃗ is wave vector
⃗ is also called as “crysal momentum”
k
The first equation comes due to the fact that motion of electrons in solids are influenced by crystal
lattice The second substitution follwos from the de’Broglie equation for matter waves:
h h 2π
p= = × = ħk
λ 2π λ
ħ2 k2 ħ2 k2
as E = EC + 2m∗
OR E = EV − 2m∗

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d2 E ħ2 ħ2
=  m ∗
=
dk 2 m∗ d2 E
( 2)
dk
Normally, if we calculate the ratio of applied force to the acceleration produced then it should yield
mass of the particle. But in solids, motion of any charged particle like an electron or a hole is influenced
by a large number of factors such as lattice sites (atoms or ions), defects and impurities or the other
electrons and holes and therefore, the ratio of force to acceleration comes out to be different from
its mass if it were isolated and outside the solid. This enables the introduction of effective mass
concept. Effective mass is a parameter that depends upon the material, its structure, lattice
periodicity, lattice directions, interaction energy and various other factors. The effective mass
calculations are complicated and they differ from solid to solid. For calculation purposes, the effective
mass is given as some factor of the actual mass of particle e.g. 0.67me; where me is the actual mass of
an electron. Effective masses of both the charge carriers viz. electrons and holes in semiconductors
are expressed in above manner.

 Concept of hole as positive charge carrier:

Curvature of E-k diagram gives estimation of effective mass. In particular, at the V. B. maxima, the
second derivative is negative, which implies an electron with negative effective mass. The motion of
an electron at the top of VB with negative charge and negative mass is along the electric field i.e. it is
anologous to a positive charge carrier with usual mass. Hence, it is convenient to itroduce the concept
of a hole as a positive charge carrier taking part in electrical conduction moving along the electric field.

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By definition, a hole is an electron missing from the VB of the host atom. When an electron from a
host atoms shifts to some other site, it leaves behind uncompensated host atom with a net positive
charge. This site in the VB of host atom with a deficit of one electron is regarded as hole. In the next
instance, electron from some other host atom would jump to this site leaving behind uncompensated
host at that place with a net positive charge. This is described as movement of the hole from one place
to the other. Instead of considering movements of a number of electrons from one site to the other,
it is easier to trace the motion of a hole carrying positive charge in backwards direction. Under the
action of external electric field, such shifts of valence electrons occur in specific direction giving an
apparent shift of holes along the electric field as shown in above figure.

 Semiconductor statistics
The first important parameter in the study of semiconductors is to know how many electrons are
available in the CB or how many vacancies i.e. holes are available in the VB. This is calculated by using
two functions:
1) The Fermi-Dirac distribution function F(E), which gives the probability of occupation of an energy
level by electron and
2) The density of states function N(E), which gives the number of energy states possible or available
per unit volume per electron-volt.
Since the number of electrons or holes involved is very high, statistical calculations become useful.
The number of electrons or holes is obtained by integrating the product of above functions over the
desired energy range.

 The Fermi-Dirac function

This statistical function is applicable to all particles having half integral spin (spin ½ particles), which
are called as “fermions”. An electron is a chief example of fermionic particle. The main feature of any
fermion is that it obeys the Pauli’s exclusion principle, which states that “no two electrons can have
the same energy level in an interacting system.” The Fermi-Dirac function is a function of energy and
temperature. It is given by,
1
F(E) = (E−EF )⁄
; Where,
1+e kT

E is energy, k is Boltzmann constant and T is absolute temperature.

The energy level EF is called the Fermi level. It is used as a reference energy level to evaluate energies
of electrons and holes and also to indicate the majority and minority carrier concentrations. The Fermi
energy level is an important concept in the study of any kind of solid. More discussion o Fermi level
and Fermi-Dirac function is done in further sections.
 Density of states function
This function is related to the degrees of freedom of electrons within any solid. It indicates the allowed
energies per eV per unit volume of the solid. It is given by,
2m∗ 3/2
N(E)dE = 4π ( 2 ) √E dE
h

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 Application of Fermi-Dirac function to derive Semiconductor transport equations

1) Number of electrons and holes for conduction of electricity and heat: The number of electrons
in the CB is obtained by integrating the product F(E)N(E). Lowest energy possessed by a
conduction electron is EC and highest energy is taken to be infinity for mathematical simplicity.
Thus,
  1 2m∗ 3/2
n = ∫E F(E)N(E)dE = ∫E E−EF 4π ( h2 ) √E dE
C C 1+exp( )
kT

E −E
The above integral evaluates to n = NC exp (− CkT F ); where NC is called density of states in the
CB. It is a temperature and material dependent parameter.
Since a hole is nothing but deficiency of electron or electron missing from the VB, the probability
factor for finding hole in the VB is taken as 1 – F(E). Highest energy possessed by a hole in the VB
is EV and lowest energy is taken to be negative infinity for mathematical simplicity. Thus,

VE E 1 2m∗ 3/2
p = ∫−∞ [1 − F(E)]N(E)dE = ∫−V [1 − E−EF ] 4π ( h2 ) √E dE
1+exp( )
kT

E −E
It evaluates to p = NV exp (− F V); where NV is called density of states in the VB which is also
kT
a temperature and material dependent parameter. The values of NC and NV are close to each other
for most of the semiconductors.

2) Intrinsic concentration: The number of free electrons or number of holes in the VB per unit
volume is called as intrinsic carrier concentration. Since number of free electrons and holes is
same for an intrinsic material, we write
n = p = say ni
EC − EF E F − EV
∴ n2i = n. p = NC exp (− ) . NV exp (− )
kT kT
EC − EV
∴ n2i = NC NV exp (− )
kT
The difference EC – EV is called the “energy band gap” denoted by “Eg”. Thus,
Eg
∴ ni = (√NC NV )exp (− )
2kT

3) Charge neutrality condition: In any semiconductor, the sum of all kinds of charges is zero which
is written as:
+
n + ND = p + NA−
This is called charge neutrality condition.

4) Mass-action law: At thermal equilibrium, the product “n x p” is constant and it holds for any
material, whether intrinsic or extrinsic. This is called the mass-action law. In mathematical form it
is written as np = n2i = constant at equilibrium condition. Equilibrium referes to state of

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semiconductor in the absence of external field, illumination or change in temperature. Excess

charge carriers are generated when equilibrium is disturbed.

5) Extrinsic concentration: In extrinsic materials, there is an additional source for one type of
impurity; electrons in n-type and holes in p-type. Accordingly they are called as majority carriers.
On the contrary, holes in n-type and electrons in p-type material are very small in number and
they are called as minority carriers. In n-type material at RT, most of the electrons from donors
are available free and since each donor contributes one electron number of majority carriers (i.e.
electrons) is the same as number of donors added. Number of minority carriers is obtained by
using mass action law given above. Thus,
 For n-type material at RT: Majority carrier concentration nn ≈ ND, Minority carrier
n2
concentration pn ≈ Ni . ND is number of donors per unit volume.
D

 For p-type material at RT: Majority carrier concentration pp ≈ NA , Minority carrier

n2
concentration np ≈ Ni . NA is number of acceptors per unit volume.
A

6) Conductivity and resistivity: The conductivity of semiconductor is proportional to the total

number of charge carriers i.e. number of electrons plus number of holes. With increasing
temperature, more and more charge carriers become free for conduction and conductivity of
semiconductors increases with increasing temperature. Hence, semiconductors have negative
temperature coefficient of resistance. For intrinsic material, both types of charge carriers
contribute evenly while for extrinsic materials, one type of charge carrier dominates and
contribution of the other can be neglected. Thus,
 For n-type: σ = qnμn ; where μn is called “mobility of electrons”.
 For p-type: σ = qpμp ; where μp is called “mobility of holes”.
Mobility is defined in further seciton.
 For intrinsic: σ = qni (μn + μp )
SI unit of conductivity is siemens/m (S/m).
1
Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity. Thus, ρ = σ.

SI unit of resistivity is -m.

7) Temperature dependence of conductivity of extrinsic semiconductors: The contribution to

conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor comes from different mechanisms at different
temepratures.
i) At very low temperatures (< 10 K), all the electrons occupy lowest enenrgy states. VB is full
and CB is empty. This is called “freeze-out” regime and the semiconductors behaves as an
insuator.
ii) At low temperatures (10-100 K), electrons and holes from donors and acceptors are liberated
due to increased thermal energy. CB gets filled up and VB starts acquiring holes. This is called
“ionization” regime and the semiconductor starts conducting.

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iii) At room tempeature (300 K), almost all the donors and acceptors are inonized and
conductovity of semiconductor is predominently decided by the impurity concentration. This
is called “extrinsic” regime and the conductivity attains plateau till a certain temperature
called the “intrinsic temperature” (Ti).

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iv) At room tempeature (300 K), almost all the donors and acceptors are inonized and
conductovity of semiconductor is predominently decided by the impurity concentration. This
is called “extrinsic” regime and the conductivity attains plateau till a certain temperature
called the “intrinsic temperature” (Ti).
v) For temperaures beyond Ti, there is no further contribution from donors or acceptors as they
are already been depleted. However, due to high temperatures, breaking bonds of host
atoms becomes signifiant and the intrinsic charge carriers start controlling the conductivity.
This is called “intrinsic” regime and the semiconductor behaves as if it is undoped. The
conductivity in this regime rises exponentially with temperature.

8) Carrier drift and drift velocity: Motion of a charged particle under the influence of electric or
magnetic field is called “drift”. If we apply an electric field across a semiconductor, its charge
carriers viz. electrons and holes do not move in straight lines towards the field. Since the solid is
packed by atoms, the charge carriers are continuously deviated from their paths and they end up
in a random walk. In the absence of the external field, the net path covered is zero but under the
influence of electric field, there is a definite shift towards the electric field (in case of a positive
charge) as shown in the diagram:

Although the actual path covered by the particle is large, the effective path covered along the
direction of electric field is small. The ratio of effective path covered to the total time taken is
called as “drift velocity” of the charge carriers.
9) Mobility: The drift velocity is linearly proportional to the electric field intensity (until drift velocity
gets saturated at certain critical field intensity). Thus, vd ∝ ℇ ⇒ vd = μℇ; Where the symbol “ℇ”
is used for electric field intensity. The constant of proportionality is called “mobility” of charge
carriers. It indicates how fluently a charge carrier can sweep through the electric field. It can be
defined as the drift velocity acquired per unit electric field intensity. It SI unit is m2/V-sec.

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The variation of drift velocity with electric field is shown in following diagram. Mobility depends
upon a numer of factors such as electric field, temperture, crystal structure, defects, impurities,
grain boundaries but at low fields and at room temperature, we an regard it as constant for a
given material.

10) Ohm’s law: In semiconductor physics, the Ohm’s law is expressed in terms of more fundamental
relation, which is J = σℇ; where, J is the current density i.e. current per unit area normal to it and
σ is conductivity

11) Drift current density: The current per unit area perpendicular to the direction of current, which
arises due to drift of charge carriers under the influence of electric field is called “drift current
density”.

⃗d
v

Drift of electrons

The drift current density is given by Jdrift = qnv

⃗ d . Symbol “n” used in the equation here referes
to any particle in general (electron or hole) and it is called the particle density (Unit: m -3 or cm-3).
In particular, for elecrons,
Jdrift (eletrons) = (−q) × n × (−v ⃗ d ) … as electrons are negatively charged and they drift
opposite to electric filed. Here, “n” is electron density i.e. number of electrons per unit volume.
∴ Jdrift (eletrons) = qnvd numericaly
For holes,
Jdrift (holes) = (+q) × p × (+v ⃗ d ) = qpv
⃗ d … as holes are positively charged and they drift along
the electric field. Here, “p” is hole density i.e. number of holes per unit volume
∴ Jdrift (hole) = qpvd numericaly
Using the relation between drift velocity and electric field, we summerize:
 For n-type: Jn = qnμn ℇ
 For p-type: Jp = qpμp ℇ
 For intrinsic: 𝐽 = qℇ(nμn + pμp )

12) Diffusion and diffusion coefficient: All particles have a tendency to spread out from region of high
concentration to region of low concentration. This tendency is called as diffusion. A concentration

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gradient exists as we move from one region to the other having different concentration of
particles. In one dimension, the concentration gradient is nothing but spatial variation of number
of particles per unit volume. Due to the concentration gradient, a particle flux is generated in the
direction of decreasing concentration gradient. This particle flux is called as “diffusion current
density”.

dn
For electrons and holes, we have Jdiffusion ∝ − î. Symbol “n” here is the particle density as
dx
before and here it referes to any particle in general (electron or hole). Negative sign is taken
because the current flows in the direction of decreasing concentration gradient.
For electrons,
dn
Jdiffusion (eletrons) = (−q) × Dn × (− ) î
dx
dn dn
∴ Jdiffusion (eletrons) = qDn dx numerically. Here dx is the conentration gradient for electrons.
The constant of proportionality is called diffusion coefficient (Dn) of electrons. Its SI unit is m2/s.
For holes,
dp
Jdiffusion (holes) = (+q) × Dp × (− ) î
dx
dp dp
∴ Jdiffusion (holes) = −qDn dx numerically. Here dx is the conentration gradient for holes and Dp
is diffusion coefficient for holes.
Thus,
dn
 For n-type: Jn = qDn dx
dp
 For p-type: Jn = −qDp dx
dn dp
 For intrinsic: J = q (Dn − Dp )
dx dx

13) Einstein’s relations: Einstein’s work in statistical mechanics yields an important relation: The ratio
of diffusion coefficient to mobility of any type of charge carrier at a given temperature is constant
and it is expressed as:
Dn Dp kT
= = = constant at a given temperature
μn μp q

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14) Total current density: In any semiconductor or a p-n junction device, there are four currents
flowing across the junction: the drift currents and diffusion currents due to electrons and holes.
Electron diffusion and hole drift is directed from p-side to n-side while hole diffusion and electron
drift is directed from n-side to p-side. Their summation gives the total current density as follows:
dn dp
Jtotal = qDn + qpμp ℇ − qDp + qnμn ℇ
dx dx
dn dp
∴ Jtotal = q [(Dn − Dp ) + (nμn + pμp )ℇ]
dx dx

 The Fermi level

For metals and non-metals, the Fermi level can be defined in some different ways. For metals,it is
convinient to define it as:
Definition 1 of Fermi level: The Fermi level is the highest available energy level at absolute zero
temperature. It may or may not be actually occupied by an electron.
For semiconductors, it is useful to define the Fermi level in different way as:
Definition 2 of Fermi level: The Fermi level is that energy level for which, the probability of occupation
is 50% at all temperatures except absolute zero temperature.
The concept of Fermi energy level is very useful in all of solid state physics. For semiconductors in
particular, the Fermi level position depends upon whether the semiconductor is pure or doped with
n or p type impurities. For pure or intrinsic semiconductors, since number of electrons and holes are
equal, the Fermi level is located between EC and EV i.e. at the centre of the forbidden energy region.
For n-type material, it is closer to the CB since electrons are excess in number. In p-type material, it is
closer to the VB since holes are excess in number.

The energy band diagrams for n and p-type material show additional energy levels called donor level
ED and acceptor level EA in n-type and p-type material respectively.

 For intrinsic material, the Fermi level is located midway between the CB and VB
For intrinsic materials we have, n = p
EC −EF EF −EV EC −EF E −E N
∴ NC exp (− kT
) = NV exp (− kT
) ∴ exp (− kT
) . exp (+ FkT V ) = NV
C

−E +2E −E NV
∴ exp ( C kT F V) = NC

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Taking logarithm on both sides,

−EC +2EF −EV N EC +EV kT N
kT
= ln (NV ) ∴ EF = 2
+ 2
ln (NV )
C C

For semiconductors, the values of NC and NV are close to each other. (For example in silicon at RT, NC
= 3.2 x 1025/m3 and NV = 1.8 x 1025/m3). Further, value of kT  0.026 eV at RT hence the second term
on RHS becomes negligible as compared to the band gap. (For Si, it is 1.1 eV at RT). So, neglecting the
second term on RHS we get
EC +EV
EF = (intrinsic semiconductors)
2
Thus, Fermi level is located midway between the CB and VB.

 Effect of impurity concentration on Fermi level

As impurities are added to a semiconductor, electrical conduction is dominated by one type of charge
i.e. electrons in n-type and holes in p-type. The Fermi level is an indicator of majority carriers. Hence,
as impurities are added, the Fermi level shifts from its central position. In either material, the shift of
Fermi level from the central position is directly proportional to the logarithm of donor or acceptor
concentration. it is given by,
n
 For n-type: EF − Ei = kTln ( ) ; n ≈ ND at RT
ni
p
 For p-type: EF − Ei = −kTln ( ) ; p ≈ NA at RT
ni

Ei is called the “intrinsic level” or the midway position. Variation of Fermi level over a rage of doping
concentration is shown in following figure.

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For very high doping concentrations i.e. when the doping density exceed effective densities of states,
the Fermi level penetrates into the CB and VB in n-type and p-type semiconductors respectively. Such
semiconductors are called “degenerate” semiconductors. Degenerate semiconductors are rrequired
for certain applications such as zener diodes, laser diodes, microwave devices etc.

 Effect of temperature on Fermi level

The
density of electrons or holes is a strong function of temperature and along with the density, there is
a shift in the Fermi level also. Temperatuer dependance of conductivity is discussed earlier. Its
reflection on the Fermi level is shown in figure above.
At low temperatures in extrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level is close to CB or VB in n or p type
semiconductor respectively. As temperature increases, it deviates away from these positions. At the
intrinsic temperature, Fermi level approaches centre of the bandgap and stays there for further
increase in temperature. For intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level stays at the centre at all
temperatures. With increasing temperatres, the energy bandgap of semiconductor also slowly
decreases as shown in the diagram.

 Temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac function

The Fermi Dirac function is given by,
1
F(E) =
E − EF
1 + exp ( )
kT

At all temperature except absolute zero, for E = EF, we get

1 1
F(E) = E−EF = 1+e0 = 0.5 or 50%.
1+exp( )
kT

Interpretation: The value 50% indicates an important feature of intrinsic semiconductors. In intrinsic
semiconductors, the moment we make an electron free from the VB and transfer it to the CB, a hole
automatically get created. Thus, as many electrons are available in the CB for conduction, those many

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holes are available in the VB. The result 50% indicates that the probabilities that we may find an
electron in the CB or a hole in the VB are equal.
At absolute zero
1 1 1 1
a) For E > EF, we get F(E) = E−EF = = = =0
1+exp( ) 1+exp(
+ve number
) 1+e+ 
kT 0

1 1 1 1
b) For E < EF, we get F(E) = E−EF = −ve number = 1+e− = 1+0 = 1
1+exp( ) 1+exp( )
kT 0

Interpretation: In intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level is taken at the centre of the forbidden
energy gap that is between the CB and the VB. The choice E > EF means electron present in the CB.
Similarly, the choice E < EF means electron present in the VB. Both parts together imply that at
absolute zero temperature, the probability that an electron can be present in the CB is zero and
getting in the VB is 100%. It means the CB is empty and VB is full so no vacancies or holes. Since neither
electrons nor holes are available for conduction, the semiconductor would behave as an insulator at
absolute zero.
The complete plot for all temperature is shown in following figure

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