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Content:

Diodes: Direct and indirect band gap, Band gap engineering, P-N
junction diode-forward and reverse bias, diode equation, V-I
characteristic, Application: bridge rectifier, breakdown mechanism in
diodes: Avalanche & Zener breakdown, Zener diode as voltage
regulator.
Transistors: Bi-junction polar transistor, V-I characteristics in
Common Emitter, Common Base and Common Collector
configuration, CE configuration as an amplifier. Numerical problems.

Introduction
A semiconductor device is a electronic equipment that is made
from a material that is a semiconductor, such as silicon or germanium.
These materials are used to create devices such as transistors, diodes,
and solar cells, which are used in a wide range of electronic devices,
including computers, smartphones, and televisions. Semiconductor
devices are important because they are smaller, faster, and more
energy-efficient than traditional electronic devices, and they are also
more reliable. They are used in many different fields such as
microprocessors, memory devices and power electronic devices among
many others.

Band theory of solids

The band theory of solids is a model that describes the
electronic structure of solid materials, such as metals, semiconductors,
and insulators. The theory explains how the electrons in a solid interact
with each other and with the atoms that make up the solid, giving rise
to unique electronic properties.

In a solid, the electrons are not bound to individual atoms, but

are free to move throughout the material. According to the band
theory, the electrons in a solid occupy energy levels that are grouped

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together in bands. The lowest energy band, called the valence band, is
fully occupied by electrons that are tightly bound to the atoms. The
next energy band, called the conduction band, is partially or
completely empty and is separated from the valence band by an energy
gap known as the band gap.

The energy gap between the valence and conduction bands

determines whether a material is a conductor, semiconductor, or
insulator is as shown in figure 1. The band theory predicts that metals
have a partially filled conduction band, which allows the electrons to
move freely through the material, resulting in high electrical
conductivity. In contrast, insulators have a large band gap between the
valence and conduction bands, which means that electrons cannot
easily move through the material, resulting in low conductivity.
Semiconductors have a small band gap, which allows electrons to
move through the material under certain conditions, making them
useful for electronic devices.

Figure 1: Band diagram for conductor, semiconductor and insulator

In summary, the band theory of solids provides a fundamental

understanding of the electronic structure of solids and has important
implications for the design and development of electronic devices and
materials.

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E-k diagram and effective mass:

The E-k diagram is a useful tool for understanding the
relationship between energy and momentum in quantum mechanics,
and can be applied in a variety of fields including materials science,
solid-state physics, and particle physics.

In condensed matter physics, an E-k diagram as shown in

figure 2 represents the energy of electrons (E) as a function of their
momentum (k) in a crystalline material. The band structure of a
material, which describes the allowed energy levels for electrons in the
material, can be depicted using an E-k diagram.

Figure 2: E-k diagram

In the E-k diagram, the energy of a particle is determined by its

momentum, as well as other physical properties such as mass and
potential energy. The electrons in a crystal are not completely free, but
instead interact with the periodic potential of the crystal lattice. The
slope of the energy curve on the diagram represents the particle's
velocity, with steeper slopes indicating higher velocities.

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The effective mass can be calculated from the curvature of the E-k
diagram near the band edges using the following expression:

2
m 
d 2E
dk 2

Where m* is the effective mass, h is Planck's constant, E is the

energy, and k is the momentum. The effective mass is usually
expressed in terms of the free electron mass (me), which is the mass of
an electron in vacuum. For example, if the effective mass of an
electron is 0.5me, it means that the electron behaves as if it has half the
mass of a free electron.

In summary, the E-k diagram and effective mass expression are

important tools for understanding the electronic properties of
semiconductors. The E-k diagram provides a graphical representation
of the electronic band structure, while the effective mass expression
relates the momentum and velocity of the charge carriers.

Direct and Indirect band gap semiconductors

Semiconductors are materials that have an energy gap between their

valence band and conduction band, which can be manipulated by
introducing impurities or changing the material's composition. These
energy gaps are responsible for the unique electrical and optical
properties of semiconductors, making them essential for modern
electronics and optoelectronics.

There are two types of band gaps in semiconductors: direct and

indirect. The energy-momentum relationship for electrons in the
valence band and conduction band is given by the energy-momentum
dispersion relation or the E-k diagram. In this diagram, the horizontal
axis represents the momentum (k), while the vertical axis represents
the energy (E).

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Direct band gap semiconductor:

A direct bandgap semiconductor is a material where the transition of
electrons from the valence band to the conduction band can take place
without any change in momentum as shown in figure 3. This results in
a high probability for direct transitions between the two bands, leading
to efficient light emission and absorption. These properties make direct
bandgap materials ideal for various optoelectronic applications such as
LED lights and solar cells. Examples of direct bandgap
semiconductors include GaAs, InP, ZnS, CdSe, CdTe and SiC.

Figure 3: E-k diagram for Direct band gap semiconductor

Indirect band gap semiconductor:

An indirect bandgap semiconductor is a material where the

transition of electrons from the valence band to the conduction band
requires a change in momentum as shown in figure 4. This means that
an electron in the conduction band minimum cannot fall directly to the
valence band maximum. It must undergo a momentum as well as
energy change as the transition is not occurring at the same value of k.

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Figure 4: E-k diagram for Indirect band gap semiconductor

A photon by itself cannot excite an electron from the top of

valence band to the bottom of conduction band. This is because the
photons has sufficient energy to cause the transition but does not
possess the necessary momentum. As the photons have zero
momentum, the difference in momentum appears in the form of
phonons (quantum of crystal lattice vibration). Indirect bandgap
semiconductors include Si and Ge, and due to the lower probability of
light emission, they are less suitable for optoelectronic applications.

Difference between direct and indirect band gap semiconductors

Direct band-gap (DBG) semiconductor Indirect band-gap (IBG) semiconductor
 A direct bandgap semiconductor is a  An indirect bandgap semiconductor is
material where the transition of a material where the transition of
electrons from the valence band to electrons from the valence band to the
the conduction band can take place conduction band requires a change in
without any change in momentum. momentum.

 A direct recombination takes place  Due to a relative difference in the

with the release of the energy equal momentum, first, the momentum is
to the energy difference between the conserved by release of energy and

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recombining particles. only after the both the momenta align

themselves, a recombination occurs
accompanied with the release of
energy.
 The probability of a radiative  The probability of a radiative
recombination is high. recombination is comparatively low.
 The efficiency factor of a DBG  The efficiency factor of an IBG
semiconductor is higher. semiconductor is lower.
Example: Gallium Arsenide Example: Silicon and Germanium

Band gap engineering:

Band gap engineering refers to the intentional modification of the

electronic band structure of materials, particularly semiconductors, in
order to control their electronic and optical properties.

The band gap is the energy difference between the highest energy level
of the valence band and the lowest energy level of the conduction band
in a material. Semiconductors have a relatively small band gap, which
allows them to absorb and emit light at specific wavelengths. By
engineering the band gap of a material, researchers can tune its optical
and electronic properties to create new applications.

There are several techniques for band gap engineering, including

alloying, doping, and quantum confinement. Alloying involves mixing
different elements to create a new material with a modified band gap.
Doping involves adding impurities to a semiconductor to change its
electronic properties. Quantum confinement refers to the confinement
of electrons and holes in a small space, such as a quantum dot, which
can modify the band gap.

P-N junction: Background information

The construction of solid state electronic device begins with a
semiconductor material of highest quality. The three semiconductors
are most frequently used in the construction of electronic devices are
Ge, Si and GaAs.

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A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping

process is called an extrinsic material. There are two extrinsic
materials of immeasurable importance to semiconductor device
fabrication are n-type and p-type materials. When a p-type
semiconductor and n-type semiconductor are joined metallurgically, a
p-n junction is formed. A p-n junction cannot be produced simply by
joining two semiconductors. Actual process is a complex one. In
practice, such a p-n junction may be prepared by employing two
methods 1) Grown junction and 2) Fused junction.

P-N junction:
A diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in only
one direction. It consists of a p-n junction, which acts as a barrier that
allows current to flow in one direction but not the other. Diodes are
used in a variety of electronic circuits, such as rectifiers, voltage
regulators, and signal processing circuits. They are also commonly
used in power supplies and electronic devices such as televisions and
radios.

A simple representation of a p-n junction is shown in the figure.

Diffusion of majority carriers and formation of depletion region:

When a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor are

brought into contact with each other, a diffusion of electrons and holes
occurs at the interface due to the concentration gradient of charge
carriers. Electrons from the n-type region diffuse across the interface
into the p-type region, and combine with holes to form neutral atoms.
Similarly, holes from the p-type region diffuse across the interface into

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the n-type region and combine with electrons to form neutral atoms.
This diffusion of charge carriers continues until a depletion region is
formed at the interface where there are no free charge carriers.

Figure 5: Depletion region

The depletion region is shown in figure 5 has a fixed electric

field that prevents any further diffusion of charge carriers, and this
creates a potential difference across the p-n junction. This potential
difference is known as the built-in potential and it acts as a barrier for
the flow of electric current in the reverse biased direction.

When a voltage is applied in the forward biased direction, the

potential barrier is reduced, allowing electric current to flow through
the p-n junction. This forms the basis of many electronic devices such
as diodes, transistors, and solar cells.

The diffusion of majority carriers causes diffusion current to

flow across the junction. It is easy to see that the current components
due to holes and electrons add up although carriers are moving in

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opposite directions as shown in figure 6. The net diffusion current

density flowing across the junction is given by J (diff) = Jhp+ Jen

Where Jhp: hole diffusion current

Jen: electron diffusion current

Drift current due to minority carriers:

The field due to space charge causes the flow of minority carriers
across the junction. Electrons reaching the edge of the junction on p-
region are accelerated by the electric field in to n-region and similarly,
the holes reaching the edge of the junction on n-region are accelerated
into p-region. As a consequence, an electric current flows across the
junction. This current which is caused by electric field is called drift
current. The current components due to drift motion of holes and
electrons are in same direction and add up to each other as shown in
figure 6. The net drift current through the junction is J (drift) = Jhn + Jep

Where Jhn: hole drift current density

Jep : electron drift current density

Figure 6: Diffusion and drift current across p-n junction

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Energy band diagram of p-n junction at equilibrium:

Let us understand the formation of p-n junction from the point

of view of energy band structure. When the two semiconductors are in
contact, equilibrium is attained only when there is no net current flow
across the junction region. The energy band diagrams of the p and n
semiconductors are shown in the figure given below. Note that the
Fermi levels EFp and EFn are at different levels.

At the instant of joining the levels in the two semiconductors are not
aligned is shown in the figure given below.

The occupancy of energy levels by electrons in the conduction band on

n-side is high while it is low on p-side. Therefore, the electrons

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occupying the energy levels in the conduction band on n-side move

into the conduction band levels on p-side.

Similarly, the occupancy of energy levels by holes in the

valence band on p-side is high while it is low on n-side. Hence, the
holes occupying the energy levels in the valence band on p-side move
into the valence band levels in n-side.

As high energy electrons leave n-region, the Fermi level EFn

which represents the average energy of electrons move downwards.
Since the Fermi level is fixed relative to the band structure of the
region, its movement causes downward shift of the entire band
structure in the n-region.

On the p-side, holes having higher energy leave the valence

band in that region. The direction of decrease in hole energy in upward
and hence Fermi level moves EFp moves upward. Along with EFp, the
entire band structure in the p-region shifts upward. The shifting of
energy bands continues till the energy levels EFp and EFn attains the
same level in both the regions as shown in the figure 7 given below.

Figure 7: Energy band diagram of p-n junction at equilibrium

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When the two levels are equalised, the carrier migration comes
to a halt and equilibrium is established. The displacement of the energy
bands in opposite directions on both the sides causes a bending of the
energy bands in the junction region. Each side takes up a different
electrostatic potential. It results in a potential barrier V o or an energy
hill of height eVo. Electrons in the conduction band of n-region face an
energy hill, namely conduction hill. Electrons approaching the junction
cannot surmount the conduction hill unless they have minimum energy
of eVo. On the other hand, holes near the junction on the n-side can
readily float up the hill irrespective of their energy. Thus the current
due to diffusion of majority carriers is balanced by the drift of minority
carriers and net current across the p-n junction is zero.

Internal Potential barrier (Vo):

The magnitude of the potential barrier Vo can be estimated from the
knowledge of the electron concentrations in the p and n region of the
diode. Eg is the edge of the conduction band on the n-side as shown in
figure 7. The electron concentration in the conduction band on the n-
side can be written as
 
 Eg  EF / KT 
nn  NC e 
       (1)

The edge of the conduction band on the p-side is given by (Eg+eV0).

The electron concentration on p-side can be expressed as
 
  ( E g  eVo )  EF / kT 
n p  NC e 
       (2)

Dividing equation (1) by (2),we get

nn  eV 
 exp  o         (3)
np  kT 

Equation (3) shows that at thermal equilibrium the

concentrations of electrons on both sides of the junction are related
through the Boltzmann factor eeVo / kT. The concentrations of holes on
both the sides are related by an equation similar to equation (3).

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Taking logarithm on both sides of equation (3), we obtain

kT n
Vo  ln n        (4)
e np
Equation (4) can be written as
kT nn p p
Vo  ln
e np pp
At room temperature ,all the impurities are ionised and therefore,
we can write n n = N D and p p = N A Further n n p p = n i2
Using these relations we can write equation (4)as
kT ND N A
Vo  ln              (5)
e ni2
kT
The factor has the dimensions of voltage and isdenoted by VT ,
e
ND N A
we get Vo  VT ln               (6)
ni2
Equation (6) indicates that the barrier potentia in a junction diode depends on
the equilibrium concentrations of the impurities in p and n regions and does not
depend on the charge density in the depletion region.

Effect of biasing on the band structure of the p-n junction:

A device is said to be biased when a dc voltage is applied to it. A p-n

junction can be biased in two ways.

I. Forward bias: The positive terminal of the dc voltage source is

connected to the p-region and the negative terminal to the n-region.

II. Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the dc voltage source is

connected to the n-region and the negative terminal to the p-region.

When the diode is subjected to biasing, the equilibrium conditions that

were established prior to the application of bias get disturbed, and the
relative positions of the energy bands and the Fermi level get displaced
in the following manner.

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In case of forward bias, since the n-section is connected to the negative

terminal of the dc source, the energy of the electron in the n-section
increases by an amount of eV, where e is the charge on the electron
and V is the applied voltage.

Consequently, the Fermi level rises by a value eV in the n-side with

respect to that in p-side. Along with the Fermi level, the companion
energy bands on the respective sides also get displaced by the same
amount as shown in Figure.

As a result the energy associated with the potential barrier is reduced

to e(Vo-V), Where Vo is the contact potential. Thus for forward biasing
the resultant potential across the junction will be the difference of the
applied and contact potential. Thus the resultant field across the
junction becomes weaker, which in turn renders the depletion region
narrower.

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In contrast to the above, changes occur in just the opposite way of

reverse biasing the diode. In the reverse bias condition, since n-section
is connected to the positive terminal of the battery, the electrons in the
n-section need more energy to overcome the contact potential. This is
equivalent to a reduction in its energy as compared to that in the
unbiased state by an equal amount to eV, where V is the applied
potential. As a result, the Fermi level on the n-section side gets
lowered by eV. The energy bands of both n-section and p-sections also
get displaced, in the same direction and by the same amount as that of
Fermi level in order to suit the depression caused in the Fermi level
position as shown in the figure given below.

Due to the shift in Fermi level, the potential barrier energy increases to

e(Vo+V). The higher potential across the junction creates a stronger

field in the vicinity of the junction which pushes electrons and holes
away. This effect causes the depletion region to become wider.

Ideal diode characteristics:

1. It conducts current in one direction only, and it has zero

resistance when forward biased.
2. It blocks current flow in the reverse direction, and it has infinite
resistance when reverse biased. The reverse saturation current
is zero.

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Diode parameters:

1. Static forward voltage drop (VF): This is a maximum forward

voltage for a given forward current, at a given device temperature.

2. Forward Resistance (R F): This is a static quantity, i.e., it is constant

for specific current.

3. Dynamic or a. c resistance (rd): Suppose, in addition to a d.c

current, a small a.c current is superimposed on it in a diode circuit.
The resistance that the diode offers to this signal is called dynamic
or a.c resistance. At any particular d.c voltage, the a.c resistance of a
diode is the reciprocal of the slope of the characteristic at that point.

4. Reverse Breakdown Voltage (VBR): If the reverse bias applied to a p-

n junction is increased, a point is reached when the junction breaks
down and reverse current shoots up to a value limited only by the
external resistance connected in series with the junction. This
critical value of the voltage is known as the reverse breakdown
voltage.

5. Reverse Saturation Current (IS): The voltage at which the electric

current reaches its maximum level and further increase in voltage
does not increase the electric current is called reverse saturation
current.

Forward bias I-V characteristics:

A P-N junction is said to be forward-biased, when the p-type is
connected to the positive terminal and the n-type region is connected
to the negative terminal of a voltage source resulting in a flow of
current in the forward direction.This results in the following
characteristics:

1. Low resistance: The forward-biased diode offers a low resistance

to the flow of current, allowing current to flow easily.

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2. Voltage drop: A small voltage drop occurs across a forward-biased

diode, which is due to the energy required to move electrons from
the n-type material to the p-type material.
3. Increased current: As the voltage across the diode increases, the
current through the diode also increases.
4. Continuous conduction: The forward-biased diode allows current
to flow continuously as long as the forward voltage is maintained.

These characteristics make the forward-biased diode useful in various

applications such as rectifiers, voltage regulators, and power supplies.

A positive bias voltage is applied to p-type and a negative

voltage to the n-type as shown in the figure. As the holes on the p-type
are positively charged particles they are repelled from the positive bias
terminal and are forced to move towards the junction. Similarly, the
electrons on the n-type are repelled by the negative bias terminal are
driven towards the junction. Consequently the depletion region is
narrowed down and along with it the barrier potential is also reduced.
If the applied voltage is gradually increased from zero, the barrier
potential too gets gradually smaller and charge carriers readily flow
across the junction. Electrons from n-type are attracted across to the
positive bias terminal and the holes from the p-type to the negative
terminal. Thus, a majority carrier current flows and the junction is
forward biased.

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The graph shows the forward characteristics, i.e., the forward current
IF is plotted against the forward voltage VF

Reverse bias characteristics:

The process by which, a p-n junction diode blocks the electric current
in the presence of applied voltage is called reverse biased p-n junction
diode. In reverse biased p-n junction diode, the positive terminal of the
battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor material and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type
semiconductor material.

On application of an external bias - positive to n-type and negative to

p-type, electrons from the n-type are attracted to the positive bias
terminal and holes from the p-type are attracted to the negative
terminal. As a result, the depletion region is widened and the barrier

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potential is increased by the magnitude of the applied voltage. Due to

the increase in barrier potential and the resultant electric field, it is not
possible for the majority carrier current to flow across the junction and
the junction is reverse biased. However, minority carriers generated on
either side can still cross the junction.

The phenomenon is shown by the junction reverse characteristics.

A small reverse bias voltage is enough to pull across all available

minority carriers across the junction. When all the minority carriers
have crossed over, any further increase in bias voltage will not increase
in current. This is called reverse saturation current.

For a diode, the reverse saturation current is very much smaller than
the forward current (IF). Hence a reverse biased diode considered to be
an open switch. At a particular value of high reverse voltage, the
reverse current suddenly shoots up, resulting in overheating and diode
is said to be in the breakdown region.

Diode equation:

The diode equation relates the current flowing through a diode to the
voltage across it. It is given by:  VD     
I  I s  e T   1          (1)
  *V 

 
 

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Where I is the diode current, Is is the reverse saturation current

(a small current that flows when the diode is reverse biased), VD is the
voltage across the diode, η is the ideality factor (a dimensionless
parameter that accounts for non-ideal behavior), and VT is the thermal
voltage (kT/e, where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is the temperature in
Kelvin, and e is the charge of an electron).

The diode equation can be used to describe the forward and reverse
characteristics of a diode.

For the forward characteristics, when the diode is forward-biased, its

voltage is positive and the current flowing (IF) through the diode is
given by:
  VD  
 I s  e T   1          (2)
  *V 
IF
 
 
 VD 
 
 
  *VT 
When VD  VT , e  1
 VD 
 
  *VT 
Equation (2) reduces to I F  I se  

Which shows that that the diode current increases exponentially as the
forward voltage increases, and the diode is said to be in the forward-
active region.

The forward-bias diode equation is useful for analyzing and designing

circuits that use diodes, as it allows us to calculate the expected current
flowing through the diode as a function of the applied forward voltage

The diode equation for reverse bias characteristics describes the

reverse leakage current (IR) that flows through a diode when it is
reverse biased. It is given by:
  VD  
IR 
 Is  e
  *VT 
 
 1          (3)
 
 

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When reverse or negative voltage is applied across the diode, V D is

negative.
 VD 
 
  *VT  1
When VD  VT , e  
  VD 
 1
 
  *VT 
 
e
Equation (3) reduces to IR=IS

In the reverse bias region, the diode current increases exponentially

with increasing reverse voltage, and the diode behaves like a nearly
constant-voltage source.

Note: the diode equation is an approximation and does not account for
all possible diode behaviors, such as temperature effects or reverse
breakdown.

Application: Bridge Rectifier

A bridge rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts an

alternating current (AC) voltage into a direct current (DC) voltage. It
consists of four diodes connected in a bridge configuration that allows
the current to flow in one direction, regardless of the polarity of the
AC input voltage.

The AC voltage is applied across the two input terminals of the bridge
rectifier. Each pair of diodes conducts in turn, allowing the current to
flow in only one direction through the load. This process of converting
AC to DC is called rectification.

The advantage of using a bridge rectifier over a half-wave rectifier is

that the former provides a higher output voltage and efficiency, as it
uses the entire cycle of the AC input voltage. This makes it a
commonly used component in power supplies for electronic devices
and in many other applications where DC power is needed.

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Bridge rectifiers are in the same class of electronics as half-wave

rectifiers and full-wave rectifiers. Figure shows such a bridge rectifier
composed of four diodes D1, D2, D3, and D4 in which the input is
supplied across two terminals A and C in the figure while the output is
collected across the load resistor RL connected between the terminals E
and B.

During the positive input half cycle, terminal X of the secondary

is positive and terminal Y is negative. Diodes D 1 and D3 become
forward biased (ON), where as D2 and D4 are reverse-biased (OFF).
Hence current flows along XABECY producing drop across R L.
During the negative input half cycle, secondary terminal Y becomes
positive and X becomes negative. Now D2 and D4 are forward biased
and current flows along YCBEAX. Thus, we see that current passes
through the load resistance RL in the same direction (BE) during both
the half cycles of ac input supply. The output voltage across R L is
shown in figure.

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Breakdown mechanism in diodes:

An ordinary p-n junction diode does not conduct when it is reverse
biased, if the reverse bias is increased and exceeds a threshold value
the junction breaks down and starts conducting heavily. This critical
value of the voltage is called breakdown voltage of the junction.

The breakdown voltage depends on the width of the depletion region

and doping levels of p and n regions. This can occur through
mechanisms such as avalanche breakdown or Zener breakdown,
depending on the specific characteristics of the device.

Avalanche breakdown:
Avalanche breakdown is a type of reverse breakdown
mechanism that can occur in a p-n junction diode or other
semiconductor device. When p and n regions are lightly doped, a
breakdown due to avalanche effect occurs in a crystal. In a reverse bias
condition, the current in the circuit is mainly due to minority carriers.
These carriers fall down the potential barrier and acquire energy. The
charge carriers collide with the crystal ions and impart their energy to
it in the process. If the reverse voltage is increased further accelerates
minority carriers across the junction. The velocity of the minority
carriers is proportional to the bias voltage. The accelerated minority
carriers acquire sufficient kinetic energy to knock off electrons by
disrupting the covalent bonds during collision in the depletion under
the influence of external electric field and causes further ionisation of
more atoms resulting in a chain reaction. This cumulative effect is
known as avalanche breakdown. This creates a self-sustaining
avalanche effect that leads to a rapid increase in current flow through
the device.

Zener breakdown
When the p and n regions are highly doped, breakdown in a junction
occurs even by applying a small reverse voltage across the junction.
This sets up a very high electric field across the narrow depletion
region and ruptures the covalent bond of atoms and creates electron –

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hole pairs leading to sharp increase in the reverse current such a

breakdown is known Zener breakdown.

This breakdown does not involve collisions of carriers with the ions of
the crystal, as in the case of avalanche effect. This results in a voltage
drop across the diode that remains relatively constant, making Zener
diodes useful for voltage regulation and other applications.

Zener diode as voltage regulator:

Zener diode is a semiconductor diode specially designed to operate in
the breakdown region of reverse bias. By varying the impurity
concentration and other parameters, it’s possible to design the
breakdown voltage to suit specific applications

Figure: Schematic representation of zener diode

Zener diode works similar to ordinary diode under forward bias
condition. However, the reverse bias characteristic is different from
that of an ordinary diode.

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A zener diode is a type of diode that is designed to operate in

the reverse-bias breakdown region. When a zener diode is reverse-
biased and the applied voltage reaches a certain value known as the
breakdown voltage, the diode starts conducting current in the reverse
direction. The voltage at which the sudden increase in reverse current
occurs is called zener breakdown voltage or zener voltage (V Z).

Zener diodes can be used as voltage regulators because they are able to
maintain a nearly constant voltage level even when the input voltage
varies over a wide range. Voltage regulation is a measure of a circuit’s
ability to maintain a constant output voltage when either input voltage
or load current varies.

The circuit arrangement is as shown in the figure 8. The power supply

provides the input voltage (Vi) and R is the current limiting resistor.
The load resistor (RL) is connected in parallel with the diode across
which constant output is desired.

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The total current I passing through R equals the sum of diode current
and load current (I = Iz + IL)

Figure 8 : Circuit diagram

This circuit makes use of the fact that under reverse bias breakdown
voltage, the voltage across the zener diode remains constant even if
larger current drawn. Since the resistance RL is parallel to the zener
diode, the voltage across the load resistance does not vary even though
the current through the load changes. Hence, the voltage across the
load is regulated against the variations in the load current.

Operation:

Case 1: We assume that the load resistance RL is constant and Vi is

varying.

As RL is constant, IL is also constant because IL= VZ / RL. But

supply current keeps changing due to change in V i. The current
through R is I  Vi  Vz and is the sum of I = Iz+IL .
R
If Vi increases, then the current I will increase. But as V z and
RL are constant, the load IL will remain constant. Naturally, the
increase in current will increase zener current I Z. Thus, the increase in
I will be absorbed by the zener diode without affecting IL. The increase
in Vi results in a larger voltage drop across R by keeping V o as
constant.

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If Vi decreases, I will decrease causing Iz to decrease. The diode takes

a smaller current and voltage drop across R is reduced. As a result the
output Vo remains constant. Thus, whenever Vi changes I and IR drop
is such a way as to keep Vo constant.

Case 2: We assume that Vi is constant and the load resistance RL is

varying.

If RL decreases then IL will increase. But as I is constant, the zener

current will decrease thereby keeping I and IR drop constant. The
output voltage remains constant.

If RL increases then IL will decrease. With decrease in IL, the zener

current IZ will increase in order to keep I and IR drop constant. Again,
the output voltage remains constant.

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Introduction:
A transistor is a semiconductor device that is used to amplify or switch
electronic signals. It is a fundamental component of modern
electronics and is used in a wide variety of applications, including
computer processors, audio amplifiers, power regulators, and many
more. The transistor was invented in 1947 by William Shockley, John
Bardeen, and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs. The invention of the
transistor marked a major milestone in the development of electronics
and paved the way for the modern computer age.

Transistors are typically made from materials such as silicon or

germanium, which have properties that make them suitable for use as
semiconductors. They consist of three layers of material: a P-type
layer, an N-type layer, and another P-type layer, or an N-type layer, a
P-type layer, and another N-type layer. These layers are carefully
designed and arranged to create a device that can control the flow of
electrons through it.

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Transistors can be classified into two main types: bipolar junction

transistors (BJTs) and field-effect transistors (FETs). BJTs have three
layers and are controlled by the flow of current through the base
terminal, while FETs have three terminals and are controlled by the
electric field created by the voltage applied to the gate terminal.

Transistors have revolutionized the world of electronics and have

made possible many of the technological advances that we enjoy
today. Their ability to amplify and control electronic signals has led to
the development of smaller, faster, and more powerful devices, and
they continue to be an essential component of modern electronics. We
study about BJT in this unit.

What is bipolar junction transistor?

A transistor is a semiconductor device consisting of three regions
separated by two distinct junctions. The central region is called base. It
may be p-type or n-type semiconductor. The two outer regions are
called emitter and collector. They are of the same type extrinsic
semiconductor but different from that of base. Thus, if the base is p-
type the emitter and collector are n-type and if the base is n-type the
emitter and collector are p-type.

Thus, two types of transistors are available as shown in figure. They

are called npn and pnp transistors.

In a junction of the pnp type, a thin layer of n-type silicon is

sandwiched between two layers of p-type silicon. Alternatively, a

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junction transistor of npn type consists of a semiconductor crystal in

which a thin layer of p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two
layers of n-type semiconductor.

The n-region contains free electrons and p-region contains holes. Thus,
two types of charge carriers namely holes and electrons are involved in
current flow through npn or pnp transistor. Therefore, these transistors
are known as bipolar junction transistors.

In pnp transistor, the arrow points toward the base. In this device holes
flow from the emitter into the base and hence the current flows from
the emitter into the base. In npn transistor, the arrow points away from
the base. In this device electrons flow from the emitter into the base
and hence the current flows from the base to the emitter.

The function of each element is as follows:

1. The emitter provides the majority carriers necessary to support
current flow
2. The base controls the flow of the majority carriers within all
elements of the transistor.
3. The collector supports the majority of the current flow in the
transistor.

Formation of depletion regions:

Transistor is a piece of crystalline material that has been doped to
create the three elements. Each transistor has two p-n junctions. The
junction that separates the base and the emitter is called the emitter-
base (EB) junction and one separating the base and the collector is
called the collector-base (CB) junction.

During the process of formation of junctions, diffusion of majority

carriers takes place and depletion layers form. As the doping levels
in the three regions are different, the two depletion layers form with
different widths. Because emitter is heavily doped and the base is
lightly doped the depletion layer at EB junction penetrates slightly
into the emitter region and deeply into the base region. Similarly, at

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the CB junction, the depletion layer extends into the base region
while it penetrates to a lesser extent into the collector region. This
results in a narrow depletion layer at EB junction and a wide
depletion layer at CB junction. The base region becomes thinner
compared to its physical dimension, as two depletion layers encroach
on it.

The two p-n junctions can be viewed as two diodes. Therefore, a

transistor may be regarded as two p-n junctions arranged back to back
with the base being common to both the diodes. As both the diodes
have the base in common, they influence each other strongly

Transistor configurations
A transistor being a three terminal device, it can be connected in the
three electrical modes, with one terminal common to both, the input
and output. The basic three modes are

1. Common base(CB) mode

2. Common emitter (CE) mode
3. Common collector (CC) mode

Whenever, a transistor is connected in any mode, it should be

remembered that the basic bias conditions are satisfied, i.e the emitter-
base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is
reverse-biased.

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Any two-port network which is analogous to transistor configuration

circuits can be analyzed using three types of characteristic curves.

Input Characteristics: The curve describes the changes in the values

of input current with respect to the values of input voltage, keeping the
output voltage constant.

Output Characteristics: The curve is obtained by plotting the output

current against output voltage, keeping the input current constant.

Current Transfer Characteristics: This characteristic curve

describes the variation of output current in accordance with the input
current, keeping the output voltage constant.

Common Base Configuration

Consider an n-p-n transistor in common base configuration. In this
common base configuration, emitter current IE is the input and
collector current IC is the output current.

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The above figure shows that the experimental arrangement for

determining the static characteristic of an n-p-n transistor in common-
base mode. In this mode emitter base junction is forward biased and
collector base junction is reverse biased. Two variable dc regulated
power supplies VEE and VCC are connected to emitter and collector
terminals of a transistor in the circuit. Two milli-ammeters and
voltmeters are required to note down the current and voltage to study
the I-V characteristics.

Input Characteristics
To plot the input characteristics, the collector to base voltage VCB be
kept constant. The emitter to base voltage VEB is varied in small steps
and the corresponding values of emitter current IE are noted for each
value of VEB. Similar graphs for other values can be plotted by
keeping VCB constant as shown in figure.

Output Characteristics
The emitter current, IE is kept constant. The collector to base voltage
(VCB) is varied from zero in suitable steps and corresponding values of
IC are noted. The experiment is repeated for different values of I E. The
output characteristic curves obtained are shown in figure.

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Current transfer characteristics

To plot current transfer characteristics, for a common base mode,
keeping collector to base voltage constant VCB, the emitter current (IE)
is slowly increased in steps corresponding collector current (IC) is
noted. A graph is plotted between IC along y-axis and IE along x-axis.
The graph is a straight line as shown in figure. The transfer
characteristic is nearly linear.

In a common base circuit, the current gain is defined as the ratio of the
change in collector current and the emitter current at a constant
collector-base voltage.

The current gain is denoted by α and is given by

 I C 
  
 I E VCB
Where ΔIC and ΔIE are the magnitude of the collector current and
emitter currents.

Common Emitter Configuration

Consider an n-p-n transistor in common emitter configuration. In this
configuration the base current IB is the input current and collector
current IC is the output current.

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The above figure shows that the experimental setup for determining
the static characteristic of an n-p-n transistor used in a common emitter
configuration circuit. Two variable dc regulated power supplies V BB
and VCC are connected to base and collector terminals of a transistor. A
micro ammeter and a voltmeter are connected to measure the base
current IB and VBE, and a milli ammeter and a voltmeter are connected
to measure IC and VCE in the circuit.

Input Characteristics:
The input characteristic curves are obtained by plotting base emitter
voltage VBE versus base current IB keeping VCE constant. The
characteristic curves are plotted for various values of collector to
emitter voltage VCE as shown in figure.

Output characteristics
To plot this characteristic curves, the base current I B is maintained at a
suitable constant value. The collector emitter voltage VCE is varied in
small steps from zero and the corresponding collector current I C is
noted. A graph is plotted between collector current I C along y-axis and
collector emitter voltage VCE along x-axis. The procedure is repeated
for other fixed values of IB.

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Current transfer characteristics

To plot current transfer characteristics for a common emitter mode,
collector emitter voltage VCE is maintained at a constant value, the
base current IB is varied in steps and the corresponding collector
current IC is noted. A graph is plotted between I C taken along y-axis
and IB along x-axis. The characteristics obtained as shown in figure.

It is clear from the graph that a small change in base current produces a
large change in collector current for a constant collector-emitter
voltage.

In a common emitter circuit, the current gain is defined as the ratio of

the change in collector current and the base current at a constant
collector-emitter voltage. The current gain is denoted by a letter β.

 I C 
  
 I B VCE

Where ΔIC and ΔIB are the magnitude of the collector current and
emitter currents.

Common Collector Configuration:

Consider n-p-n transistor in common collector configuration as shown
in the figure. In this configuration, the base terminal of the transistor
serves as the input, the emitter terminal is the output and the collector
terminal is common for both input and output. Hence, it is named as

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common collector configuration. The input is applied between the base

and collector while the output is taken from the emitter and collector.

The dc current gain is given by γdc as

 I E 
 dc   
 I B VCE

The common collector configuration is used for impedance matching

purposes since it has high input impedance and low output impedance;
opposite to that of the common-base and common-emitter
configuration.

Relation between current gain of common base (α) and common

emitter (β)
I
The d c current gain for a common emitter is given by   I and
C

IC
For common base configuration is given by  
IE
The emitter current is given by I E = IB + IC or IB = IE - IC
Hence α and β are dependent on each other

IC
 
I E  IC

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Dividing numerator and denominator by I E we get
IC / I E α
β = =
1-I C / I E 1-α
IC
Similarly α =
I B +I C
Dividing numerator and denominator by I B we get
I C /I B
α =
1+I C /I B
β
α=
1+β

Transistor as an amplifier
An amplifier is an electronic circuit that causes an increase in
the voltage or power level of a given signal. Accordingly amplifiers
are classified as current amplifiers, voltage amplifiers and power
amplifiers respectively. Transistor amplifiers are used in a wide range
of electronic devices, including radios, televisions, and audio
amplifiers. They offer high gain, low noise, and low distortion, making
them ideal for amplifying small signals from microphones, sensors,
and other sources.

A transistor can be employed as an amplifier in anyone of the three

modes (1) Common base amplifier (2) Common collector amplifier
and (3) Common emitter amplifier.

Common Emitter Amplifier:

Basic circuit of common emitter amplifier using npn transistor:

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The battery VBB provides the necessary forward bias between emitter
base junction and another battery VCC provides the reverse bias
between collector base junction. A load resistance R L is connected in
the collector circuit as shown in figure. The signal to be amplified is
applied at the input and an amplified output is obtained between
collector and the ground.

Working: When no signal is applied, some d.c collector current flows

through the load RL. Hence voltage drop across RL is ICRL is in
opposition to the collector supply voltage VCC and hence the collector
voltage is reduced to some value say VC is given by VC = VCC - IC RL

Suppose now a signal from signal source say A.F.O (Audio

Frequency Oscillator) is applied at the input. During the positive half
cycle of the first cycle, the forward bias of the junction increases. This
increases the emitter current. Since IE = IB + IC, the increase in IE will
increase the collector current IC and there by voltage drop across RL
increases. But the output is given by VC = VCC - IC RL

Thus, increase in ICRL will result in decrease in VC i.e., the collector

becomes more negative. In other words, we get a negative half cycle at
the output corresponding to the positive half cycle at the input.

During the negative half cycle, the forward bias of p-n junction (i.e.
emitter-base) decreases, this decreases the emitter current.
Correspondingly collector current decreases and hence voltage drop at
the load resistance RL decreases. This results in increase of collector
voltage VC and we get a positive half cycle at the output corresponding
to the negative half cycle at the input. Thus we conclude that in a
common emitter circuit, the input and output voltages are out of phase
i.e. 180o.

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Voltage gain of CE Amplifier

vi
The a.c base current , ib 
Ri
Where vi = a.cinput voltage
Ri = input a.c. resistance in CE mode

ic
The current gain in CE mode is given by  =
ib
vi
the collector a.ccurrent, ic   ib  
Ri
 vi RL
The magnitude of the output volatge = vo = ic RL 
Ri
Hence the magnitude of the voltage gain in CE mode is
 vi RL
vo Ri  RL
av   
vi vi Ri

Since β is very large for most of the transistors, R L is taken large and
Ri is moderate, the voltage gain of CE amplifier is large, Hence CE
mode is popular and it has large voltage and power gain.

Advantages of CE Amplifier
The common emitter amplifier is widely used as it has the following
advantages:
1. The current gain (β) is very large.
2. The voltage gain is also very high.
3. The power gain is very large.
4. Since the input and output impedance do not differ much from
each other, large number of stages can be cascaded to achieve the
desired gain.
5. The input impedance of the CE amplifier is relatively high, making
it easy to interface with different input sources without affecting
the signal.

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Disadvantages of CE Amplifier
1. The CE amplifier is temperature-dependent, which means that
changes in temperature can affect its performance. The biasing
circuit must be designed to compensate for these changes.
2. The frequency response of CE amplifier is fairly poor,
particularly at high frequency as compared to CB and CC mode,
because of its large effective input capacitance.

Comparison of CB, CE and CC configurations

Common Base Common Common

No Parameter
(CB) Emitter (CE) Collector (CC)
1. Input Resistance (Ri) Low Low Very High
2. Output Resistance (Ro) Very High High Low
Current gain α - Less than 1 β - 100 to 500 γ - about 35
3.
(High) (Moderate)
4. Voltage gain 100-1000 250-300 Less than 1
5. Power gain 20-30 40 15-30
For audio
For high
frequency For impedance
6. Applications frequency (RF
(20Hz to matching
and VHF)
20KHz)

Q.No Sample Questions CO

1. What is pn junction diode? 1
2. Explain the term depletion region. 1
3. Explain the equilibrium condition in unbiased p-n unction. 2
4. Draw a neat energy band diagram of a p-n junction at 2
equilibrium and explain the formation of a conduction hill and
a valence hill.
5. Explain the mechanism of current flow in forward and reverse 2
biased p-n junction. Draw the I-V characteristics of a p-n
junction diode under both modes.
6. What is reverse breakdown? Explain the mechanism in details 1
of (i) Avalanche breakdown (ii) Zener breakdown.
. 7 Explain how zener diode is different from an ordinary p-n 1

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junction diode.
. 8 Explain function of zener diode with the help of I-V 1
characteristics.
9. Explain the effect of forward and reverse biasing on the width 2
of the depletion region.
10. Explain how zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator. 2
11. Explain the three different configurations? Draw the circuit 1&2
diagrams using p-n-p and n-p-n transistor.
12. Explain the input and output characteristics of a common base 1
transistor circuit.
13. With the help of an experimental arrangement, explain how 2
the input, output and transfer characteristics of common
emitter mode are studied.
14. Define α and β. Establish the relation between α and β. 2
15. Why transistor is called an active device? Explain the 2
mechanism of amplification in a transistor. Show that output
of a common emitter amplifier is 180o out of phase with the
input signal. Calculate the voltage gain of CE amplifier.
16. List the merits and demerits of CE amplifier. 1

PNo. Problems CO
1. A silicon pn junction diode is formed from p-material doped with 3
1022 acceptors / m3 and n-material doped with 1.2 x1021 donors /
m3. Find the thermal and barrier voltage at 25oC.
Solution: T= 273+25= 298K, ni=1.5 x 1016/m3

Thermal voltage
kT (1.38  1023 )  298
VT    25.7mV
e 1.6  1019
Using relation for barrier potential Vo , we get

ND N A 1022  1.2 1021

Vo  VT ln  25.7  103 ln
n2
i 2.25  1032
Vo  (0.0257)(24.699)  0.635V

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2. A transistor with an α =0.99 is operated in a common emitter 3

configuration. What is the maximum alternating current gain?
Solution:
 0.99
    99
1   1  0.99
3. The current gain of transistor in common emitter (CE) 3
configuration is 49. What will be the current gain of the same
transistor in common base (CB) configuration?

Solution:  
  49 
1 1
49
  49(1   )    0.98
50
4. Find IC and IE for a transistor. Given that α = 0.96 and IB =
110µA. Also calculate the β of the transistor.
Solution: I
  C IC   I E   ( IC  I B )
IE
 IB 0.96 110  A
IC    2.64mA
(1   ) (1  0.96)
I 2.64mA
IE  C   2.75mA
 0.96
 0.96
    24
(1   ) (1  0.96)

5. Claculate α and IB for a transistor which has IC = 2.5mA and IE =

2.6mA. Also determine β for the transistor.

Solution:
I C 2.5mA
    0.96
I E 2.6mA
I B  I E  I C  2.6mA  2.5mA  0.1mA  100  A
 0.96
    24
1 1  0.96

R V College of Engineering 43
 UNIT 4 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
Electrical& Electronics Engineering Stream- (EC, EE, EI and ET)

6. An unregulated d.c supply of 40V is applied to a shunt zener 3

regulator to give a regulated output of 10V. The series resistor is
3kΩ. Calculate the current through the zener diode and also
current through load resistor of 2kΩ.

Solution:
Zener breakdown voltage Vz = 10V, unregulated input voltage
Vi = 40V. Hence ( Vi – Vo) = (40-10)=30V must drop across the
series resistor RS of 3kΩ
The current I through the resistor RS
30
I  10  103  10mA
3  103
The volatge across load R L  2k  is 10V.
Hence current through R Lis
10
IL   5  103  5mA
2  10 3

We know that I=I z + I L

The current through the zener is
I z  I  I L  10mA  5mA  5mA

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