Nucleic

Acids
By
Suveera
 Nucleic
Acids
• Bio-polymer made up of monomeric
units known as nucleotides
• Hold genetic information
• Two important nucleic acid
a) DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid)
b) RNA (Ribose Nucleic Acid)
Understanding Nucleotide and
Nucleoside
Sugar in Nucleic
Acid

• 5 carbon sugar called as pentoses

• Different types of pentoses are
present in human body
• Two most important pentoses :
Ribose and Deoxyribose
• Ribose is a constituent of RNA and
Phosphate
Group

• Consists of four
oxygen atoms
• Polar molecule,
highly ionized
oxygen atom
which impart
negative charge
 Nitrogen
Bases
•Contain nitrogen atom
•Act as a base
•Ringed structure
•Two major bases
a) Pyrimidines (Single ringed &
Smaller)
b) Purines (Doubled ringed &
Larger)
• Heterocyclic
Nitrogen
Bases
Nitrogen
Bases
Bonds in
Nucleotide
Nomenclature of Nucleoside
and Nucleotide
Structure of
Nucleoside
Structure of
Nucleotide
How are nucleotides joined together?

• 5’-phosphate of one
nucleotide is linked to
3’- hydroxyl group
• This creates a
phosphodiester
linkage
• Covalent backbone
consists of alternating
phosphate and
pentose
• N bases may be the
side groups joined to
backbone
• Backbones are
hydrophilic
Shorthand representation of a
nucleotide
 Properties of
•
Bases
Being aromatic, bases have a great influence
on structure, electron distribution and light
absorption
• Pyrimidines are planar and purines are nearly
planar
• All nucleotides absorb UV light and nucleic
acid have a strong absorption at 260 nm
• Purines and pyrimidines are hydrophobic
• Bases are stacked one above the another
resembling a stack of coins
• The stacking interactions involve van der
Waals and dipole-dipole interactions
 Properties of
Bases
• Functional groups of purines and
pyrimidines are ring nitrogen,
carbonyl grp and exocyclic amino grp
• Hydrogen bonds involve the amino and
carbonyl grp are the most important
mode of interaction between two
complementary strands of nucleic acid
• A bonds specifically to T (U in RNA), G
bonds specifically to C
 Nucleic Acid
Structure
• DNA : First isolated and
characterized by Friedrich
Miescher in 1868
• Called the phosphate containing
material as nuclein
• Avery, Macleod and McCarty : 1940,
demonstrated DNA as the genetic
material
• Hershey and Chase : 1952 : Confirmed
DNA as the genetic material
 DNA as genetic material
• Before DNA and RNA were known to
carry genetic information, scientists
realized that living organisms,
contain some substance that is
passed on from parent to child
• The material must have three
principal characteristics
a) Must contain in stable form
b) Must replicate accurately
c) Must be capable of change
Griffiths Transformation
Experiment
Avery’s Experiment
Lytic cycle
Hershey Chase Experiment
Nucleic Acid Structure (Chemical
Evidence)
• Important clue to DNA structure : Erwin
Chargaff and colleagues 1940
• Base composition of DNA varies
from one species to another
• DNA specimen isolated from different
tissues of the same species have same
base composition
• Base composition does not change
with age, nutritional state or
environment
• In cellular DNA, A=T and G=C i.e
Nucleic Acid Structure (Physical
Evidence)
• Rosalind Franklin and
Maurice Wilkins: X Ray
Diffraction
• DNA produces
characteristic X ray pattern
• DNA molecule is helical
• The height of one turn is
34Å and distance between
two stacked bases is 3.4Å
• So there must be 10 bases
per turn
Watson and Crick
Structure
 Watson and Crick Model
• 1953 : Postulated the 3 dimensional structure
• 2 helical chains wound around the axis to form
aright handed double helix
• Hydrophilic backbone consisting of sugar and
phosphate groups face water
• Purines and pyrimidines are stacked inside with
their hydrophobic and planar structure close
together and perpendicular to axis
• The two strand creates a major and minor
groove
• Both the strands run antiparallel
 Watson and Crick
Model
• Vertically stacked bases would be 0.34
nm or 3.4Å apart
• 3.4 nm or 34Å accounted for
presence of 10 bases
• In aqueous solution the structure
differs slightly having 10.5 bases
• Being antiparallel, they are
complimentary to each other
 Forces that stabilize DNA
structure
• The DNA double
helix is held by two
forces
a) Hydrogen bonding
between base pairs
b) Base stacking
interactions :
combination of van der
Walls and dipole dipole
interaction
Various Types of
DNA
Various Types of DNA
Physical properties of DNA
• Solution of DNA are highly viscous
at 25°C and pH 7
• Temperature over and above 80°C,
viscosity decreases, DNA undergoes
physical change
• Disruption of hydrogen bonds & base
stacking interactions cause chain to
unwind
• No covalent bonds broken
• pH and temperature normal :
Physical properties of DNA
Physical properties of
DNA
 Physical properties of DNA
• Tm of DNA or
melting point is
defined is the
temperature at
which DNA
strands are half
denatured.
• Higher the GC
content, higher is
the Tm
• More thermal
energy is required
Unique and Repetitive Sequences
• Some DNA sequences are present only once in
genome whereas some are repeated
• Unique sequence of DNA is defined as sequence
present as a single copy in the genome
• Thus there are two copies per diploid cell
• Most of the genes that code for proteins are
unique sequences
• Repetitive as the name suggests is defined as
many copies of sequence present
• Repetitive can be broadly divided into
a) Tandemly repeated
b) Dispersed repeated
Unique and Repetitive
Sequences
 Cot Curve and its Significance
• The rate at which a particular sequence of DNA
reassociates is proportional to the number of times
it is found the DNA molecule
• Greater the number of repetitive sequence, the more
the chances , the more the chances of two
complimentary strands colliding with each other
• Cot analysis is based on DNA renaturation kinetics
• The rate at which heat denatured DNA sequences
in solution will renature is dependent on DNA
concentration, reassociation temperature and
cation concentration
• Cot = DNA (mol/L) x Renaturation time(secs) x
buffer factor (accounts for effect of cations)
 Steps in Cot Analysis
• A DNA fragment is cut randomly into fragments
of 1kb in length
• Fragment are completely denatured by heating
above the melting temperature
• Fragments are allowed to renature
• Renaturation can be monitored in two ways
a) Spectrophotometrically (Absorbance at 260 nm as
ss DNA absorbs more than ds DNA)
b) By using Hydroxypatite chromatography :
Hydroxylpatite is crystalline calcium phosphate. It
is an adsorption chromatography. Calcium being
positively charged will have more affinity for ds
DNA as ds DNA has more negative charge than ss
DNA
Significance of Cot
Analysis •Estimation of
genomic size
•Estimation of
proportion of single
copy and repetitive
sequence
•Estimation of
kinetic complexity
of genome
•Will give an idea as
to how the
eukaryotic genome
has evolved
C value and C value paradox
• C value : It can be defined as the
amount of DNA per haploid cell
(usually expressed in picograms) or
the number of kilobases per cell
• C value paradox : The amount of DNA
in the haploid cell of an organism is
not related to its evolutionary
complexity
 RNA
• Major role to play in protein biosynthesis
• Acts as an intermediary between DNA and
Protein
• Found both in nucleus and cytoplasm
• Single stranded
• Made up of Ribonucleotides
• A,U,G and C are bases
• Ribose is the sugar
• Single strand can fold upon themselves to give
extensive intamolecular base pairing
• Three main types : mRNA, rRNA and tRNA
RN
A
RN
A
 m RNA
• Comprises of 5% of total RNA in the cell
• Mostly heterogeneous in size and base
sequence
• Transcribed from DNA and help in
protein synthesis
 m RNA
• Cap is necessary while translation takes
place
• The 3’ end has poly A tail (around 20 to
50 adenylate residues)
• On both 5’ and 3’ end there are non
coding regions
• The coding regions are translated to proteins
• Sequence on m RNA is complimentary
to DNA
• Sequence on m RNA is read as codon
• Codon is made up of 3 nucleotides
 siRNA or small interfering RNA
• siRNA or small interfering RNA is a non-coding RNA molecule.
It is a double-stranded RNA molecule and is also called
silencing RNA due to its involvement in silencing or inhibiting
the expression of a gene. It controls transposons and helps in
fighting viral infections.
• siRNA was first discovered in plants by David Baulcombe’s
group, for their role in post-transcriptional gene silencing
(PTGS).
• siRNA has a therapeutic potential to cure many genetic
diseases due to its ability to inhibit the expression of a specific
gene.
• siRNA is a double-stranded RNA molecule.
• It is around 20-25 nucleotides long. It contains 5’
phosphorylated ends and 3’ hydroxyl groups.
 siRNA

• It regulates the expression of a coding gene.

• The process by which it inhibits the expression of genes is
known as RNA interference or RNAi.
• It is involved in post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS).
• RNA interference or RNAi is a process by which a dsRNA
molecule binds and prevents the translation of mRNA having a
complementary sequence.
• It induces gene silencing. The mechanism of RNA interference
was discovered by Fire and Mellow in 1998
 siRNA Applications
• It is involved in cellular defence. It controls the damage by
transposons and viral infections.
• siRNAs silence genes at the post-transcriptional level. They
cleave mRNA molecules with a sequence complementary to
the siRNA molecule and thereby stop the translation process
or gene expression.
• Expression of any gene can be interfered with using siRNA
having complementary sequences. This can be utilised in drug
development to regulate gene expression by introducing
siRNA into the cell.
• siRNA is useful in research. It can also be used to study the
function of a specific gene.
• siRNA can be used to treat various diseases such as cancer.
t RNA
• Smallest of RNA molecules
• Delivers amino acid to ribosome
• An adaptor molecule
• Also called s RNA or soluble RNA
• It has 2 important sites
a) Amino acid site
b) Anticodon site
• Primary structure : 73 to 93
nucleotides
• Small, single stranded and linear
• 20 species for 20 amino acids
• Owing to complimentary stretches
forms clover leaf model
Clover Leaf Model of t RNA
• All t RNA
contain 5 main
arms or loops
1) Amino Acid Arm
or Acceptor
arm
2) Anticodon Arm
3) D arm
4) TψC arm
5) Extra Arm
t RNA
Acceptor Arm
• It is at the 3’ end
• It has 7 base pairs
• The end sequence is
unpaired and it is CCA
at 3’ end
• The 3’-OH of A binds
with carboxyl group of
amino acid
• The t RNA bound
with amino acid is
called aminoacyl
t
RNA
Anticodon Arm
• Lies at the opposite
end of acceptor arm
• 5 base pair long
• Recognizes the
triplet codon on
mRNA
• Base sequence of
anticodon is
complimentary to that
on mRNA
t RNA D arm
• The D arm contains unusual
nucleotide dihydrouridine
• 3-4 base pairs
• Serves as a recognition site
for enzymes that add amino
acid to acceptor arm
t RNA
TψC arm
• Opposite to DHU arm
• Contains ribothymidine(T)
not usually present in RNA
and pseudouridine which
has an unusual C-C bond
between base and sugar
• Interacts with large sub
unit of rRNA
Three dimensional structure of
tRNA
 Three dimensional structure of
tRNA
• In 3 dimensional tRNA is L shaped
• Two double helices at right angle to each
other
• Amino acid binding site is opposite to
anticodon arm
• This facilitates protein synthesis
• t RNA constitutes to about 10% of total
cellular RNA
• The L shape is formed due to hydrogen
bonding between T and D arms
 r RNA
• Constitutes to 85% of total
RNA
• Ribosomes consists of many
types of rRNA
• Prokaryotes : 70S rRNA : 30S
+ 50S
• 30S : 16S rRNA
• 50S : 23S rRNA and 5S rRNA
• What is S? : It is svedbergs, a
unit used to measure how fast
molecules move in a centrifuge
• Eukaryotes : 40S + 60S
• 40 S : 18S
• 60 S : 28S, 5.8S and 5S
 • Secondary
r RNA structures of
double stranded
stems
• Single stranded
loops by
complimentary base
pairings
• Major role in
protein synthesis
• Interacts with
both mRNA and
tRNA
 Catalytic RNA
• As the name suggests, catalytic RNA are molecules of RNA
that have an enzymatic activity
• They are also called Ribozymes
• Discovered in 1892, ribozymes demonstrated that RNA
can act as genetic material and act as catalyst
• This contributed to RNA world hypothesis.
• These ribozymes catalyze the hydrolysis of one of their
own phosphodiester bonds or hydrolysis of bonds in
other RNA
• They are also involved in transesterification
• The best characterized ribozymes are self splicing group I
introns, RNase P and hammerhead ribozyme
 Catalytic RNA
• Ribozymes vary greatly in size
• Self splicing introns have more than 400
nucleotides
• The hammerhead ribozyme consists of two
strands with 41 nucleotides in all
• The 3 dimensional structure of ribozymes is
important for its function
• Ribozymes can be inactivated by :
a) Heating above melting temperature
b) Addition of denaturing agents
c) Can be inactivated if essential
nucleotides are changed
 Ribozymes
application

• Catalytic RNA are capable of

cleaving RNA molecules, that
makes them a potential antiviral
and anticancer agent
• Ribozymes have been successfully
used to inhibit gene expression in
invitro and invivo
Alkaline Hydrolysis of
RNA
 Difference between DNA and
RNA DNA
Sr No RNA

1 Double stranded Single stranded mainly except

(except for viruses when self complimentary
which have single sequences are there it forms
stranded) double stranded
2 DeoxyRibose Ribose

3 A,T,G and C are main bases A, U, G and C main bases.

Thymine
found in t RNA
4 Chargaffs rule followed Chargaff’s rule not followed

5 Resistant to action by alkalis Alkalis readily act to form cyclic

diesters
6 Mainly found in nucleus, Mainly cytoplasmic but also
extranuclear DNA is found in nucleus
found in mitochondria
and cytoplasm
7 Millions of base pair Base content ranges from 500 to
 Difference between DNA and
RNA
Sr No RNA DNA

8 Various types present namely DNA is of single type and is

mRNA, rRNA and tRNA responsible for storage and
(Others are snRNA, hnRNA). transfer of genetic information
Each performs different role
9 No other physiological A, B and Z forms
forms observed exist
 What is a
chromosome?
• In the nucleus of
each cell, the DNA
is packed into
thread like
structures called
chromosomes
• Each
chromosomes is
made up of tightly
coiled DNA
around proteins
many times
 Genome of Prokaryotes
• Compared to the highly complex
eukaryotes, the genome of prokaryotes is
less complex
• In prokaryotes and viruses wherein the
genetic material is DNA, the chromosome
consists of DNA with some protein
associated with it
• In bacteria, the chromosome is
circular, double stranded DNA
molecule that is compacted by
supercoiling
 Bacterial chromosome

• In case of the bacterium E. coli, DNA

is located in central region called the
nucleoid
• The double stranded DNA is present
as a single chromosome,~ 1,100µm
long(4 x 10³ kb) which contains all
the genes necessary for bacterium
to grow
Supercoiled chromosome
 Supercoiling
• To understand supercoiling let us
understand properties of small circular
DNA such as that of plasmid and small viral
DNA
• B form contains 10.5 bp
• Supercoiling happens due to underwinding
• In underwinding there would be fewer helical
turns
• Imagine an 84 bp segment, 84/10.5= 8
double helical turns
 Supercoiling
• Supercoiling simply means coiling of
the coil
• DNA double helix is coiled around the
axis
• Further coiling around axis
results in supercoiling
• When there is no bending, DNA is
said to be relaxed
• When DNA molecule undergoes
bending, a strain is induced and
Supercoiling
• If one of the turns were
removed then there would
be 12 bp per turn
• This is a deviation resulting
in a strain
• This strain is
accommodated by coiling
of DNA upon itself leading
to supercoiling
• The strain can also be
accommodated by strand
separation
• In a closed circular DNA,
strain is accommodated by
supercoiling rather than
strand separation
Supercoiling
• Every cell underwinds DNA
with aid of enzymes &
resulting strain state
represents a form of stored
energy
• Cells maintain DNA in an
unwound state to facilitate
compaction
• The underwound state can be
maintained only if the DNA is
in a closed circle or if it is
bound & stabilized by
proteins, so that strands are
not free to rotate
• If there is a break, protein
free circular DNA will not be
able to rotate & revert back
to relaxed state
Types of Supercoiling : Positive &
Negative
E. Coli chromosome
 E. Coli chromosome
• In this organism DNA organized in loops
• The DNA in the loop is folded in more compact
than extended form
• Several DNA binding proteins have been isolated
• They resemble histones
• They are HU & H
• Based on analyses, a model has been proposed
• In this model, bacterial chromosomes has about
100 independent domains
• Each domain consists of a loop which is 40 kb
& is negatively supercoiled
• The ends are held by domain so that one
domain does not affect another
Bacteriophages
Bacteriophage ΦX174
Chromsome • It infects E. coli
• Smaller than
other phages
• Is icosahedral
consists of protein
surrounding genetic
material
Bacteriophage ΦX174 Chromsome
• DNA does not follow base pairing rules
• Ratio is 25A:33T:24G:18C
• Single stranded
• Exonuclease treatment does not affect DNA
• Electron micrography reveals DNA is circular
• 5386 nucleotides
• 11 proteins with 262000Da
• 5386 code for 1795 aa
• Avg mol wt of 1 aa is 110 so 1795 should
account for 197000 Da
• Discrepancy can be explained by this phage
has special genome& spatially very efficient
organization of genes
• In some cases entire genes are located within
sequence of other genes whereas in others one
 Λ Bacteriophage
• Double stranded, linear and has no structural proteins
associated with it
• Two ends of chromosome are single stranded &
complimentary with 12 nucleotides long
• Regardless of lytic/lysogeny, 1st step is injection into
host cell
• Linear strand gets converted into circular
• Naturally complimentary ends pair & single stranded
gaps are sealed by ligase
• Paired ends are called cos sequence
• In lysogenic cycle, the circular DNA finds a particular
site in E. coli chromosome & through crossover
events, the DNA gets integrated in the host
 Λ Bacteriophage
• In the lytic cycle, large concatameric
sequences are produced
• From this concatamers progeny phages are
generated
• The phage has a gene called ter sequence
for terminus generating activity the product
of which is DNA endonuclease
• Once the ter is aligned on cos site, the
endonuclease makes staggered cuts such
that linear chromosome with complimentary
12bp single strands are produced
• The chromosomes are then packed in the
assembled phage heads
 Mitochondrial Genome (mt
DNA)
• Organelles found in cytoplasm of all aerobic plants & animals
• Contain enzymes of Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation & fatty
acid biosynthesis
• Genomes are circular, double stranded & supercoiled (100 coils)
• Linear mitochondrial genomes are found in some protozoa & fungi
• GC content differs greatly from nuclear
• Gene content is very similar among genomes from different
species
both in number & function
• Size varies from organism to organism
• In animals the size is less than 20kb
• The mitochondrial genomes of plant are larger
• Despite the differences in amount of DNA, same amount of unique
sequence DNA is present
• Information content is less as compared to nuclear
• Within mitochondria, a nucleoid region exists, each of which
contains
Chloroplast Genome (CP DNA)
• Cellular organelles found in only green
plants, protists & cyanobacteria(blue
green algae)
• Main centre for photosynthesis
• They contain their own genome
• DNA is double stranded, circular,
devoid of structural protein &
supercoiled
• GC content differs from mitochondrial &
nuclear DNA
• cpDNA is larger than mtDNA : 80 to 600
DNA as Chromatin
 DNA as Chromatin
How is the long DNA packed?
• Proteins help in compacting the DNA
in the nucleus
• These proteins are called histones
and non histones
• Chromatin is basically a complex of
DNA and protein that form
chromosome in an eukaryotic
nucleus
• Histones provide energy in the
form of electrostatic interactions
 DNA as Chromatin
• Histones are a family of positively charged proteins
termed as H1, H2A, H2B, H3 and H4
• They contain amino acids such as arginine and lysine
• Amino acid sequences of histones are highly conserved
• Being positively charged they bind to negatively
charged phosphate grp
• There exists a tight interaction between histones and
DNA
• Some non histones play structural roles whereas others
are associated only transiently
• The basic repeating structural unit of chromatin is
called nucleosome which is winding of DNA around
histones
 DNA as Chromatin
• Nucleosome consists of a short
segment of DNA wrapped around two
molecules of each of four core
histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4)
• Histone octamer : Flat and cylindrical
structure, 11nm in diameter and 5.7 nm
thick
• The DNA winds around the
protein about one and three
quarters time
• Individual nucleosomes are
connected by strands linker DNA and
H1 histone which is known as linker
histone
• Electron microscopy :
Nucleosome exists as bead on
string : 10nm chromatin fibre
• Thinner thread is called linker DNA
 DNA as
Chromatin
• In cell, the
chromatin is more
highly condensed
to form a 30 nm
chromatin fiber
• Coiling of the
10nm fiber to form
30nm, further
condenses the
DNA
 DNA as Chromatin
• The next level of
packing involves
formation of looped
domains
• The amount of DNA in
each loop pair ranges
from ten to hundred
kilobase pairs
• So an average
human chromosome
has 2000 looped
domain
• The organization of
chromatin into loops
appears to be important
for condensing
chromatin into
Concept of Euchromatin and
Heterochromatin
• Euchromatin is defined as the most
loosely or less condensed form of
DNA
• Heterochromatin are the most
condensed or tightly packed DNA in
chromosome
• Euchromatin stains lightly as it is
loosely packed whereas
heterochromatin stains dark
• Euchromatin is actively transcribed
 Centromere and Telomere
• Chromatids : A chromatid
is a replicated
chromosome having two
daughter strands joined by
a single centromere
• Centromere : Structure
in chromosome that
holds the two sister
chromatids
• Telomeres are sections of
DNA that are found at the
end of chromosome
 Polytene Chromosome
• They come under the category of
giant chromosomes
• They have 1000 DNA strands
• They are found in salivary glands of
dipterans and hence referred to as
salivary gland chrromosomes
• It was first reported by Balbiani in
1881
• They are produced by repeated
round of cell division forms a giant
chromosome
• Thus polytene chromosome form
when multiple rounds of replication
produce many sister chromatids
which are fused together
• At interphase they were seen to
have distinct thick & thin banding
patterns
 Polytene Chromosome
• The large size of the chromosome
is due to many longitudnal
strands called chromonemata
• They are 0.5 mm in length and
20µm in diameter
• The chromosomal strands are
formed after repeated division of the
chromosome in the absence of
cytoplasmic division
• This division is called
endomitosis
• The polytene contains two types of
bands : dark bands & interbands
• The bands become enlarged
sometimes to form swelling
called puffs
 Polytene
Chromosome
• In the region of puffs ,
the chromonemata
uncoil to form loops
• The puffing is caused by
uncoiling of individual
chromomeres
• The chromonemata of
puffs give out lateral
loops
• These loops appear as
rings and are called
Balbiani rings
 Lampbrush Chromosome
• Lampbrush chromosome first
observed by Flemming in 1882 in
Salamander oocytes
• Rockert in 1892 described them
• They appeared like brushes used for
cleaning lamps, hence the name
• Transitory structures found in
diplotene stage of prophase I of
meiosis in oocytes of all animal
species
• They are observed in oocytes as
they have high DNA content
• They are of exceptionally large size
& bivalent
• They are formed due to active
synthesis of mRNA molecule for
future use by egg cells
• Lampbrush chromosomes are
clearly visible in the light
 Lamprbrush
Chromosome
• It is organized into series
of chromomere with
large chromatin loops
extending laterally
• Each loop has an axis
made up of DNA
unfolded from the
chromosome& is
transcriptionally highly
active
• The number of loop
gradually increases & is
maximum at diplotene
 Movable Genes
• Mobile genetic elements or movable genes are
sequences of DNA that can change place on
chromosome and can be exchanged between
bacteria and even species
• Simply put it they are elements that have the
capacity to move from one place to another in
the genome
• These mobile elements have been given a
number of names
• They are called controlling elements, jumping
genes, insertion sequences and transposons
• The term that is commonly accepted is
 Inverted Repeats
• An inverted repeat is a single stranded
sequence of nucleotides followed
downstream by its reverse complement

• Their important role is to define

boundaries in movable genes
• They are regions capable of self
compliemtary base pairing
 Transposable elements
• In structure & function, they are similar in
both prokaryotes & eukaryotes as well as
their viruses
• In prokaryotes, they can move to a new position
on the same chromosome or onto plasmids or
phage chromosomes
• In eukaryotes, they have the opportunity to
move to new position in the same chromosome
or to a different chromosome
• They have the ability to produce mutations,
affect gene expression by inserting into
regulatory sequences and there is possibility of
chromosomal mutations
• In prokaryotes, three types exist
a) Insertion sequences (IS) b) Transposons
 Transposons
• A transposon can be defined as mobile
DNA segment that contains genes for
the inesrtion of the DNA segment into
chromosome and mobilization of the
elements to other location on
chromosomes
 Retrotransposons
• Retrotransposons are the movable
elements found in eukaryotes
• They have been identified in many
eukaryotes such as corns, humans
and many others
• These can integrate into
chromosomes at number of sites
• In maize, 50% of the genome is
derived from retrotransposons
 Overlapping genes
• An overlapping gene is
a gene whose
expressible nucleotide
sequence partially
overlaps with the
nucleotide sequence of
other genes
• They are translated from
different frames but from
the same sequence
• Overlap is small
 Cryptic
genes
• Cryptic genes have been
defined as phenotypically
silent DNA sequences
• They are not usually expressed in the
lifecycle of an organism
• However, these genes are capable
of expression in a few members
of a large population by mutation,
recombination, insertion
processes or any other genetic