Chapter Four

Introduction to calculus
Chapter Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
 evaluate limits of a function at given points.
 get acquainted with the concept of continuity of a function.
 find the slope and equation of a tangent line to a curve.
 evaluate the derivative of polynomial, rational and composite functions.
 find the derivatives of the exponential and logarithmic functions.
 apply the concepts of the derivative to find rates of change of variable quantities.
 evaluate maximum and minimum values of functions.
 use the concepts of the derivative to sketch the graph of a function.
 evaluate the integrals of functions using different techniques
 find the definite integral of continuous functions.
 apply the concepts of definite integrals to find areas of regions
4.1. Limits and continuity
At the end of this section you should be able to
 Evaluate limits of elementary functions at given points.
 Identify and evaluate right-hand limit from left-hand limit.
 State the basic limit theorems.
 Find limits of functions.
 Evaluate the limit of composite functions.
 Find asymptotes.
 Define continuous function.
In this section we study the concepts of limits and continuity of functions. The concept of limit is
fundamental to our main subjects of the branch of mathematics called differential and integral
calculus. When we ask about the limit of a function at a point c, we are to ask about tendencies of
the values of f(x) as x gets arbitrarily closer and closer to c.

Consider the function f(x) = 2x and find values of f for values of x close to 3 (but not necessarily
equal to 3).

 values of x to the left of 3 x 2 2.5 2.9 2.99 2.999 …

f(x) 4 5 5.8 5.98 5.998

.. …

 values of x to the right of 3 x 4 3.5 3.1 3.01 3.001 …

As you can see from the above two f(x) 8 7 6.2 6.02 6.002
.. … tables, the
values of f(x) = 2x tend to approach to 6 as x gets
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closer and closer to 3 from both sides of 3.
Intuitively, we say “6 is the limit of f(x) = 2x as x approaches 3” and we write
lim(2 x) = 6.
x3

In general, if for a given real number c, the values of a function f(x) approaches a number L as x
gets close to c, we write
lim f ( x ) = L
x c

We may sometimes write this as f(x)  L as x  c.

Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number. When one asks for the behavior (approximate
value) of f(x) for x near c, normally one is not interested about the value f(c). Instead, one is
asking about values of f for x near to c from both right and left side.
Example
If x gets close to 2, the function f(x) = x + 3 gets close to 5, so that lim( x  3)  5
x2
2
and if x gets close to 1, f(x) = x2 – 3 approaches –2, so that lim( x  3)  2 .
x 1

You can also see that

1 1
lim( x 3  1)  9 , lim x  1 = 3, and lim 
x 2 x 8 x 5
x 1 4
In the above examples we were able to find the limits without much difficulty. However, finding
certain limits are not so immediate. For example consider
x2  4
lim
x2 x  2

Here both x2 – 4 and x – 2 approach to 0 as x approaches to 2, and 0 0 is not determined. But note
that
x2  4 ( x  2)( x  2)
= = x + 2, for x  2.
x2 x2
x2  4
Thus, for x close to 2 (but not necessarily equal to 2), the behavior of is similar to that of x
x2
+ 2 and it seems reasonable to conclude that
x2  4
lim = lim( x  2) = 4.
x2 x  2 x2

In the same manner, we have

( x  2) 2  4 x 2  4x  4  4 x( x  4)
lim = lim = lim = lim( x  4)  4 , (for x  0)
x 0 x x 0 x x 0 x x 0

x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 1 1 1
lim = lim , = lim = lim = = , (for x  1)
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1

( x  1) x  1  x 1
x 1 x 1 2

Definition of limit of a function in terms of one-sided limits

Definition 4.1:
Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number.

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1. A real number L is called the left-hand limit of f at c, written as lim f ( x ) = L
x c 

if and only if for all values of x sufficiently close to c from the left side of c, the
corresponding values of f approach to L.
2. A real number R is called the right-hand limit of f at c, written as lim f ( x ) = R
x c

if and only if for all values of x sufficiently close to c from the right side of c, the
corresponding values of f approach to R.

 x 2 , for x  1
Example 4.1: Let f(x) =  Then lim f ( x) = lim x 2 = 1, while lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 2
2 x, for x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1

x  1, for x  0
Example 4.2: Let f(x) = =
x 1, for x  0

lim f ( x) = lim (1) = –1

x 0  x 1

and lim f ( x) = 1
x 0

2 x  1, for x  0
Example 4.3 : Let f(x) =  2
 x  1. for x  0

The lim f ( x ) = lim (2x + 1) = 1

x 0  x 0

and lim f(x) = lim (x2 + 1) = 1

x 0 x 0

Note that in this example lim f ( x ) = lim f(x)

x 0 x 0

Definition 4.2:
Suppose  is function and c is a fixed real number. A real number L is called the limit of f at c if
and only if the left-and right-hand limits exist and are both equal to L;
i.e. lim f ( x) = L if and only if lim f ( x ) = L = lim f ( x )
xc x c x c

Thus for lim f ( x) to exist, the following conditions must be satisfied:

xc

i) lim f ( x ) must exist

x c

ii) lim f ( x ) must exist

x c

iii) lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x )

x c x c

Otherwise, we say lim f ( x) does not exist.

xc

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 2 x  1, for x  0
Thus in Example 4.3, where f(x) =  2
 x  1, for x  0
we have seen above that lim f ( x ) = 1 = lim f ( x ) Thus, lim f ( x) = 1.
x 0 x 0 x0

Example 4.4: Let f(x) = 2x for x  . Then

lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 21 = 2 and lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 21 = 2
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
x x x
Since lim 2 = lim 2 = 2, we have lim 2 = 2
x 0 x 1 x 1
x
In fact, if a > 0, a  1, then lim a = ac, for any cR
x c

Similarly, you can show that lim log ax = log ax = log ca , for c > 0 and lim sin x = sin c, c.
x c xc

 x , for x  1 2
Example 4.5: Let f(x) = 
3, for x  1
Then lim f ( x) = lim x 2 = 1 while lim f ( x) = lim 3 = 3. Since 1  3, lim f ( x) does not exist.
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x1

Example 4.6: Let f(x) = x , for x  0. Then lim f ( x ) = 0. But since f(x) = x is not defined
x 0

to the left of 0, lim x does not exist. Hence lim x does not exist.
x 0 x 0

Remark: If a function f has a limit as x approaches a number c, then the limit is unique; i.e.
if lim f ( x) = L1 and lim f ( x) = L2, then L1 = L2.
xc xc

 Basic Limit Theorems

Theorem 4.1: Suppose lim f(x) = L, lim g(x) = M and k is a constant.
x c x c

Then i) lim kf(x) = k lim f(x) = KL … Constant Rule

x c x c

ii) lim (f + g)(x) = lim f(x) + lim g(x) = L + M … Addition Rule

x c x c x c

iii) lim (f – g)(x) = lim f(x) - lim g(x) = L – M … Difference Rule

x c x c x c

Example 4.7: lim 5sin x = 5 lim sin x = 5(1) = 5

x  2 x  2

Example 4.8: Let f(x) = 2x and g(x) = 5x – 1. Then

lim (f + g)(x) = lim f(x) + lim g(x) = lim (2x) + lim (5x – 1) = 2(1) + 5(1) – 1 = 2 + 5 – 1 = 6
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1

lim (f – g)(x) = lim f(x) – lim g(x) = lim (2x) – lim (5x – 1) = 2(3) – [5(3) – 1] = 6 –14 = –8
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3

Theorem 4.2: Assume that lim f(x) = L and lim g(x) = M.

  
x c x c

Then lim (fg)(x) = lim f ( x) lim g ( x) = L.M … Product Rule

x c xc x c

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Example 4.9: lim x cos x = lim x. lim cos x = . cos  = (-1) = -.
x  x  x 

It follows from Theorem 4.2 that lim x2 = lim x.x= lim x. lim x = c.c = c2
x c x c x c x c

In general, if n is a positive integer, lim x n  c n .

x c

Example 4.10: Let P(x) = 2x3 + 4x2 – 3x + 1. Then

lim P(x) = lim (2x3 + 4x2 – 3x + 1) = 2(–1)3 + 4(–1)2 – 3(–1) + 1 = –2 + 4 + 3 + 1 = 6
x  1 x  1

Theorem 4.3: Assume that lim f(x) = L, lim g(x) = M and suppose M  0
x c x c

f lim f ( x) L
Then lim   (x) = x c = … Quotient Rule
x c
g lim g ( x) M
x c

log x lim log x 1

Example 4.11: lim = x 10 = .
x 10 x lim x 10
x 10

p( x) p( x) lim p( x ) p (c )
If f(x) = is a rational function, then lim f(x) = lim = x c = = f(c) if
q( x) x c x c q( x) lim q( x ) q (c )
x c

f (c)  0 .

x3  4x  1 lim ( x 3  4 x  1) ( 2 ) 3  4 ( 2 )  1  8  8 1 1
Example 4.12: lim = x 2
= = = .
x  2 4 x 2  x  6 2 2
lim (4 x  x  6) 4(2)  (2)  6 16  2  6 8
x 2

Theorem 4.4: Suppose lim f(x) = L, L  0 and aR such that LaR
x c

Then, lim (f(x)) = L a a

…………... Power Rule
x c

1
  2 1

Example 4.13: lim sin x = lim sin x  =  limsin x 

1
2 = 1 = 1 = 1.
2
 
x
2
x
2
 x2 

Example 4.14: lim 3 ( x 2  2 x  3) 2 = limx 2  2 x  3 3 = 16  4  3

2
= 27 
2 2
3 3 = 32 = 9
x4 x4

Theorem 4.5 (The Squeezing Theorem). Suppose f, g and h are functions such that f(x)  h(x)
 g(x) for all x in some deleted neighborhood of c. If lim f(x) = L = lim g(x), then lim h(x) = L.
x c x c x c

1
Example 4.14: Evaluate lim x2sin
x0 x

92
 1 1
Solution: It may be tempting to consider x2 sin as the product of x2 and sin and then use the
x x
1
Product Rule. Unfortunately it can be shown that lim sin does not exist. Thus we cannot use
x0 x
the Product Rule to evaluate the given limit. However since the sine function has range [–1, 1], it
1
follows that –1  sin  1, for x  0. Multiplying both sides by x2, we get
x
1
–x2  x2sin  x2 with lim (–x2) = 0 = lim x2
x x0 x0

1
Thus, by the Squeeze Theorem, we get lim x2 sin = 0.
x0 x
Remark: One of the most important applications of the Squeezing Theorem is evaluating
sin x
lim . We cannot apply the Quotient Rule to evaluate this limit since the limit of the
x 0 x
denominator is 0. But using some geometric constructions and the Squeeze Theorem it can be
shown that

sin x
lim =1
x 0 x

Remark: The above result has important consequences especially in the evaluation of some
limits involving trigonometric functions.

sin 5 x
Example 4.15: Find lim
x0 x
sin 5 x 5 sin 5 x sin 5 x
Solution: lim = lim = 5 lim
x0 x x  0 5x x  0 5x
sin 5 x sin y
If we put y = 5x, we have as x  0, 5x  0 so that y  0. Thus lim = 5 lim = 5.
x0 x y  0 y
sin ax
In general, for any a  , lim = a.
x0 x
tan x
Example 4.16: Find lim
x0 x
tan x  sin x 1   sin x   1  1
Solution: lim = lim  .  = lim    lim  = 1. = 1.
x0 x x0
 cos x x  x0
 x  x 0  cos x  1

 Infinite Limits, Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes

When lim f(x) does not exist, it may happen that as x approaches c from right, the value of f(x)
x c

becomes indefinitely large or becomes negative and indefinitely large in absolute value. The
value of f(x) may behave similarly when the left-hand limit at c does not exist. We shall use the
symbols  (infinity) and -  to express these cases, respectively.

93
 1
To explain these concepts consider the function f(x) = , for x  0
x
As x gets close to 0 from right, the values of
1
f(x) = become arbitrarily large positive.
x
1
In this case we write lim =
x 0 x

and when x gets close to 0 from left,

1
the values of f(x) = become arbitrarily small negative.
x
1
In this case we write lim = -. See Figure 4.3. Figure 4.3
x 0 x

Definition 4.3:
Let f be a function defined in a deleted neighborhood of c.
i) We say that the left-hand limit of f(x) at c is infinity, and write lim f(x) = 
x c

if f(x) gets larger and larger as x comes closer and closer to c from the left side .
ii) We say that the right-hand limit of f(x) at c is infinity, and write lim f(x) = 
x c

if f(x) gets larger and larger as x comes closer and closer to c from the right side.
iii) We say that the limit of f(x) at c is infinity and write lim f(x) = 
x c

if and only if lim f(x) =  and lim f(x) = 

x c  x c

Definition 4.4:
Let f be a function defined in a deleted neighborhood of c.
i) We say that the left-hand limit of f(x) at c is negative infinity, and write lim f(x) = -
x c

if f(x) gets larger and larger in absolute value as x comes closer and closer to c from the left side
ii) We say that the right-hand limit of f(x) at c is negative infinity, and write lim f(x) = -
x c

if f(x) gets larger and larger in absolute value as x comes closer and closer to c from the right side
iii) We say that the limit of f(x) at c is negative infinity and write lim f(x) = -
x c

if and only if lim f(x) = - and lim f(x) = -

x c x c

1 1 1 1
Example 4.18: For f(x) = , for x  0, lim =  and lim = -. Hence lim does not
x x 0 x x0 x x0 x

1 1 1 1
exist. Whereas for f(x) = 2 , x  0, lim 2 =  = lim 2 . Hence lim 2 = .
x x 0 x x 0 x x0 x

1 1
In general, for any real number c and f(x) = we have lim f(x) = lim =  and
xc x c x c x  c

1
lim f(x) = lim = -.
x c x c x  c

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Definition 4.5:
Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number. We say that the line x = c is a vertical
asymptote of the graph of f if and only if either
lim f(x) =  or lim f(x) = 
x c x c

Remark: From the above examples, we can see that the line x = 0 (i.e. the y-axis) is a vertical
1 1
asymptote of the graphs of the functions f(x) = and f(x) = 2 , while the line x = c is a vertical
x x
1
asymptote of the graph of f(x) = .
xc
x2
Example 4.19: Find all the vertical asymptotes of f(x) = 2
x 1
Solution: If c is any number different from 1 or -1, then by the Quotient Rule,
x2 c2
lim f ( x ) = lim 2 = 2 R
x c x c x  1 c 1
Thus any line x = c for c   1 cannot be a vertical asymptote.
x2  x  2  1 
For c = 1, lim f ( x) = lim 2 = lim   
x 1 x 1 x  1 x 1  x  1  x  1 

 x  2  1  3
= lim  . lim   = () = 
x 1  x  1  x 1  x  1  2
 x  2 1 
Similarly, for c = -1, lim f ( x) = lim  . 
x 1 x  1  x  1   x  1 

 x  2  1   1
= lim  . lim       () = -
x  1  x  1  x 1  x  1   2
x2
Hence the lines x = 1 and x = -1 are vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function f(x) = .
x2 1
Next, we try to investigate the behavior of a function f as x increases (or decreases) indefinitely,
and try to see if we have lim f(x) or lim f(x). Such limits, if they exist, are in general called
x x  

limits at infinite.
Definition 4.6:
i) Suppose f is a function defined on an interval of the form (c, ), for some cR. We say that
the limit of f(x) as x approaches to infinity is the number L, and write lim f(x) = L if when
x

x is assigned sufficiently large positive values, the corresponding values of f approach to L.

ii) Suppose f is a function defined on an interval of the form (-, c) for some cR. We say that
the limit of f(x) as x approaches to negative infinity is the number L, and write lim f(x) = L
x  

if when x is assigned sufficiently small negative values, the corresponding values of f

approach to L.

1
Example 4.20: Let f(x) = , for x  0.
x
95
 1
When x is assigned sufficiently large positive values, the values of f(x) = become close to 0.
x
1
Similarly for values of x sufficiently small negative values, f(x) = becomes close to 0. Hence
x
1 1
lim = 0 and lim = 0. See Figure 4.3 above.
x x x   x
1 1 1
Similarly, lim 2 = 0, lim 2 = 0 and in general, lim = 0.
x  x x   x x   x  c  2

Definition 4.7:
If for a function f and a real number L, lim f(x) = L or lim f(x) = L, then the line y = L is called
x x  

a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f.

1
Thus the line y = 0 (i.e. the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote for both the function f(x) = and
x
1
f(x) = . See Figure 4.3 above.
x2
3x 2  x  1
Example 4.21: Find a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f(x) =
2x2  5
Solution: Since we are interested with the behavior of f for large values of |x|, we divide both
numerator and denominator of f by the leading exponent (i.e.x2) to get
3x 2 x 1 1 1
2  2 2 3  2
3x  x  1 2
f(x) = = x 2x x = x x
2
2x  5 2x 5 5
 2 2 2
x 2
x x
 1 1
2 lim  3   2 
3 x  x  1 x   x x  300 3
Then lim f(x) = lim = = =
x x 2
2x  5  5 20 2
lim  2  2 
x
 x 
3 3
Thus lim f(x) = and the line y = is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f.
x 2 2
3
Similarly, lim f(x) = .
x   2
p( x)
Remark: For a rational function f(x) = , with deg(p)<deg(q), we find a horizontal asymptote
q( x)
by applying the above technique.
As a combination of the above two subsections, it may happen that as the values of |x| increase
without bound, the corresponding values of |f(x)| also increases without bound leading to what are
generally called infinite limits at infinity.

Definition 4.8:

96
Let f be defined on an interval of the form (c,  ), for c  R. We say that the limit of f(x) as
x approaches to infinity is infinity, written lim f(x) =  whenever x is assigned sufficiently
x

large positive values, the corresponding values of f(x) increase without bound.

Remark: Analogous definitions can be given for

lim f(x) = -, lim f(x) =  and lim f(x) = -.
x x   x  

Example 4,22: For f(x) = x3, we have lim x3 =  and lim x3 = -

x x  

3 2
1  4
x 4  3x  2 x 3
x = .
Example 4.23: lim = lim (By dividing by ).
x 2x2  1 x 2 1

x2 x4

Definition 4.9:
If for a function f and for two real numbers a and b lim [f(x) – (ax + b)] = 0, then the line
x  

y = ax + b is called an oblique (or a skew) asymptote to the graph of f.

p( x)
In general, for a rational function f(x) = , we have
q( x)
i) When degree(p) < degree (q), lim f(x) = 0 and the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of f.
x  

ii) When degree(p) = degree(q), then f has a horizontal asymptote given by the quotient of
the leading coefficients of p and q.
iii) When degree(p) > degree(q), then lim f(x) = , and in particularly if
x  

degree(p) = degree(q)+1, then f has an oblique asymptote obtained as a quotient when we

divide p by q.
4 x2  5x  1
Example 4.24: Let f(x) = , find all asymptotes of f.
x3
4 x2  5x  1
Solution: Since lim f ( x) = lim = , the line x = -3 is a vertical asymptote.
x  3 x  3 x3
4 x2  5x  1 20
By the long division method, we get f(x) = = (4x – 7) +
x3 x3
20
 lim [f(x) – (4x – 7)] = lim =0
x x3
x

Therefore, the line y = 4x – 7 is an oblique asymptote of f.

 A special Limit in Exponential Function

x
 1
Consider the function f(x) = 1   with domain (-, -1)  (0, )
 x
The following two tables indicate the behavior of the values of f(x) as x approaches to positive
and negative infinity, respectively,

97
 x 2 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
f (x ) 2.75 2.593743 2.704814 2.716924 2.718146 2.718268

x -2 -10 -100 -1000 -10,000 -100,000

f (x ) 4 2.867972 2.731999 2.719642 2.718418 2.718295
x
 1
As is tried to be indicated from the above tables, the values of 1   tend to approach to an
 x
irrational number whose value is 2.7182818…. This number, denoted by e, is called the base of
the natural logarithm, and plays an important role in calculus.
Remark: The natural logarithmic function (with base e) is given by f(x) = log e x and is denoted
by f(x) = nx. Its inverse, the natural exponential function is given by f(x) = exp(x) = ex.
Thus from the above constructions, we have x x
 1  1
lim 1   = e = lim 1   .
x
 x x  
 x
This limit has important consequences.
x3 x 3
 1  1  1
Example 4.25: lim 1   = lim 1   . 1   - Rule of exponents
x
 x x
 x  x

x 3
 1  1
= lim 1   . lim 1   - Product Rule
x
 x  x  x
= e.13 = e
xa
 1
In general, for any real number a, lim 1   = e.
x  
 x
Example 4.26: Show that lim 1  t 
1
t =e
t 0

Solution: We prove this by showing that lim 1  t  = e = lim 1  t 

1 1
. First use the
t t
t 0 t 0
x
1 1  1
substitution t = , so that x = and as x  , t  0+. Hence, lim 1  t  t = lim 1   = e.
1

x t t 0 x  
 x
x
 1
Similarly, as x  -, t  0- . Hence, lim 1  t 
1
t = lim 1   = e
t 0 x  
 x
Therefore, lim 1  t  = e = lim 1  t  t  lim 1  t  t = e.
1 1 1
t
t 0 t 0 t 0
x
 5
Example 4.27: Evaluate lim 1  
x
 x
5 5
Solution: Let t = . Then x = and
x t

  = lim(1  t)
x 5
 5 5
 = e-5 = 1 .
lim 1   = lim 1  t  t = lim 1  t  t
5 1 1
t
x
 x t 0 t 0 t 0  e5

98
 x
 a
In general, for any real number a, lim 1   = ea.
x  
 x

 Continuity of a Function
In our everyday usage, the word continuity refers to something that happens without any
interruption. In calculus, the term continuity is used to describe functions whose graphs can be
traced without any break. We shall give its formal definition using the concept of limits.

Definition 4.10:
- Let f be a function and c be a number in the domain of f. f is said to be continuous at c if
lim f ( x ) = f(c)
x c

- If f fails to be continuous at c, then we say that f is discontinuous (or not continuous) at c.

- f is said to continuous if it is continuous at each point of its domain.

Example 4.28: Let f(x) = 2x and c = 1

Then lim f ( x ) = lim 2x = 2
x1 x 1

and f(1) = 2(1) = 2.

Since lim 2 x = 2 = f(1), f is continuous at 1.
x 1

Remark: For a function f to be continuous at c, the following conditions must be satisfied

a. f(c) must be defined
b. lim f(x) must exist
xc

c. lim f(x) = f(c)

xc

Otherwise if one of the above conditions is not satisfied, then f is discontinuous at c.

3 x, for x  0

Example 4.29: Let f(x) = 2, for x  0
 x 2 , for x  0

Then f(0) = 2 so that f(0) is defined . lim f ( x) = lim 3x = 0 2
x 0 x 0

and lim f ( x) = lim x 2  0 . Thus lim f ( x ) = 0

x 0 x0 x 0

But since lim f ( x )  f(0) , f is not continuous at 0. . y = 3x

x 0

Figure 4.5
Example 4.30: Let f(x) = sinx. Then, lim f ( x) = lim sin x = 1 = sin  2 = f  2
x  x
2 2

Hence f(x) = sinx is continuous at  2 .

In fact f(x) = sinx is a continuous function. Similarly, the functions f(x) = cosx, the exponential
function with base a, f(x) = ax, the logarithmic function with base a, f(x) = log a x , the natural
exponential function f(x) = ex and the natural logarithmic function f(x) = nx are all continuous
functions in their respective domains.
99
 Theorem 4.6: Suppose f and g are functions with common domain such that both f and g are
continuous at c. Then
1) f + g is continuous at c.
2) f – g is continuous at c.
3) if k is a scalar, kf is continuous at c.
4) fg is continuous at c.
f
5) if g(c)  0, is continuous at c.
g

Example 4.31: Let P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0 be any polynomial of degree n, and
let cR, arbitrary. Then,
lim P(x) = lim (anxn + an-1xn-1 + …+ a2x2 + a1x + a0)= ancn + an-1cn-1 + …+ a2c2 + a1c + a0 = P(c)
xc x c

Hence, P(x) is continuous at c, and since c was taken arbitrarily, every polynomial function is
continuous.
p( x)
Example 4.32: Let f(x) = be any rational function. Then if c is any real number such that q(c)
q( x)
p( x) lim p ( x) p (c )
 0, then lim f(x) = lim = xc = = f(c)
x c x c q( x) lim q ( x) q (c )
xc

Thus any rational function is continuous in its domain.

x3  x  1
From the above theorem we can see that f(x) = 5x2 – 4x + 7 is continuous in R, g(x) =
x2  4
3 5
is continuous in R\{-2, 2}, h(x) = |x| cos x - 2
is continuous for x  0 and f(x) = + nx is
x x 1
continuous for x(0, 1)  (1, ).
As a generalization of the Power Rule for limits, we have the following theorem

Theorem 4.7 (Substitution Rule): Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that lim f(x) =
 
xc

L and g is continuous at L. Then lim g(f(x)) = g lim f ( x) = g(L)

xc x c

Example 4.33: For f(x) = sinx, g(x) = x , and c =  2 , we have lim f ( x) = 1 and g is
x 
2

continuous at 1. Thus lim g(f(x)) = lim sin x = 1 = 1.

xc xc

Using Substitution Rule we have continuity of the composite of two functions as given by the
following theorem.
Theorem 4.8: Suppose f and g are functions such that f is continuous at c and g is continuous at
f(c). Then, gof is continuous at c.

x c xc xc

Proof: Since f is continuous at c, lim f(x) = f(c). Now lim (gof)(x) = lim g(f(x)) = g lim f ( x) =
x c

g(f(c)) = (gof)(c). Therefore, gof is continuous at c.
2
Example 4.34: For f(x) = x2 + 5, g(x) = ex and c = 1, we have (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = e x 5
and

100
 2 2 2
lim (gof)(x) = lim e x 5
= e6 = e1 5
= e6. Thus, (gof)(x) = e x 5
is continuous at 1.
x 1 x 1

 Intermediate Value Theorem

Recall that for a function f continuous on a closed interval [a, b] its graph can be traced between
the points (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)) without any break or interruption. In this section we shall see an
important application of continuous functions: namely, the Intermediate Value Theorem, and
some of its consequences.

Theorem 4.9: (Intermediate Value Theorem)

Suppose f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]. Let L be any number between f(a) and f(b),
(either f(a)  L  f(b), or f(b)  L  f(a). Then there exists a number c in [a, b] such that f(c) = L.
Example 4.35: Let f(x) = x2. Then f is continuous on [0, 3] with f(0) = 0 and f(3) = 9. By the
Intermediate Value Theorem f assumes (takes on) every value between 0 and 9. For instance for L
= 4, we have 2 [0, 3] with f(2) = 4, and for L = 7, we have 7 [0, 3] with f  7  = 7.
Theorem 4.10: Suppose f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and assume that f(a) and f(b)
have opposite signs. Then there is at least one c (a, b) such that f(c) = 0.
Remark: This means that the equation f(x) = 0 has at least one root in the interval (a, b).
Example 4.37: The function f(x) = x3 – x – 2 is continuous on [1, 2]. f(1) = -2 < 0 and f(2) = 4 >
0. Thus there is a number c in (1, 2) such that f(c) = 0 or c3 – c – 2 = 0.
Example 4.38: Show that the graphs of y = ex and y = 3x intersect in the interval [0, 1]
Solution: Define the function f(x) = ex -3x. Then f is continuous on [0, 1] with f(0) = e0 -3(0) = 1
- 0 = 1 > 0 and f(1) = e1 – 3(1) = e – 3 < 0. Thus there is a number c (0, 1) such that f(c) = ec –
3c = 0 and the graphs of y = ex and y = 3x intersect at c(0, 1).
Exercise 4.1

1. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist.

2x  1 x 1
a. lim (7-2x) b. lim c. lim
x4 x2 3x  1 x 3 2x  1
1
1
x2 1 x2 x
d. lim e. lim f. lim
x  1 x 1 x2 2x2 x 1 x  1

2. Find lim f ( x ) , lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x) , if it exists, for

x c x c xc

a. f(x) = cos x , at c =  6
b. f(x) = x  3 , at c = -3
 x, for x  2
c. f(x) =  , at c = 2
2 x  2, for x  2
| x  1 |, for x   2
d. f(x) =  , at c = -2
1 , for x  2
3. Evaluate each of the following limits, if it exists.
a. lim (2x2 -3x + 5) b. lim 2xsinx c. lim (cos x)4
x 3 x 0 x 
4

101
 x 2  4x  3
lim  x 2  x 2 
1 3
d. lim 3 e. f. lim 4 7 x 3  9
x  263 x3 x  4   x 1

sin x sin( 2 x) sin(3 x) sin 3 x

g. lim h. lim i. lim
x  0 tan x x 0 5x 2 x  0 sin 4 x
4. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist
2 x 4
a. lim b. lim c. lim
x 3 x  3 x 1  x  12 x x  1

x3  1 2 x3  3x  5
d. lim cos x e. lim f. lim
x   x  2 x 2 x 5x3  1
5. Find all the asymptotes, if any, for the following functions
x2  9 3x3  2 x  1
a. f(x) = b. f(x) =
x4 ( x  1) 2
6. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist.
x4 x x 1
 1  4   2x  3 
a. lim 1   b. lim 1   c. lim  
t 
 x t  
 x  1 t 
 2x  1 

7. Check whether or not the following functions are continuous at the indicated points.
a. f(x) = x2 + 1, at c = 2 b. f(x) = |x2 – 1|, at c = -1, 0, 1
3  x 2 , for x  1
c. f(x) = , at c = 2 d. f(x) =  , at c = 1
x2 3, for x  1

8.Show that the following equations have roots in the indicated intervals.
1 
a) logx = 0, in  ,2
 2 
b) 2x – 2 = 0, in [0, 2] c) cos x – x = 0, in 0, 
2
 
4.2. Derivatives
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to
 Evaluate the derivative of elementary functions using the definition.
 Find the slope and equation of a tangent line to a curve at a given point.
 Evaluate the derivatives of combinations of functions.
 Find the derivatives of polynomial, rational, logarithmic and exponential functions
 Apply the Chain Rule to evaluate derivatives of functions.
 Compute the derivatives of a derivative.
Using the concepts discussed in section 4.1, we are now ready to study one of the central concepts
of calculus: the derivative of a function. Even though the derivative is connected with finding the
tangent lines to curves at a point, its main applications are in finding rates of change of variable
quantities relative to the change in another quantity.
Consider a function f continuous at a point c in its domain.
Then, by definition of continuity lim f ( x) = f(c) y f
x c

102
This means for x close to c, f(x) is f(x)
close to f(c). If we denote the f(c)
increment (or change) x – c in the
x-direction by h = x – c (so that x = c + h) as
is seen in Figure 4.7,
then the corresponding change in the y-direction
c x x
is given by Figure 4.7
f(x) – f(c) = f(c + h) – f(c).
The ratio of these two increments is given by
f ( x )  f (c )
xc
and is called the difference quotient of f at c.
For instance, if f(x) = x2 + 2 and c = 3, then
f ( x)  f (3) ( x 2  2)  (3 2  2) x2  9
= =
x3 x3 x3
We shall define the derivative of a function of f at c as the limit of the above difference quotient,
if the limit exists.
Definition 4.11
Let c be a number in the domain of a function f. If
f ( x )  f (c )
lim
x c xc
exists, we call this limit the derivative of f at c, and denote it by (c), so that
f ( x )  f (c )
(c) = lim
x c xc
If this limit exists we say that  has a derivative at c, or  is differentiable at c or (c) exists.
Remarks: 1. Observe that we can alternatively write
f (c  h )  f (c )
(c) = lim
h 0 h
since for h = x – c, we have x = c + h and as x  c, h  0.
2. The notation (c) is read as “the derivative of f at c” or for short “f prime at c”.
df
Other notations are given by (c) or Df(c)
dx
3. The quantity f(c) describes the rate of change of the function f around the point (c, f(c)).
Example 4.39: Let f(x) = 2x + 3. Then, for any c R, the point (c, f(c)), we have
f ( x )  f (c ) (2 x  3)  (2c  3) 2 x  2c xc
(c) = lim = lim = lim = 2 lim = 2 lim (1) = 2.
x c xc x c xc x c xc x c x  c x c

Since cR is arbitrarily taken, we have for f(x) = 2x + 3, (x) =2 for all xR.
In fact for any linear function f(x) = ax + b, we have
f ( x )  f (c ) (ax  b)  (ac  b) xc
(c) = lim = lim = a lim =a
x c xc x c xc x c xc
for any c R. Thus (x) = a
103
Note that the graph of a linear function is a straight line and the rate of change (a constant) is
measured by the slope of the line.
Example 4.40: Let f(x) = 3x2 + 5. Then for any xR
f(x + h) = 3(x + h)2 + 5 = 3x2 + 6xh + 3h2 + 5 and
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) (3 x 2  6 xh  3h 2  5)  (3 x 2  5)
(x) = lim = lim
h 0 h h 0 h
6 xh  3h 2 3h(2 x  h)
= lim = lim = 3 lim (2x + h) = 6x.
h 0 h h  0 h h 0

Thus, for f(x) = 3x2 + 5, (x) = 6x for any xR.

In particular, when c = 1, (1) = 6(1) =. 6 is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at (1,8)
Applying the above definition, we can get the following derivatives.
 (x) (x)  (x) (x)
1 1 f(x) = sinx (x) = cosx, for all xR
f(x) = (x) = , for all x  0
x x 2

f(x) = x 1 (x) = cosx (x) = -sinx, for all xR,

(x) = , for x > 0
2 x
Using the definition to evaluate the derivative of more complicated combinations and
compositions of functions becomes cumbersome. At this stage the student must be able how to
find the derivatives of various types of functions quickly and efficiently without always resorting
to the definition. In the table below we list some techniques of differentiation which can be
proved using the definition.

Theorem 4.11: Suppose  and g are differentiable at c, and k is a constant, then

a) (kf)(c) = k (c) … Constant Rule
b) (f + g)(c) = (c) + g(c) … Addition Rule
c) (f – g)(c) = (c) – g(c) … Difference Rule
d) f(x) = x , n an integer, (x) = n x …
n n-1
Power Rule
d) (g)(c) = (c) g(c) + (c) g(c) … Product Rule

f f (c) g (c)  f (c) g (c)
e)   (c)  provided g(c)  0 … Quotient Rule
g [ g (c)] 2
Thus,
f) if (x) = x4, =
(gof)(c) then = 4x3 and if g(x) = …..
(x) (c)
g(f(c)). x12, then (x) = 12x11The
, andChain
so on.Rule

Example 4.42: Let f(x) = x2 + 3 and g(x) = sinx. Then

d 2 d
( + g)(x) = (x) + g(x) = (x + 3) + (sinx) = 2x + 0 + cosx = 2x + cos x
dx dx
d d d
(g(x) – 4(x)) = (sinx) - 4 (x2 + 3) = cosx – 4(2x + 0) = cos x – 8x.
dx dx dx
Since polynomials are sums or differences of constant multiples of powers of x, the first four rules
help us to evaluate their derivatives.
Example 4.43: For p(x) = 5x4 – 2x3 + x2 + 7x – 1, we have p(x) = 20x3 – 6x2 + 2x + 7.

104
 For q(x) = 6x3 + 2 x2 – 3x + , we have q(x) = 18x2 + 2 2 x – 3.

As an application of the product rule, we have the following examples.

Example 4.44: Let k(x) = 2x sinx. Find k(x).
Solution: If we put f(x) = 2x and g(x) = sinx, then (x) = 2 and g(x) = cosx.
Thus, k (x) = (x)g(x) + (x)g(x) = 2sinx + 2xcosx.

Remark: In practice, to evaluate the derivative of a product of two functions, we do not need to
identify which one is f and which one is g.
Example 4.45: Let h(x) = x3 cosx. Then
h(x) = (x3) cosx + x3(cosx)= 3x2cosx + x3(-sinx) = 3x2cosx – x3 sinx.
For the derivative of the product of three functions f, g and h, we have
(fgh)(x) = f(x)g(x)h(x) + f(x)g(x)h(x) + f(x)g(x)h(x).
Example 4.46: Let k(x) = x3 sinx cosx. Find k(x).
Solution: Put f(x) = x3, g(x) = sinx and h(x) = cosx in the above statement with (x) = 3x2, g(x)
= cosx and h(x) = -sinx. Then k(x) = 3x2 sinx cosx + x3 cosx.cosx + x3sinx(-sinx)= 3x2 sinx cosx
+ x2 cos2x – x3 sin2x.
p( x)
The Quotient Rule is used to find the derivative of any rational function. If f(x) = , for p, q
q( x)
1
 p( x)  p ( x ) q( x )  p ( x ) q ( x )
polynomials, we then have f(x) =   = , for q(x)  0.
 q( x)  ( q( x )) 2
3x 2  5
Example 4.47: Let f(x) = . Find (x)
2x  1
Solution: Putting p(x) = 3x2 – 5 and q(x) = 2x + 1, we get
6 x(2 x  1)  (3 x 2  5)(2) 12 x 2  6 x  6 x 2  10 6 x 2  6 x  10
(x) = = =
2 x  12 2 x  12 2 x  12
As an important consequence of the Quotient Rule, we can now find the derivatives of the
remaining four trigonometric functions.
Example 4.48: Let f(x) = tanx. Show that (x) = sec2x
sin x
Solution: (x) = tanx = . Then
cos x

(x) =
d  sin x 
(tanx) = 
1
sin x  cos x  sin x(cos x)1
1

 =
dx  cos x  (cos x) 2
cos x. cos x  sin x( sin x)
=
cos 2 x
cos 2 x  sin 2 x 1
= 2
= 2
= sec2x.
cos x cos x
In the same manner, we can show that
d d d
(cotx) = -csc2x, (secx) = secxtanx and (cscx) = -cscx.cotx.
dx dx dx
105
The Chain Rule states that (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) (x), for all x such that f is differentiable at x and g
is differentiable at f(x).
Example 4.49: Find the derivative of h(x) = cos(x2 + 1)
Solution: Let f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = cosx. Then, h(x) = (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x2 + 1) = cos(x2 +
1) and h(x) = g(f(x)). (x) = -sin(x2 + 1) . (x2 + 1) = 2xsin(x2 + 1).
If a and b are any real numbers, we can easily show that
d d
(sinax) = a cosax and (cosbx) = -bsinbx
dx dx
d d
Thus, (sin4x) = 4 cos4x and (cos5x) = -5 sin5x
dx dx
Example 4.50: Find the derivative of h(x) = (1+3x -5x)12
Solution: Let f(x) = 1 + 3x – x5 and g(x) = x12. Then h = gof and
d
h(x) = (1+3x – x5)12 = 12(1 + 3x – x5)11 (1 + 3x – x5) = 12(3 – 5x4) (1 + bx – x5)11.
dx
Example 4.51: Find the equations of tangent and normal lines to the semicircle
1 3
y = f(x) = 1  x 2 at  , 

 2 2 
1
Solution: The slope of the tangent line T is given by the derivative of y = f(x) = 1  x 2 at x = .
2
Thus, by Chain Rule,
dy d 1  2x x
(x) = = 1 x2 = (1- x2) = =
dx dx 2 1 x2 2 1 x2 1 x2
so that the slope of T is
1 1 2 1 2 1
m =    = =- . =
 2 11 4 2 3 3
1 3
and since the tangent line passes through the point  ,  , its equation in slope-point form is

2 2 
3 1  1
y- =- x  or x+ 3y–2=0
2 3  2
1 3
The slope of the normal line at  ,  is
 3 and its equation is
2 2 
3  1
y- = 3  x   or y - 3 x = 0.
2  2
Remark: The Chain Rule can be extended to more than two functions.
Suppose k(x) = (hogof)(x) = h(g(f(x))) and let f be differentiable at x, g be differentiable at f(x)
and h be differentiable at g(f(x)). Then k(x) = (hogof)(x) = h(g(f(x)).gf(x)). f(x)
Similarly, if (x) = (kohogof)(x) = k(h(g(f(x)))), then
(x) = (kogohof)(x) = k(h(g(f(x)))). h(g(f(x)).g(f(x)).f(x).

106
You can now see why this method is called the Chain Rule!
Example 4.52: Find the derivative of the function
k(x) = cos 2 x 2  3
Solution: Let k(x) = cosx 2 x 2  3 = h(g(f(x))) with
f(x) = 2x2 – 3, g(x) = x and h(x) =cosx. Then

k(x) =
d
dx
 
cos 2 x 2  3 = h(g((x)). g((x)) (x)

2 1  2 x sin 2 x 2  3
= - sin 2 x  3 . .4x =
2 2x 2  3 2x 2  3

Example 4.53: Let f(x) = sin(tanx2). Find (x)

d
Solution: (x) = (sin(tanx2))
dx
= cos (tanx2) sec2x2(2x) = 2x.cos(tanx2) sec2x2.

 Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Function

Recall that for a > 0, and a  1, the logarithmic function with base a is given by
f(x) = log a x for x > 0.
In particular, when a = e, we get the natural logarithmic function
f(x) = log a x = nx , for x > 0.

Theorem 4.12: Let a > 0, a  1 and let f(x) = log a x . Then

1
(x) = log a x
x
From Theorem 4.12, when the base a = e , it follows that
log e x  = (nx) = 1 log e e = 1 .1 = 1 : i.e. ln x   1
x x x x
Also, by applying change of base of logarithms, we get
log e
log a x  = 1 log a e = 1 e = 1 . 1 : i.e. log a x   1
x x log e a x ln a x ln a
1 1
Example 4.54: For (x) = log 5 x , we have (x) = log 5 e =
x x ln 5
Example 4.55: Find the derivative of the following
x
a) f(x) = log3(x2 + x – 1) b) g(x) =
ln x
1 2x  1
Solution: a) (x) = 2 . log 3 e (x2 + x – 1) = 2 . log 3 e
x  x 1 x  x 1
1
 1. ln x  x.
 x  x = ln x  1
b) g(x) =   =
 ln x  (ln x) 2
ln 2 x
107
 ax
Theorem 4.13: Let a > 0, a  1 and let f(x) = ax. Then, (x) = (ax) = .
log a e
By applying change of base we also have

ax
(ax) = = ax n a
log a e

ex
When the base a = e, we get (ex) = = exne = xx.1 = ex: i.e. (ex)= ex
log e e
3x
Example 4.56: For f(x) = 3 , we have (x) =
x
= 3x n3.
log 3 e
Example 4.57: Find the derivative of the following
x 1
a) f(x) = e b) g(x) = 3sinx
2
c) f(x) = x  e4x d) g(x) = e x nx
Solution: a) By using the Chain Rule, we get

 
 
 
x 1
1 e
(x) = e x 1 = e x 1 . x  1 = e x 1 , =
x 1 x 1
b) (3sinx) = 3sinx, n3. (sinx) = n3.cosx.3sinx
d 1 1  4e 4 x
c) x  e4 x = (x + e4x) =
dx 2 x  e4 x 2 x  e4 x
d) By the Product Rule and Chain Rule we get:

2 

2 2 1 2  1
g(x) = e x ln x = 2 xe x nx + e x . = e x  2 x ln x  
x  x
 Higher Derivatives
If a function f is differentiable at a point x in its domain, we denote its derivative by (x), where
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
(x) = lim , provided the limit exists.
h0 h
This derivative is usually called the first derivative of f at x.
If the new function  is differentiable at a point x, then we can repeat the process and find its
derivative as
f ( x  h)  f ( x)
((x)) = (x) = lim , provided the limit exists.
h0 h
we call (x) the second derivative of f at x, and it is often read as “ double prime of x”.
Observe that  (x) is simply the derivative of the function  at x and is no more difficult than
finding the first derivative.
1 d  1  1
Example 4.58: If (x) = nx, then (x) = and hence (x) =   = 2.
x dx  x  x
We can similarly find the derivative of (x) to get

108
 f ( x  h)  f ( x)
((x)) = (x) = lim , and so on,
h0 h
and call this the third derivative of f at x.
1 1 2
Thus, for f(x) = nx, (x) = , (x) = 2 and (x) = 3
x x x
These derivatives when they exist are called higher derivatives (or derivatives of derivatives)
dn f
The n derivative [n](x) can also be denoted by
th
(x) .
dx n
d2 f
Thus the second derivative is (x) or [2](x) or 2
( x) and the third derivative is (x) or [3](x)
dx
d3 f
or ( x) .
dx 3
Example 4.59: Find the higher derivatives of the following
a) f(x) = 4x3 + x2 – 3x + 7 b) g(x) = ex
c) f(x) = sinx d) g(x) = n(3x)
Solution: a) For f(x) = 4x3 + x2 – 3x + 7, we have
(x) = 12x2 + 2x – 3
(x) = 24x + 2
(x) = 24
[4](x) = 0 and for n  4, [n](x) = 0
b) For g(x) = ex, g(x) = ex, g(x) = ex, and in general for n > 1, g[n](x) = ex
c) f(x) = sinx , (x) = cos x
(x) = -sinx , (x) = -cosx
 (x) = sinx
[4]
and so on
3 1
d) g(x) = n(3x) , g(x) =  by Chain Rule
3x x
1 2 3 .2
g(x) = - 2 , g(x) = 3 , g[4](x) =  4
x x x
Exercise 4.2

1. For each of the following functions, find (c) using the definition
a. f(x) = 2x – 4, at c = 1 b. f(x) = x2 + 3, at c = -1
c. f(x) = x – 2
3
at c = 0 d. f(x) = |x + 2|, at c = 2
2. Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the graph of f at the given point.
a. f(x) = x2 + x – 1, at (2, 5) b. f(x) = x, at (4, 2)
1 1
c. f(x) = 2cosx, at (  2 , 0) d. f(x) = , at (2, )
x 2
3. Find the derivative of the following functions
a. f(x) = (x2 – 5) cosx b. g(x) = x secx
3
2 x  5x 2x
c. d. g(x) =
x2  3 tan x
109
4. Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the functions at the indicated point.
a. f(x) = sinx cosx, at  4 ,1 2 
x
b. f(x) 2
, at 1,1 2 
x 1
5. Find the derivative of the following functions.
a. f(x) = tan3x b. g(x) = x 1  x 2 c. f(x) = x sin x2
1
d. g(x) = e. f(x) = x2  x2 1 f. g(x) = xcosx + 3
5x  4
x  x 4
2

cot x
g. f(x) = sin 2 x  1 h. g(x) = i. f(x) = etanx
x 1 x
x
j. g(x) = n(nx) k. f(x) = (nx + e )3 l. f(x) = n2x + nx2
6. Find the first, second and third derivatives of the following function
2
a. f(x) = e x b. g(x) = secx
c. f(x) = sin(2x) + cos(3x) d. g(x) = n(sinx)

4.3. Applications of the derivative

At the end of this section you should be able to:
 Define maximum and minimum values of a function on a given interval.
 Explain the fundamental theorem of local extrema values.
 Identify the regions where a function is increasing and decreasing.
 Apply the first and second derivative tests to find local extrema values of a function.
 Solve practical problems related to extrema.
 Sketch the graph of a function applying the above concepts.
 Solve related rates problems.
In this section we shall see how the derivative can be applied to solve a variety of problem in the
areas of engineering, the natural sciences, business and the social sciences. We see how it can be
used to find maximum and minimum values of a function to sketch the graph of the function.

a) Extrema of a Function
Definition. Let  be a function defined on an interval I. If there is a number d in I such that f(x)
 f(d) for all x in I, then f(d) is called the maximum value of f on I. Similarly, if there is a
number c in I such that f(x)  f(c) for all x in I, then f(c) is called the minimum value of f on I.
(See Figure 4.8). A value of f that is either a maximum value or a minimum value of f on I is
called an extreme value of f on I.
Remark: If the set I is the domain of the function f and if f has a maximum value on I, then
this maximum value is called the (absolute or global) maximum of f.
Similar for minimum value of f.

Example 4.60: Let f(x) = x2 on I = [-2, 4]. Then

110
f has the maximum value of 16 = f(4) and
the minimum value of 0 = f(0). Both 0 and
16 are extreme values of f.
- On the interval [-2, 4), the minimum value of Figure 6.6
f is 0 but f has no maximum.
- On the interval (0, 4) f has neither a maximum
nor a minimum. See Figure 4.8. Figure 4.8
1
Example 4.61: Let f(x) = for x  0.
x
The domain of f is I = (-, 0)  (0, ) and
f has neither a maximum nor a minimum
value on I. See Figure 4.9
- On the interval [-1, 0] f has the maximum
value -1 = f(-1), but no minimum.
1
- On the interval (0, 2] f has the minimum value  f ( 2) ,
2
Graph of f ( x )  1

but has no maximum. x

- On the interval [-1, 2], f has no extrema. Figure 4.9

Note that in the first example when the interval is open we have no extrema, while in the second
example, when the function is not continuous, we had no extrema. Continuity of a function on a
closed interval gives us a sufficient condition for the existence of both extreme values.

Theorem 4.14: (Maximum-Minimum Theorem). Let f be continuous on a closed

bounded interval [a, b]. Then f has a maximum and a minimum value on [a, b].
Hence the function f(x) = x2 for -2  x  4 has both extreme values on [-2, 4].
Similarly, the function f(x) = x3 – 4x + 5 for 0  x  2 which is continuous on [0, 2] has a
maximum and a minimum value on [0, 2], by Theorem 4.14. Even though the above theorem
tells us about the existence of extreme values on [a, b], it does not tell us where they occur or how
to find them. The following theorem will help us in determining such values.

Theorem 4.15: Let f be defined and continuous on [a, b]. If f has an extreme value
at c in (a, b) and f is differentiable at c, then (c) = 0.

Example 4.62: Let f(x) = x3 - 3x + 1.

Then  is differentiable and the
critical points of  are the values
of x for which (x) = 0,
But (x) = 3x2 – 3 = 0
 3(x – 1) (x + 1) = 0
 x = 1 and x = -1 are critical points of f.

Figure 4.10

111
If we want to find extreme values of f on, say, the interval [-3, 3] we compute and compare the
values of f at -3, -1, 1 and 3 to get f(-3) = 17 , f(-1) = 3, f(1) = -1 and f(3) = 19.
Thus the minimum value of f on [-3, 3] is -17 which occurs at -3 and the maximum value of f is
19 which occurs at 3.
 Monotonic Functions
One of the important points needed to sketch the graph of a function is to find the regions in
which the graph slopes upward to the right (increases) or it slopes downward to the right
(decreases) as seen in Figure 4.11 (a) and (b), respectively.
y y

x x

(a) (b)
Figure 4.11
Definition 4.12: Suppose f is a function defined on an interval I.
i) f is said to be increasing on I if f(x1)  f(x2) whenever x1 < x2
ii) f is said to be decreasing on I if f(x1)  f(x2) whenever x1 < x2
iii) f is said to be monotonic on I if f is either increasing or decreasing on I.
Remark: we can similarly define the terms strictly increasing, strictly decreasing and strictly
monotonic by replacing  by < and  by >.

The derivative of a function gives us a test for monotonicity as is indicated in the following theorem.
Theorem: 4.16 Suppose f is continuous and differentiable on an interval I.
i) If (x) > 0, for every x I, then  is strictly increasing on I.
ii) If (x) < 0, for every x I, then  is strictly decreasing on I.
Example 4.64: Find the intervals over which the following function f(x) = x3 – 3x + 1is
monotonic.
Solution: For f(x) = x3 – 3x + 1, (x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x – 1) (x + 1)
To find the intervals over which  is increasing and decreasing we find the sign of (x) using the
critical points x = 1 and x = -1 and the Sign Chart Method.
-1 1
x – 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + ++ + +
x + 1 - - - - - - - 0 + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + +
(x) + + + + + 0 - - - - - - 0 + + + + + + + + +

From the above “sign chart” we can see that

(x) > 0 for x (-, -1)  (1, ) and (x) < 0 for x (-1, 1).
Thus  is strictly increasing on (-, -1)  (1, ) and strictly decreasing on [-1, 1].See Figure 4.10.

 The First and Second Derivative Tests for Relative Extrema

112
If  is a differentiable function, we have seen that at relative extreme values (c) = 0. Thus in
order to locate relative extreme values of  we find the values of x for which (x) = 0 or (x)
does not exist. But this method does not help us to determine which of these values of x give
relative extreme values (or which value is a maximum or which is a minimum). The next two
theorems will provide us with conditions that guarantee that  has relative extreme values.

Theorem 4.17: (The First Derivative Test)

Let f be continuous on an interval I, and let c I.
a) If (x) changes its sign from positive to negative at c
i.e. if (x) > 0 to the left of c and (x) < 0 to the right of c, then  has a
relative maximum value at c.
b) If (x) changes its sign from negative to positive at c, then  has a relative
minimum value at c.

Example 4.65: Consider again the function f(x) = x3 – 3x + 1.

(x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x – 1) (x + 1) = 0 gives the critical points x = 1 and x = -1
For the critical point x = -1 check the sign of  at -2 and 0 with (-2) = 9 > 0 and (0) = -3 < 0.
Thus (-1) = 3 is a relative maximum value of f.
Similarly taking the critical point x = 1 between 0 and 2, we get (0) = -3 < 0 and (2) = 9 > 0.
Thus f(1) = -1 is a relative minimum value of f. (See Figure 4.11 above)
The above theorem needs to check the signs of two distinct points to the left and to the right of
each critical point. The next theorem makes use of the sign of the second derivative directly at
the critical points.
Theorem: 4.18 (The Second Derivative Test)
Let f be differentiable in an interval I and let c I with (c) = 0.
a) If (c) < 0, then (c) is a relative maximum value of f.
b) If (c) > 0, then (c) is a relative minimum value of f.
If (c) = 0, then we can not draw any conclusion about f(c).
Example 4.66: Consider again the function f(x) = x3 – 3x + 1 with (x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x – 1) (x +
1). We have (1) = (-1) = 0 and (x) = 6x. Since (-1) = -6 < 0, (-1) = 3 is a local maximum
value of f. Since (1) = 6 > 0, (1) = -1 is a local minimum values of f.
4x
Example 4.67: Let f(x) = 2 , Find the local extreme values of f.
x 4
4( x 2  4)  4 x ( 2 x )
Solution: (x) = , Quotient Rule.
( x 2  4) 2
4 x 2  16  8 x 2 16  4 x 2
= =
( x 2  4) 2 ( x 2  4) 2
(x) = 0  16 – 4x2 = 0  x = 2 or x = -2
 8 x( x 2  4) 2  (16  4 x 2 )2( x 2  4)(2 x)
(x) = - Quotient Rule and Chain Rule
( x 2  4) 4

113
 8 x( x 2  12)
= - Simplification.
( x 2  4) 3
16(8) 1
Thus (2) = 3
= <0  f(2) = 1 is a local maximum value of f and
8 4
 16(8) 1
(-2) = 3
= >0  f(-2) = -1 a local minimum value of f.
8 4
 Practical Applications of the Extrema
A lot of practical problems can be expressed as a continuous function on a closed and bounded
interval we may be interested to find points where f attains its maximum or its minimum values.
For instance we may be interested in finding the maximum area of a region to be enclosed by a
fixed perimeter; the minimum distance from a fixed point to a curve. In economics a function
may represent a profit or cost function and we may want to find the value of x to find maximum
profit and minimum cost, and so on. The Maximum – Minimum Theorem and the first and
second derivative test will be crucial in finding such points as are illustrated in the following
examples.
Example 4.68: A landowner wishes to use 2000 meters of fencing to enclose a rectangular region.
Suppose one side of the land lies along a river and does not need fencing. What should be the
sides of the region in order to maximize the area?
Solution: Suppose the rectangle is to have length x and width y meters as seen in Figure 4.13.
x
Since the length of the fencing is
2000 meters, we have y
x + 2y = 2000
 2y = 2000 – x  y = 1000 - x 2
Figure 4.13
The area of the rectangle is A = xy which can be written as a function of x alone as
x2
A(x) = xy = x(1000 - x 2 ) = 1000x - for 0  x  2000
2
Thus we find the maximum value of A on [0, 2000].
A(x) = 1000 – x = 0  x = 1000 is a critical point.
Comparing the value of A at the critical point and at the endpoints 0 and 2000, we get
A(0) = 0, A(1000) = 500,000 and A(2000) = 0 (check!)
Thus the maximum value of A occurs when x = 1000 so that
y = 1000 - x 2 = 1000 – 500 = 500.
Consequently, to enclose maximum area, the fence should have a length of 1000 mts and a width
of 500 mts.
Example 4.70: A manufacturer wishes to produce rectangular containers with square bottom and
top each of which is to have a capacity of 1000 cubic inches. If the cost of production of each
container is proportional to its surface area, what should be the dimensions so as to minimize the
cost of production?
Solution: Let x be the side of the base
and h be the height of the container as seen in Figure 4.15.
114
Then the volume is h h
V = x2h = 1000
V 1000
 h= 2 = 2 for x > 0 x x
x x
Figure 4.15
To find the surface area, we have the area of the top and bottom as 2x2 and the area of the four
sides as
 1000  4000
4xh = 4x  2  =
 x  x
Hence the total surface area is given by
4000
s(x) = 2x2 + for x > 0.
x
Since the cost of production is proportional to the surface area, to minimize cost, we find the
minimum value of s.
4000 4 x 3  4000
s(x) = 4x - = =0
x2 x2
 4x3 – 4000 = 0  x3 = 1000
 x = 10 is the only critical point.
By the Second Derivative Test, we have
8000
s(x) = 4 + with s(10) = 4 + 8 = 12 > 0
x3
Thus x = 10 gives the minimum value s(10) = 600 sq. in.
1000 1000
The height is h = 2 = = 10 in.
x 100
Hence the manufacturer would minimize the cost of production by manufacturing cubes of side
10 inches.

Curve Sketching
As a second application of the derivative we shall see here sketching the graphs of functions.
Here we systematically apply the notions of differential calculus to give precise meaning to the
asymptotes, intervals of increase and decrease, the turning points and find the range of the
functions.
First we shall list the important items that will help us in sketching the graph of a function y = f(x).
1) Determine the domain of the function f.
2) Find the intercepts of the function f.
- x-intercepts are points of the form (x, 0)
- y-intercepts are points of the form (0, y)
3) Determine the asymptotes, if any, of the function f.
- A line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f iff
lim f(x) =   or lim f(x) = .
x c x c

- A line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f iff

lim f(x) = L or lim f(x) = L.
x  x  

115
 - A line y = ax + b is an oblique (or skew) asymptote of the graph of f iff
lim [f(x) – (ax + b)] = L
x  

4) Determine the intervals of monotonicity of the function f.

- f is increasing for all x at which (x) > 0
- f is decreasing for all x at which (x) < 0
5) Find extreme values of , if any.
Find the critical points of f and apply the first or second derivative tests to determine
whether they are relative extreme points or not.
6) If necessary plot some additional points to help you see the behavior of the function.
x2
Example 4.71: Sketch the graph of f(x) = .
x2
Solution. 2.1 The domain of f is R\{-2} and the x-intercept is the value of x for which
x2
f(x) = = 0  x = 2. Hence x-intercept at (2, 0)
x2
02
The y-intercept is the value of y when x = 0, i.e. f(0) = = -1. Hence y-intercept at (0, -1).
02
x2
Since lim f(x) = lim = -, the line x = -2 is a vertical asymptote to the graph of f.
x  2 x  2 x  2

Also you can check that lim f(x) = 

x  2

x2 x2 x
Since lim f(x) = lim = lim = 1, the line y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote for the
x  x  x2 x  x  2 x

graph of f.
To find the intervals of monotonicity, let us first find f '(x).
By the Quotient Rule for Differentiation,
( x  2)( x 2)' ( x 2)( x  2)' x  2  ( x  2)
f '(x) = ( xx 22 ) '  2
= 2
= 4 .
( x  2) ( x  2) ( x  2) 2
Hence f '(x) > 0 for every element x in the domain of f. It follows that f is strictly increasing on (-
 , -2) and on (-2,  ).
 has no critical number and hence no local extrema.
Additional points: f(-1) = -3, f(1) = - 1 3

116
The graph of f is given in Figure 4.16. Figure 4.16
1
Example 4.72: Sketch the graph of f(x) = x + , for x  0
x
1 x2 1
Solution: Since f(x) = x + =  0 and since x  0 f has no intercepts.
x x
 1  1
lim f(x) = lim  x   =  and lim f(x) = lim  x   = -
x 0  x 0  x x 0 x 0  x
The line x = 0 (the y-axis) is a vertical asymptote of f.
1
lim [f(x) – x] = lim = 0
x  x  x

Hence the line y = x is an oblique asymptote of the graph of f.

1 x 2  1 ( x  1)( x  1)
(x) = 1 - = = = 0 gives two critical points x = 1 and x = -1.
x2 x2 x2
Using a sign chart to find the intervals of monotonicity:
-1 1
x – 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + ++ + +
x + 1 - - - - - - - 0 + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + +
(x) + + + + + 0 - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + + + + +

(x) > 0 in the interval (-, -1)  (1, ) so that it is strictly increasing in (-, -1)  (1, ).
(x) < 0 in the interval (-1, 1) \ {0} so that f is strictly decreasing in (-1, 1) \{0}.
Using the first derivative test, you can see that f(-1) = -2 is a local maximum and f(1) = 2 is a
local minimum. You can also apply the second derivative test to see this.
5 5
Additional points: f(-2) =  5 2 , f  1 2  = , f 1 2  = 5 2 , f(2) = .
2 2

Graph of f ( x )  x  1
x

The graph is given in Figure 4.17. Figure 4.17

117
Exercise 4.3

1. Find relative extrema and the intervals in which the given function is increasing or
decreasing
a) f(x) = 5 – 4x – x2 b) g(x) = x3 + x2 – x – 4

x 1
c) f(x) = 2
d) g(x) = x2 +
x 1 x2

2. Use the First or Second Derivative Test to determine relative extreme values of the function
x2 4
a) f(x) = 5x2 – 2x + 1 b) g(x) = +
4 x

1 1
c) f(x) = x4 + x d) g(x) = 2
2 x 1

cos x
e) f(x) = f) g(x) = (x2 + 2)6
1  sin x

3. Sketch the graph of the following functions

ex x 3  3x 2  4
a) f(x) = (x2 – 1)2 b) g(x) = c) g(x) =
x x2 1

4. A menu of total area of 100 sq. in. is printed with 2 in. margins at the top and bottom and
1in. margins at the sides. For what dimensions of the menu is the printed area largest?
4.4. Integrals and their applications
In this section we shall introduce the second major part of calculus known as integral calculus.
Just like subtraction is the inverse process of addition, integration is the inverse process of taking
the derivative of a function. Historically, integral calculus was developed in solving problems
connected with finding areas of regions with curved boundaries.

Section Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to:
 define an anti-derivative of a continuous function.
 state properties of anti-derivatives.
 find indefinite integrals of some elementary functions.
 evaluate the integrals of functions using the techniques of integration.
 solve integrals involving trigonometric functions.
 find the definite integral of continuous functions.
 apply the concepts of definite integrals to find areas of regions.

118
 The Indefinite Integral
As is mentioned above the process of integration is the inverse process of differentiation and
hence is sometimes called taking anti-derivatives.
Definition 4.13: A function F(x) is called an anti-derivative of a continuous function f(x) if and
only if F(x) = f(x) for every x in the domain of f.
Example 4.76: Let f(x) = 3x2 + 4x. Then the function F1(x) = x3 + 2x2 is an anti-derivative of
d 3
f(x), since F(x) = (x + 2x2) = 3x2 + 4x = f(x).
dx
Note that F1 is not the only anti-derivative of f(x). You can also check that F2(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 5
and F3(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 7 are also anti-derivatives of f.
In fact, if c is any real number, then F(x) = x3 + 2x2 + c is an anti-derivative of f(x) = 3x2 + 4x
d
since F(x) = (x3 + 2x2 + c) = 3x2 + 4x = f(x)
dx
The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
If F(x) is one anti-derivative of the function f(x), i.e., F (x) = f(x), then  f ( x)dx = F(x) + c, for
any constant c.
This is simply saying that diff erential and integral are inverse math operations of each other.
The symbol  is called the integral sign. The function f(x) is called the integrand, x is called
the variable of integration, and c is called a constant of integration.
 f ( x)dx is also called the indefinite integral of f with respect to x.
Examples 4.77: We have
a)  3x2dx = x3 + c d)  sinxdx = -cosx + c; g)  cosx dx = sinx + c
1
b)  exdx = ex + c e)  x dx = n|x| + c
c)  sec2xdx = tanx + c f)  cscx cotxdx = -cscx + c
 Properties of the Indefinite Integral
Suppose F and G are antiderivatives of f and g, respectively, and k is a constant. Then
1)  kf(x)dx = k  f(x)dx = kF(x) + c.

2)  (f(x) + g(x))dx =  f(x)dx +  g(x)dx = F(x) + G(x) + c.

3)  (f(x) – g(x))dx =  f(x)dx -  g(x)dx = F(x) – G(x) + c.
Examples 4.78:
1)  4 cosxdx = 4  cosxdx = 4sinx + c
 1 1
  e   x dx = ex – n|x| + c
x
2)   dx = exdx -
x
3) If f(x) = xr, for any rational r  -1, then
x r 1
 f(x)dx =  xrdx =
r 1
c

119
 1
x6 3 x 2
2
Thus,  x dx =
5
6
 c and x 2
dx =
1
c =
x
c.
2
 1 
  x  2 sec 2 x dx = x dx + 2  sec 2 xdx
3
4) 3

1
=
+ 2tanx + c.
2x 2
5) If P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0 is a polynomial, then its anti-derivative is
given by
a x n 1 a xn a x 3 a1 x 2
P(x) =  P ( x)dx = n + n 1 + …+ 2 + + a0x
n 1 n 3 2
Thus,  (3x4 + 2 x3 – 5x + 2)dx = 3  x4dx + 2  x3dx - 5  xdx +  2dx

3 5 2 4 5 2
x + = x - x + 2x + c
5 4 2
 Some Techniques of Integration
In the previous section we were trying to find anti-derivatives of some functions whose
derivatives can easily be found from the previous unit on differentiation. But there are various
functions such as
2x
f(x) = (x + 3)5 , g(x) = xe-x and h(x) =
x ( x 2  4)
whose anti-derivatives are not readily found. In this section we shall see some techniques to find
the integrals of such functions.
a) Integration by Substitution
This technique is basically developed by reversing the Chain Rule. It is very helpful in finding
the integrals of functions that appear as the composite of two functions.
Suppose we want to find the indefinite integral
 ( x  3)
5
dx
we may expand (x + 3)5 and then integrate term by term using the formula
1 r 1
 x dx = r  1 x  c .
r

But this would obviously be very tedious and cumbersome. On the other hand if we replace or
substitute u for x + 3, we get
du d
(x + 3)5 = u5 and = (x + 3) = 1  dx = du.
dx dx
5 1 5 1
Thus,   x  3 dx =  u 5 du = u6 + c. Hence,   x  3 dx = (x + 3)6 + c, for some constant c.
6 6

Theorem 4.20: If g(x) is continuous x[a, b] and f is continuous at g(x), then

 f(g(x))g(x)dx =  f(u)du - Integration by Substitution

120
Example 4.79: Evaluate  2x(x2 – 5)6dx

du
Solution: Let u = x2 – 5. Then, = 2x which implies that du = 2xdx. Thus,
dx

1 7 1 2
 2x(x2 – 5)6dx =  u6du =
7
u + c and hence  2x(x2 – 5)6dx =
7
(x – 5)7 + c.

x
Example 4.80: Integrate  1 x2
dx

du 1
Solution: Let u = 1 + x2. Then, = 2x which implies that xdx = du . Therefore,
dx 2

x 1 du 1 1 1 1
 dx =  =  u 2 du = .2.u 2 + c = u  c = 1  x 2 + c.
1 x 2
u 2 2 2

Example 4.81: Integrate  sin 4 xdx

du 1 1 1
Solution: Let u = 4x. Then = 4  dx = du. Thus  sin 4 xdx =  sin udu = - cosu +c
dx 4 4 4
1
=- cos4x+ c.
4

1 1
In general  sin axdx = - cosax + c, and  cos bxdx = sinbx + c
a b

These two formulas can be used to find integrals involving trigonometric functions together with
trigonometric identities.

Example 4.82: Integrate  sin 2 x cos 2 xdx

Solution: From trigonometric identities we have

1  cos 2 x 1  cos 2 x
sin2x = and cos2x =
2 2

1 1
Thus  sin 2 x cos 2 xdx =  2 (1  cos 2 x) 2 (1  cos 2 x)dx
1 1  1 
=  (1  cos 2 2 x)dx =  1  (1  cos 4 x)dx
4 4  2 
1 1 1 1
=  dx   cos 4 xdx = x  sin 4 x  c.
8 8 8 32

121
Example 4.83: Find  tan xdx
sin x du
Solution:  tan xdx =  cos x dx . Let u = cos x. Then
dx
= -sinx  sinx dx = -du.

 du 1
Hence,  tan xdx =  u
= -  du = -n|u| + c = -n|cosx| + c.
u
You can similarly find  cot xdx .

Example 4.84: Integrate  e 2 x dx

du 1
Solution: Let u = - 2x. Then = -2  dx = - du.
dx 2
1 1 1
So that  e 2 x dx =   e u du = eu + c = e-2x + c
2 2 2
d f(x)
In general since e = (x) ef(x), we have  f ( x)e f ( x ) dx = e f ( x ) + c.
dx
1 2
Thus  xe x dx = e x + c and  3 x 2 e x dx = e x + c.
2 3 2

2
b) Integration by Parts
The method of integration by parts is basically developed from the Product Rule for
differentiation. If f and g are differentiable functions, we have
(f(x)g(x)) = (x) g(x) + g(x) (x)
Integrating on both sides with respect to x, we get
f(x) g(x) =  f ( x) g ( x)dx +  g ( x) f ( x)dx
If one of the integrals on the right can be easily evaluated, we can find the other integral using the
following theorem

Theorem 4.21: If f and g are differentiable functions, then

 f ( x) g ( x)dx = f(x)g(x) -  g ( x) f ( x)dx - Integration by parts

 xe dx
x
Example 4.85: Find
Solution: Let f(x) = x and g(x) = ex. Then (x) = 1 and g(x) = ex. Therefore,
 xe dx = xex -  e .1.dx
x x
= xex – ex + c, for some constant c.
Integration by parts can be easily remembered using the following substitutions.
Let u = f(x) and v = g(x)
Then du = (x)dx and dv = g(x)dx
So that  f ( x) g ( x)dx =  udv = f(x)g(x) -  g ( x) f ( x)dx = uv-  vdu
Thus,  udv  uv   vdu - Integration by Parts.

Example 4.86: Find  xnxdx

1 x2
Solution: Let u = nx, dv = xdx. Then, du = dx, v= .
x 2
122
 x2 x2 1 x2 x x2 x2
Thus  xnxdx = 2
nx - 2 x dx =
2
nx - 2 2
dx = nx -
4
+ c.

Example 4.87: Find  nxdx

1
Solution: Let u = nx and dv = dx. Then, du = dx and v = x
x
1
Hence  nxdx = xnx -  x. dx = x nx -  dx = xnx – x + c = x(nx – 1) + c.
x
2
 x e dx
x
Example 4.88: Find the integral
2
 x e dx = x2ex -  2 xe dx .
x x
Solution: Let u = x2 and dv = ex dx. Then, du = 2xdx, v = ex and

But we have seen above that  xe x dx = xe2 - ex + c. Hence,

2
 x e dx = x2ex – 2(xex – ex + c) = ex(x2 – 2x + 1) + c1 where c1 = -2c is a constant.
x

In some cases we may have to apply integration by parts more than once to arrive at the required
result as in the following example.
Example 4.89: Find  e x cos xdx
Solution: Let u = ex and dv = cosxdx. Then, du = exdx and v = sinx. Thus,
e cos xdx = exsinx -  e x sin xdx .
x

To evaluate the integral on the right, we again use integration by parts.

Let u = ex and dv = sinx dx. Then, du = exdx and v = -cosx.
Thus,  e x sin xdx = -excosx +  e x cos xdx which implies 2  e x cos xdx = exsinx + excosx + c.
1 x
Therefore,  e x cos xdx = e (sinx + cosx) + c.
2
c) Integration by the Method of Partial Fractions
The method of Partial Fractions is used for rational functions
p( x)
f(x) =
q( x)
where degree of p(x) is less than degree of q(x). (If not we can apply long division to write f(x)
as a sum of a polynomial and a rational function with the desired property.) The first step in this
method is to factorize the denominator q(x) into linear factors, if possible. (The case where we
have irreducible quadratic factors of q(x) will not be treated here.) Now with each linear factor
(ax + b)m (of multiplicity m) we associate constants A1, A2, …,Am and write
A1 A2
 +…with the Ai’s to be determined. Then, the rational function f(x) is then
ax  b (ax  b) 2
expressed as a sum of simple rational functions and can be easily integrated.
1
Example 4.90: Find  2 dx
x 4
Solution: By factorizing x2 – 4 as (x – 2) (x + 2), we have

123
 1 1 A B A( x  2)  B ( x  2)
2
= = + =
x 4 ( x  2)( x  2) x2 x2 ( x  2)( x  2)
Since the denominators are equal, we equate the numerators as A(x+2) + B(x - 2) = 1.
From equality of polynomials, we get
A  B  0 1
  A = 1 4 and B =
2 A  2B  1  4
1  14 1 4  1 dx 1 dx 1 1
Hence, x 2
4
dx =   
 x  2 x  2
dx =
4  x2-4  x2= 4
n|x – 2| - n |x+2| + c.
4
3x 2  x  1
Example 4.91: Find  x 3  x 2  2 x dx
Solution: The denominator x3 – x2 – 2x = x(x2 – x – 2) = x(x + 1) (x – 2) has three roots 0, -1 and
2.
3x 2  x  1 3x 2  x  1 A B C
3 2
= = + +
x  x  2x x( x  1)( x  2) x x 1 x  2
A( x  1)( x  2)  Bx ( x  2)  Cx ( x  1)
=
x( x  1)( x  2)
 A(x+1) (x - 2) + B x(x - 2) + Cx(x+1) = 3x2 + x – 1
This equation is true for all xR. In particular,
when x = 0, A(1)(-2) = -1 A=12
when x = -1, B(-1)(-3) = 1 B=13
when x = 2, C(2)(3) = 13  C = 13 6
3x 2  x  1 1 dx 1 dx 13 dx 1 1 13
Hence,  x 3  x 2  2 x dx = 2  x
+
3  x 1 + 6  x  2 = 2 n|x| + 3
n|x + 1| +
6
n|x-2|+c.

 The Definite Integral

For a very long time, mathematicians have struggled with the problem of finding areas of plane
regions. Until the invention of the integral calculus, however, the regions considered were mostly
those regions bounded by straight lines, called polygons, with a few exceptions such as the circle
and the ellipse.
If f is continuous and nonnegative function on [a, b], then the area of the region R between the
graph of f and the x-axis on [a, b] is given by
b
Area(R) =  f ( x)dx .
a

Remark: The definite integral has the following properties.

If f and g are integrable over [a, b] and k is a constant, then
b b
a)  kf ( x)dx
a
= k  f ( x)dx
a
b b b
b)  ( f ( x)  g ( x))dx =  f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx
a a a

124
 b
c) If f(x)  0, for a  x  b, then  f ( x)dx
a
 0 and

b
if f(x)  0, for a  x  b, then  f ( x)dx
a
 0.

d ) If c is any number in (a, b), then

b c b


a
f ( x)dx = 
a
f ( x)dx +  f ( x)dx
c
- Additive Property

a
e)  f ( x)dx
a
= 0 for any number a.

a b
f) 
b
f ( x)dx = -  f ( x)dx .
a

The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

If f is a continuous function defined on a closed interval [a, b], then, once an anti-
derivative F of f is known, the definite integral of f over that interval is given by
b
b

a
f ( x)dx = F ( x)
a
= F(b) – F(a).

1 3
Example 4.93: Let f(x) = x2 for 0  x  2. Then F(x) = x is an anti-derivative of f, so that by
3
the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
1 3 2
2
1 3 1 3 8 8
0 x dx = 3 x 0 = F(2) – F(0) = 3 2 - 3 .0 = 3  0 = 3
2

From our previous discussion, the area of the region R under the graph of f(x) = x2 on [0, 2] above
2

 x dx
2
the x-axis is thus = 8 3 sq. units.
0

Example 4.94: Evaluate each of the following definite integrals

4 
a) 3
1
x dx b)  sin xdx
0
2 1

 ( x  cos x)dx  (5 x  2 x  e x )dx

3
c) d)
0 0

2 32
Solution: a) Since F(x) = 3. . x = 2x x is an anti-derivative of f(x) = 3 x , we have
3
4

3
0
x dx = F(4) – F(1) = 2(4) 4 - 2(1) 1 = 16-2 = 14

b) An anti-derivative of sinx is –cosx. Thus

125
 

 sin xdx = -cosx 0
0
= -cos - (-cos 0) = -(-1) + 1 = 2.

 2 2
 x2   2  2
c) 0 ( x  cos x)dx =  2  sin x  =  8  1 - (0 + 0) = 8  1 .
 
0
1 1
5 4 x 5  13
0 (5 x  2 x  e )dx =  4 x  x  e  0 =  4  1  e  - (0 + 0 – 1) = 4  e
3 x 2
d)

Remark: For functions that are given by more than one formula we evaluate the definite integral
using the additive property.

1
Example 4.95: Evaluate  x  1dx
2

 x  1, for x   1
Solution: By definition |x + 1| = 
 ( x  1), for x   1
y
Then by Additive Property, we have
1 1 1


2
x  1dx =   ( x  1)dx +
2
 ( x  1)dx
1
1 1
 x2   x2 
= -   x +   x x
2 2 2  1
Figure 4.23
 1    1   1  1
= -   1  (2  2) +   1    1 =  2 = 5 2
 2    2   2  2

From the method of Integration by Substitution we have

 f ( g ( x)) g ( x)dx =  f (u )du where u = g(x)
If we are to evaluate this integral between a and b, we have,
when x = a, u = g(a) and when x = b, u = g(b). Thus it follows

b g (b )
- Change of Variable.
 f ( g ( x)) g ( x)dx   f (u )du
a g (a)

3
Example 4.96: Evaluate x
2
x 2  4dx

Solution: We have two possibilities to evaluate such a definite integral. One way is to find an
anti-derivative of x x 2  4 and evaluate it between 2 and 3 by the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus. The other is to use the change of variable formula and change the limits of integration
before integrating.
To this end, let u = g(x) = x2 – 4. Then du = 2xdx.
126
When x = 2, u = g(2) = 0 and when x = 3, u = g(3) = 5
3 3 5
du 1
 x x  4dx =  =  u1 2 du
2
Thus u
2 0
2 20
1 2 5
1 5 5
= . u u = .5, 5 - 0 = .
2 3 0 3 3
 Application of the Definite Integral: Area
The definite integral has several applications such as finding areas of regions, arc length
of curves, surface areas and volumes of solids of revolution. In this section we shall see
how to find areas of plane regions with curved boundaries using the definite integrals.
In the previous section we have seen that if f(x)  0 for all x [a, b] and if f is continuous on [a, b],
b
then  f ( x)dx
a
gives the area of the region R below the graph of f, above the x-axis, between the

lines x = a and x = b. For instance, if f(x) = x2 for 0  x  2, then the area of R as given in is given
x3 2
2

 x dx 
2
by A(R) =  8 3 sq. units.
0
3 0
- If f(x)  0 on [a, b], the area of the region R below the x-axis, above the graph of f on [a, b] is
b
given by A(R) = -  f ( x)dx .
a

For instance, if f(x) = 2x for -2  x  0, then the area of the region R below the x-axis, above the
graph of f on [-2, 0] is given by
0 0
0
A(R) = -  f ( x)dx = -  2xdx = -x2 = -[0 - 4] = 4 sq. units.
2 2
 2
Now let f and g be continuous on [a, b], and assume that f(x)  g(x) for a  x  b. Then the area
of the region R below the graph of f, above the graph of g, and between the lines x = a and x = b
is given by
b
A(R) =   f ( x)  g ( x)dx
a

Example 4.97: Find the area of the region bounded by f(x) = 2 x , g(x) = -x and line x = 9.
Solution. Sketching the graphs of y = f(x), y = g(x) and x = 9, the region R can be identified as
shown in the figure shown below.
y

y=2 x

R
9 x

y = -x
127
It follows that
3

 0  f ( x)  g ( x)dx   0 2 
9 9 2 9
A(R) = x  x dx  4
3
x2 + x |  76.5 .
2 0
Exercise 4.4

1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals

a)  (x3 + 5)dx d)  (4 – x + 3x2 – 2x5)dx
b)  2x-8dx e)  (cosx – 4ex)dx

x3  4 x
c)  3 sinxdx f)  x 2 dx
2. Find the following integrals by substitution
dx
 x3  sin
2
a) c) x cos xdx

n 4 x
 e dx  x dx
x3
b) d)

3. Find the following integrals by the method of Integration by Parts.

nx
a)  x cos xdx c)  x 2 dx
 ( x  1)3 dx x
x 2
b) d) sin xdx

4. Integrate the following by the method of Partial Fractions

dx dx
a)  ( x  2)(3x  4) c)  ( x  1)( x  2)( x  3)
x 2x
b) x 2
 x6
d)  x  2 dx 2

5. Find the area of the region R between the graph of f and the x-axis on the given interval
a) f(x) = x2 + 1 , on [1, 3]
b) f(x) = 2 + cosx, on 0, 3 2
1
c) f(x) =, on [1, 4]
x
d) f(x) = |x| - 1, on [-1, 2]
6. Find the area of the region between the graphs of the following functions.
. a) f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 2 – x

b) f(x) = ex, x = -1, x = 3 and the x-axis

c) f(x) = x2 – 4 and g(x) = 4 – x2

128