ECON 1003 Mathematics for Social Sciences I

UNIT FOUR

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Idea of Limits

Using f(x) = x2 to get an idea of the function f(x) near to the value of x = 2, we use two sets of
values ‘say’ one set approaches 2 from values less than 2 (left) and the other set approaches 2
from values greater than 2 (right).

Example 4.0:

2 2

x 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.95 1.99 2.01 2.03 2.05 2.1 2.3 2.5
f(x) = x2 2.25 2.89 3.24 3.61 3.80 3.96 4.04 4.12 4.2 4.41 5.29 6.25

As x approaches 2 from the left f(x) As x approaches 2 from the right f(x)
approaches 4. approaches 4.

As x takes values closer to 2, regardless of whether x approaches from the left or right, the
corresponding values of f(x) get closer to one single value that is 4.

Using the Limit Notation

We say that the limit of f(x) = x2 is 4 as x approaches the value 2.

Notation:

Lim x 2  4
x 2

Definition: If f(x) becomes close to a single number L, as x approaches a from either side,
then we say that the limit of f(x), as x approaches a, is L and this is written
Lim f ( x)  L .
x a

Note: If the function remains the same as x approaches a from the left and right,
then we simply substitute for x = a in the function f(x) to evaluate the limit.

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The limit is different from finding the value of the function. The limit finds
the value the function approaches as x approach a value.

Example 4.1: Evaluate Lim x 2  3 x

x 2

Solution:

Lim x 2  3x  22  3(2)
x 2

4  6  2

x2
Example 4.2: Evaluate Lim
x 3 4  2x

Solution:

x2 3  2 5 5 1
Lim    
x 3 4  2 x 4  2(3) 4  6 10 2

Properties of Limits

(1) If f(x) = c when c is a constant then Lim f ( x)  c .

x a

If Lim f ( x)  A and Lim g ( x)  B then the following holds:

xa xa

(2) Lim c f ( x)  cA
xa

(3) Lim
xa
 f ( x)  g ( x)   Lim
xa
f ( x)  Lim
x a
g ( x)  A  B

(4) Lim f ( x)  g ( x)  Lim f ( x)  Lim g ( x)  A  B

xa xa xa

f ( x) Lim f ( x) A
(5) Lim  xa  provided B  0
xa g ( x) Lim g ( x) B
xa

1
(6) Lim n f ( x)  n Lim f ( x)  n
A  An .
xa x a

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Example 4.3: Evaluate Lim 25  x 2

x 4

Solution:

Lim
x 4
25  x 2  Lim
x 4
 25  x  
2
25  42  25  16  9  3 .

Other Techniques for Evaluating Limits

The limits evaluated so far required only direct substitution.

0
If the Lim f (a) 
(as in example 4.4) this is known as an indeterminate form (since from the
xa 0
form or result alone we cannot determine the limit).

When we encounter this form we must factorize the numerator and/or denominator, simplify then
evaluate the limit.

2 x
Example 4.4: Evaluate Lim
x 2 4  x2

Solution:

2 x 22 0
Lim   indeterminate form
x 2 4 x 2
4  22 0

x 1 1 1
Factorizing and simplifying gives Lim  Lim  
x 2  2  x  x2 2 x 22 4

x3
Example 4.5: Evaluate Lim
x 3 x  x  12
2

Solution:

x3 3  3 0
Lim   indeterminate form
x 3 x  x  12 (3)  (3)  12 0
2 2

x3 1 1 1
Hence Lim  Lim  
x 3  x  3 x  4  x3 x  4 3  4 7

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Limits to Infinity ():

Lim f ( x) means x gets larger and larger without any limit to its value. (The idea of infinity
x 

is simply a concept since one cannot identify any value as being infinity).

Example 4.6:

Lim 2 x  3   means that the limit goes to infinity or the limit does not exist.
x 

Example 4.7:

3x  1 
Lim    since the numerator gets larger and larger while the denominator remains
x  4 4
constant.

Example 4.8:

3
Lim  0 since the denominator gets larger and larger while the numerator remains
x  x 1
constant hence the function tends to zero.

Note the following

k
Lim 0
x  x

x
Lim 
x  k

Where k is any constant.

Indeterminate Form

f ( x) 
If Lim  then this represents another indeterminate form.
x  g ( x) 

In order to evaluate the limits when this form occurs, we divide both numerator and denominator
of the function by the highest power of the variable, simplify, then evaluate the limit.

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2 x 2  3x
Example 4.9: Evaluate Lim
x  x3  2 x

Solution:

2 x 2  3x 
Lim  indeterminate form
x  x3  2 x 

2 x 2 3x 2 3
 
Dividing by the highest power of x gives Lim x 3 x 3  Lim x x2  0  0  0  0 .
x  x3 2 x x  2
1 2 1 0 1
3
 3
x x x

3x3  2 x
Example 4.10: Evaluate Lim
x  1  x3

Solution:

3x3  2 x 
Lim  indeterminate form
x  1  x3 

3x3 2 x 2
 3 3 2
Dividing by the highest power of x gives Lim x 3
x  Lim x  3  0  3  3 .
 1 0  1 1
3
x  1 x x  1
3
 3 3
x x x

3x3  4
Example 4.11: Evaluate Lim
x  x2  4 x

Solution:

3x3  4 
Lim  indeterminate form
x  x2  4 x 

3 x3 4 4
 3
Dividing by x3 gives Lim x 3 x3  Lim x3  3  0  3   .
x  x 2 4 x x  1 4 00 0
 
x3 x3 x x2

Hence the limit does not exist.

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One-Sided Limits (Left and Right Hand Limits)

When f(x) is defined in different ways as x approaches a from the left and right then it is
necessary to evaluate the behaviour of f(x) from the left hand side or/and the right hand side. As
outlined earlier the limit as x approaches a from the left is denoted Lim and the limit as x
xa

approaches a from the right is denoted by Lim .

x a
For the limit as x tends to a to exist both limits must be equal hence the notation states
Lim f ( x)  Lim f ( x)  Lim f ( x) .
x a x a x a

Compound functions at some times require evaluation of one-sided limits.

Example 4.12:

Given

2 x  1 x  2

f ( x)  1  x 2  2  x 1
3x  1 x 1


Evaluate: (i) Lim f ( x) (ii) Lim f ( x) (iii) Lim f ( x) (iv) Lim f ( x)

x 2 x 2 x 2 x 1

Solution:

(i) Lim f ( x)  2(2)  1  3

x 2

(ii) Lim f ( x)  1  (2) 2  5

x 2

(iii) Lim f ( x) does not exist since Lim f ( x)  Lim f ( x)

x 2 x 2 x 2

(iv) To evaluate Lim f ( x) we need to evaluate both left and right hand limits since the
x 1

function is defined differently as one approaches 1 from the two directions.

Lim 1  x 2  1  12  2
x 1

Lim 3x  1  3(1)  1  2
x 1

Hence Lim f ( x)  2 since Lim f ( x)  Lim f ( x)  2 .

x 1 x 1 x 1

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Continuity of Functions
In mathematics the term continuous has a similar meaning in everyday usage. When one says
that a function is continuous at x = a, it means that there is no interruption in the graph of f at a.
That is, the graph of f(x) is unbroken at a, and there are no holes, jumps or gaps. In example 2.13
(page 28) that graph has holes (broken) at x = -2 and x = 3. Hence not continuous at these
points.

Definition: A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if the following conditions are

satisfied:

(i) f (a) is defined

(ii) Lim f ( x) exists
xa

(iii) Lim f ( x)  f (a ) condition (i) = condition (ii).

xa

Note: If a function is not continuous (any one of the conditions are not satisfied) then it is
said to be discontinuous.

Example 4.13: Is f(x) = x3 + x continuous at x = -1?

Solution: f(x) must satisfy the three conditions.

(i) f(-1) = (-1)3 + (-1) = -2 hence f(x) is defined

(ii) Lim (1)3  (1)  2 hence the limit exists.

x 1

Since Lim f ( x)  f (1)  2  f ( x) is continuous at x = -1.

x 1

Example 4.14:

x2  x  6
Determine whether the function f ( x)  is continuous at x = 3.
x 3

Solution:

32  3  6 0
f (3)   , so f(3) is not defined. Therefore f(x) is not continuous at x = 3.
x3 0

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Example 4.15:

Determine whether the function

5  x x 1
f ( x)   2
3 x  1 x 1

is continuous at x = 1.

Solution:

We must check whether the three conditions are satisfied.

(i) f(1) = 3(1)2 + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4

(ii) Lim f ( x) must be evaluated from the left and right

x 1

Lim f ( x)  5  1  4
x 1

Lim f ( x)  3(1) 2  1  4
x 1

Hence Lim f ( x)  4 so Lim f ( x) exists.

x 1 x 1

(iii) Lim f ( x)  f (1)  4 therefore f(x) is continuous at x = 1.

x 1

Example 4.16:

Discuss the continuity of

2 x x2
f ( x)   2
x  4x  1 x2

at x = 2.

Solution:

(i) f(2) = -2(2) = -4

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(ii) Lim f ( x)
x 2

Lim  2 x  2(2)  4
x 2

Lim x 2  4 x  1  22  4(2)  1  3
x 2

Hence Lim f ( x) does not exist.

x 2

Therefore f(x) is not continuous at x = 2.

Note: A function is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point on its domain of

definition.

A function which is continuous at every point of an interval is said to be continuous

on that interval.

Polynomials are continuous everywhere.

As stated earlier, whenever a function is not continuous it is discontinuous.

Types of Discontinuities
(a) Infinite Discontinuity: when the limit tends to infinity.

Example 4.17:

x
Discuss the continuity of f ( x)  at x = -1.
x 1

Solution:

1 1
(i) f (1)   hence not defined.
1  1 0

x 1 1
(ii) Lim     hence infinite discontinuity.
x 1 x  1 1  1 0

(b) Removeable Discontinuity: exists where f(a) is undefined but Lim exists.
x a

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Example 4.18:

x2 1
Discuss the continuity of f ( x)  at x = 1.
x 1
Solution:

12  1 0
(i) f (1)   undefined.
1 1 0

(ii) Lim
 x  1 x  1  Lim x  1  1  1  2 therefore the limit exists.
x 1 x 1 x 1

f(x) has a removeable discontinuity a x = 1 since it may be redefined to be made

continuous at x = 1

 x2  1
 x 1
f ( x)   x  1
2 x 1


(c) Finite/Jump Discontinuity: exists where f(x) is defined/not defined and Lim does not
x a

exist however Lim exists and Lim exists.

xa x a

Example 4.19:

Discuss the continuity of

2 x x2
f ( x)   2
x  4x  1 x2

at x = 2.

Solution:

(i) f(2) = -2(2) = -4 exists.

(ii) Lim f ( x)
x 2

Lim  2(2)  4
x 2

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Lim 22  4(2)  1  3
x 2

Lim f ( x) does not exist, however the left hand and right hand limits exist.
x 2

Therefore at x = 2 we have a jump or finite discontinuity.

Example 4.20:

Given
 2x 1 x  1

f ( x)  2  x 1  x  3
 2 x3


Evaluate the following

(i) Lim f ( x) (ii) Lim f ( x) (iii) Lim f ( x) (iv) Lim f ( x)

x 1 x 1 x 3 x 3

(v) Lim f ( x)
x 0

(vi) Discuss the continuity of f(x) at the points x=-1 and x=3.

Solution:

Lim 2 x  1  2(1)  1  3
(i) x 1

(ii) Lim  2  x  2  (1)  3

x 1

(iii) Lim  2  x  2  3  1
x 3

(iv) Lim 2  2
x 3

(v) Lim  2  x  2 Left and right limits are not required since the
x 0

function remains the same as one approaches zero

from the left and right.

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