CENTRAL FORCE CENTRAL FORCE j suas Central force is that force which is always directed away from 4, towards a fixed centre and the magnitude of which is a function only Of the | distance from that fixed centre (origin). In polar coordinates, we can express. it as Fr)=a FO), where fi is the unit vector along r. i ‘The force between two interacting particles is primarily a central force, © If one of the particles is much heavier then it can be regarded at rest (as its acceleration will be negligible though force on each particle is the same), By locating origin at the heavier particle, the problem of two bodies reduces to only one body, called equivalent one body problem. Be Beoustion OF TWO BODY PROBLEM TO EQUIVALENT | my (ONE BODY PROBLEM We consider two mass points m, and mg. The system is conservative. That is, potential energy is purely a function of distance between them, V=V(r) Kinetic energy is that of motion of centre of mass and the motion about the centre of mass. Such a system thus has six degrees of freedom. Let us choose them to be three components of R, the position O vector of centre of mass and three components of difference vector r=(r, -rp). Lagrangian for such a system can be written as L=T(R,*)-Vo), where T (RF) =F (my + m2) RT, which expresses the kinetic energy as the sum of kinetic energy of motion of © the centre of mass, plus the kinetic energy of motion about the centre & (84)CENTRAL FORCE 85 mass, 7”. It has been assumed that V is purely a function of r, the separation between two particles. 7” is given by Ta) met? 41 ott? 5 mil? + 5 main, where rj’ and rp’ are the position vectors with respect to the centre of mass and the difference vector is rer, -1) =r rh. we Q) We know that a body balances about the centre of mass and hence Emjr} =0. Therefore my rf + mg rh =0 or @) or also Y= ( uss . (4) m, + mg Kinetic energy is 1 apis : T =F (m+ ma) R® +5 mi? + 3 mote!” 2 2 ; m: : (my + mg) R? +2 my | —™2—] #2 +} my |—™_] ¢ 2 my + mz 2 my + ma wie after putting values of iy’ and ig’ from eq. (4). Thus 1_mymg 52 2m, + my 3 (my + mg) R? + where M=m, +m is total mass of the system, and mm2 Ef my, +m is the reduced mass. The Lagrangian can thus be expressed as L= 1 MR? + Sut? -V 0), + 6) from which we note that the three components of R do not appear in the Lagrangian L and consequently are cyclic. DQ] APRS86 CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL Mec, Lagrange’s equations of motion in terms of the two variables p will be ad ()- ob dt\ar) or aL) _ ob —=0 - dt ail a) or Putting values of the derivative from eq. (6) into eqs. (6) and (7), a © (amr) =0 ane ) d,., Ve) — 0 and abit Eq. (8) gives that momentum conjugate to R is constant. That is, or That is, velocity with which the centre of mass moves is constg, Eq. (9) gives -_ Ver w= YO - 7%, representing equation of motion for the system under consideration, with interparticle distance as r. Thus none of the equations of motion for r will contain terms involving RorR . Consequently, we can ignore the first term in eq. (5) and write — Le. F L=iui? -Vo), we (ll which is effective in describing the motion of the components of r. But Lagrangian given by eq. (10) is the same as would be in the case of single particle of mass, , moving at a distance r from a fixed centre of force which gives rise to the potential energy V(r) and hence this type of two body problem can always be reduced to the equivalent one body problem. or a There are two main features of the motion of a particle under the action of a central force : one is conservation of energy and the other conservation of angular momentum. () Conservation of energy : Let us write the central force =nf(r), GENERAL FEATURES OF CENTRAL FORCE MOTION the magnitude of which is du (r) or or Fr) =-Vu(r), fer)CENTRAL FORCE 87 where u(r)is a scalar function. The curl of the gradient of a scalar function is always £er0, & VxV ulr)=0 oe VxF=0, wrifying that a central force whose magnitude is a function of the distance from the centre of force is a conservative one, for which the principle of conservation of total energy holds. Gi) Conservation of angular momentum : The torque exerted by the central force on the particle is N=rx F(r) =rx nf (r) =rx f()=0 r Ce es ; Thus N=7 =O giving that 1, the angular momentum about any axis through the centre of force is constant. Further if v is the velocity of the particle, then l=mrx vy, which tells that 1 will be perpendicular to both r and v. Since | is constant, both r and v will always lie in the same plane. In other words, for central force, the orbit always lie in a fixed plane which is perpendicular to the fixed direction of angular momentum. 4.2-1 Lagrange’s equations of motion Let us describe the position of the particle in the plane polar co-ordinates r and 6. : Lagrangian will bet m (i? +r? 0°)-Vor). () Since 0 does not appear in L, it is a cyclic co-ordinate and hence momentum conjugate to this will be a constant, i.e., L . py =e = mr? =1 w= Q) ea There will be two equations of motion, d (2 oho tak) or ities alte AY oe Mot t cos8, -yersin® so that x=Fcos0-rd sin 6, j= Fsin 0+ 70 cos 8, Thus the kinetic energy will be T=im@+F) a1 @4P AR).CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MECHANICg 88 d (aL) aL d (ak) _ al oo a at (3) 20 Putting in them the values of derivatives from eq. (1), we get 4 ni a? - #) =0 = & s coy = (mr a? @ rare and aon? )=0, 16h Eqs. (8) and (4) are the equations of motion of the particle. From eq. (4), we have 2,2 8) =o, ® dt \2 which gives an interesting result. Suppose, as shown in fig. 2, dis the area Fig. 2. Area swept out by radius vector. swept out by the radius vector in a time dt, then dA =5 r(r d0) and the rate at which this area is swept out will be dA_1,2 a0 dt dt 778 nou I wie & i ‘Therefore from eq. (5), we constant wie y dA 2 He 7 Constant, + 6) ie, the rate at which the area is swept out by the radius vector is constant or areal velocity (S)is constant. Result (6) is known as Kepler’s second law of planetary motion. The law is true for any central force : that is, even if the law of force is different from the inverse square law, this law holds and can be treated as a general theorem for central force motion.eee eg eee HO) 2 Expression for r(t) ang ott} From ea. (3), we write mé~ mr 2 a, ea dr’ putting 0=1/ mr? from ea. (2), wo gor 2 mp" __av mr “dr * 2 : mi z-2{y, P ar\ amr? Multiplying both sides of above equation by #, we have . i: : or CH ieee pee so that ai [3 mr” + aot +V(r)/=0, 1 os 2 or eee eee re 2 mr We can easily show that the left hand side of above equation is the total energy of the system. Putting 1 = mr? @ , left hand side reduces to 3 mi? + 3 mr? 02 + V(r) or Fm +r? 0?) +V0r) or simply (7+V), which is the total energy, Z, of system. Since right hand side is equal to a constant, it proves the conservation of energy directly from equations of motion. Thus we write a) or or hich on integration gives90 CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MEG) HANIog tof" oo; vt Chas ) R-v i amr? + Bq) whew =r at f= 0 This equation gives rae a function of time, i..7 (0), Ongg r(Oae known, it te quite eney to find 0() from eq. (2), which gives @ =— 4 am . On integration, we get _ Tet dt 0 +80, +++ (8b) doy ) where Oo is the value of 0 at t= 0. Thus integration of eqs. (8a) and (8b) provides us r(t) and 6 (2) from which we can locate the position of the particle on the path at any time t and are thus solution of our problem. If the law of force, i.e, form of V(r) is known, integration of above equations can be performed easily, which will involve four constants of integration I, E,ro and 09. 4.2-3 Equation of the path (orbit) : We have obtained the equations which yield, on integration, the values of r(t) and 6(t). Now we want to obtain an equation that may provide a relation between r and 0 i.e.r =r (8). Such an equation will be the equation. of the orbit. It is convenient to introduce the new variable or so that and Pu? du ® m? de? We know that the equation of motion of a particle is a_? mi = mr 62-2 et a eat fr). neeee eet tituti for Subs! 6 for rand in above equation, we get oo maf du ay ey m? ag? ~/(2)+ 2 a w aru m : au 1 7 aoe Paz “(2): 1. (10) which is the differentiat equation of tne orbit, Im ease 1=0,€4. (10) is absurd, but trom T= mr? 4, or mr? 9 =9 7 : © =0 oro =constant giving a straight line through the origin Ex. 1. Use Hamilton’s equations to find the differential equation lanetary motion and prove that the areal velocity is constant. Assume force f (r) =~ k/r?, The Lagrangian L=T-v on putting V(r) = -4 giving >, .@) The Hamiltonian is then H=E pjaj-L J =Ppi+pod -L 9 Pon). Srey so that, +. (3) ‘hich are Hamilton's equations of motion.a 92 CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MECHANIcg i ] From eq, (8), we find that mi = py 2 rm ik i Bie ee ea a O We know that in motion under central force, angular momentum jg conserved. Let us put it as mr? 6 Po - () Putting it in eq. (4) we get 2 mi= af. © mr 1 Now let ret w 2,2 72 so that Pun Fu (See eq. 9 art. 4.2-3) wD) m? do? Putting eg. (7) in (6), we get @u m_ (1 eae er eG ® do? Pu? (7) ) Eq. (8) is the differential equation for planetary motion and is exactly the same as above eq. (10) of art. (4.2-3). Further from eq. (3), we note that i oH =-2 Ao, Poo masg giving Po = constant or mr” @ = po =constant or 3 r? 6 =constant, which shows that the areal velocity is constant. Ex. 2. A particle of mass m is moving in a plane under a repulsive inverse square law of force, -& where k is a positive real + number and (r, 0) are the polar coordinates of the particle. Write down the equation of orbit and solve it. What is the nature of the orbit ? If force f= then potential energy is V(r)=+" so that r Hamiltonian is re}or 2 neorev-1(,247),4 2m 2cent 93 ving equations of motion ag i e ~-OH _p, rol -Pr ~ On DP, im O=— = Po or Po =! = constant or (1) , i = [242 92 Putting r =— so that Fz! U" d*u u m2 qo? 82° a: 9 of 4.2.3), Then eq. (1) becomes Pye g2y 2,3 Ta et Pub + ku m do m or or mk Py du Let us put y=u+ 2 so that we =e Then eq. (2) becomes —+y=0 + (3) Solution of eq. (3) is y =u' cos (8-6) where u' and @ are two constants of integration. Putting for y, we get u+ tw cos (0-0) Pr or mk| Vu o5@-9)-1 7 | mk 2 : fal ; 121 mk a 4 UT” 59-0) -1 mk which is the equation-of the orbit. Since force is repulsive (kis positive), ‘otal energy E of the system will be positive (as kinetic energy is never *egative and potential energy in this case will be positive). We know that NTN SG cecentricity © >1 so that orbit is a hyperbola.94 CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MEGHAN, 8 B<3 EQUIVALENT ONE DIMENSIONAL PROBLEM : GENERAL FEATURES OF THE ORBITS Equation that we have already derived (art. 4.2-2) ._ a e na-nd (vat s] is in one dimensional form. We find from it that where f" is called the effective force and is given by 2,4 fi=f()+2 0 (putting 1 = mr? 6) mr =f (r) + mr 6? =r s moe = fos mo 7 = central force + centrifugal force. ‘Thus equation takes the form mi =f", which has exactly the form of an equation of motion in one dimension for a particle subjected to the actual applied force f(r) plus a pseudo ‘centrifugal force’ 1? / mr?, The centrifugal force is not really a force but a pseudo force equal to part of the mass times acceleration which has been transposed to the right side of the equation to make it equivalent to a one dimensional equation of motion for r. Effective force f' can be written in terms of an effective potential energy V’ (7), i.e. av f ar’ 2 so that W=-f f'dr=-f fot ay mr 2 =-f roars 2mr? Devens .. a 2mr? the second term is the potential energy related to the centrifugal force.inverse squar ros of bits for the invérée squat, of foree : We shall discuss the ‘ential energy ' of force. In fig, (8), the effective Vvos-f Sar, B 2mr® ab gl r 2mr2 s+ (2) function of r has been plotted, In the theory of planetary motion, the product of gravitational constant and the mass of the central body (GM) comes always as a unit, and therefore, neither the gravitational constant nor the mass of the central body can be determined separately. Therefore in f=-GMm/r?, product GM can be taken as a single unit. Kepler’s force is likewise represented as f = — h/r?. Motion with different values of k : Refer to eq. 2. with force f= k/r?: Case (i) : For a repulsive force (k > 0), only positive total energies E are possible and the particle comes in from r =. to a turning point and travels out to infinity again; motion is thus unbounded i.e., not periodic in r. For example, consider a particle with total energy E,. The turning point 7, the schematic picture of the orbit for such a particle is shown in vio Tr 7 : Pr Fig. 3. Plot of effective potential Se nag be ued nergy for inverse square law of motion. LS) “eanitral force.CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MECHANg, 96 ‘i int occurs at smaller ; ree (k= 0), the turning point! n Value Case (ii) : For no force (k 7 ea . 4 4 to the ease for which > 0. For example with energy p/ of r as compares hen. turning point oceurs at r= ry" <1: Case : For an attractive unbound if E> 0, ic, energy of the pay 7 nt occurs at r=} ; affairs i pepe ‘as discussed in case (i) except an t par tuning potas occurs at a smaller value ofr than in case . Oor k= 0.The a icle with thig energy can never come closer than ry because according to energy conservation theorem eq. (7) of art. (4.2-2). force, (<0) with 1 0, the motion ig rlicle is positive. For example, with which is less than r;'. Thus state of 2 cites, ion i Byapmit ee atv i =} mi? +V'@) or By -V'()=3 mi? =T, from which if r E,, and hence kinetic energy, 7’ would have to be negative corresponding to an imaginary velocity which is absurd. But if the energy of the particle is negative and greater than the 2 minimum of potential energy V’ (r) (- - 3 ¥e). i.e, E lies between 0 and 2 -; , there are two turning points and the motion is bounded. 7 Consider, for example, the particle with energy Hg; turning points occur at 72, and rg, ie., the lower bound being at rg and upper bound at rp. Distances vz and rg are called apsidal distances. The orbits are not necessarily closed but are bounded and contained between two circles of radii 72 and rg as shown in fig. (5). Fig. 5. Nature of orbit for bounded Motion. We shall show, later on, that the orbit is, i i o , orbit is, infact, i negative values of energy E if 1 + 0, staat RSI| FORCE conte ” case (iv) : Consider a particle with ene: i, he nim value of V"(r). "Thun for mucky ie Fa eer t aveid[ ko dr dr| or! | pecs? <0. Thus (3) putting 7 2 7 n= 2. (4) ana the energy By will be Eg =V'O|nmin, --4,% T) 2mr2 2 2 =— ORE 1 mkt Po2 Pp ee i aoa ® In this case the two bounds coincide i.e.,r3 =rp =" and the motion is possible only at one radius, ry. Orbit is a circle of radius Pimk w STABILITY OF ORBITS AND CONDITIONS FOR CLOSURE (a) Stability : Keeping either the energy or the angular momentum unchanged, if a slight perturbation given to the radial coordinate perturbs the orbit only slightly then the orbit is called stable. ‘The condition of stability in radial motion is given by the existence of a local minimum in V’' (7), the effective potential. That is, we require that 217 FV) , 6 (or positive) .. (1) ar? at the value of r, say r=m% (refer to case IV art 4.3) given by W') 9 (V' @) minimum] ... (2) ér Let us take, for any central force, that potential energy function is given by. V@jenkrt*? (for bounded motion)98 CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MECHAN cy Then Vie= or Ovi) k(n +1) or or k(n + Dry or k(n + We now find 6?V' (r)/ ar? given evr) -kn(n+Drg-h+ n rt = “@ by n-1, 317 mro which is positive if n>-3. Therefore any circular orbit with r= * under any central force can satisfy the stability condition ifn>-3 (b) Cond: ‘ions for Closure : An orbit is said to be closed if the — particle eventually retraces its path (orbit). Conditions are stated as follows: @) All bound orbits are closed only for the inverse square law of force 3 of Coulombian (electrostastic attraction) or Newtonian (gravitational) type and for the linear laws of force of Hooke’s type (inside a uniformly charged or neutral spherically symmetric homogeneous body). Gi) The condition for bound motion is that there is a bounded domain of r in which V’ (r)< £, the energy (refer to fig. 8 art. 4.3). The condition for stability of circular orbits is n >— 3, where f (r) 0 [note that we hay, taken f(r) =—A/r2] and therefore p > 0. From equation (3) it is obvious thay Fig. 7. Hyperbolic orbit for inverse square force (attractive). with p> 0,r will be positive only when (1 + cos 0) is positive for which ¢ <1 and £ =1 since cos @ <1. Thus we can have both parabolic and elliptic orbits. If ¢>1, we must have 1+ecos@>0 =} 1, we have or ae Case IV : If e>1, equation (4A) takes the form Gereh Fy ab? ae -1), which is “the equation of a hyperbola.pores Fomee 88 won(-t) Fig. 8. Hyperbolic orbit for Inverse square force (repulsive). -1 Ogivi 1 -conic is hyperbole eens Sigua caeemnet non periodic Monon E =O giving ¢ = 1 —conic is parabola E <0 giving e<1-conic is ellipse : periodic motion. Case of elliptic orbits : (a) Relation between energy and semi-major axis of ellipse : i We have shown that in the case of elliptic orbits, semi-major axis is given y Puttingib mka substituting for (~e) in eq, (7), ' or we get Ea me 2 212 mka = 2a? which shows that all ellipses with the sa, | energy: me major axis have the same (p) Period of elliptic motion +: It is defined as the as the ratio of the total area of the ellipse to the rate at which the area is swept out. Suppose dA is a area swept out by radius vector in # hea will be @A/ dt. Hence mn time dt, then the rate of sweeping the Thus Putting b=a Ja -e), 2nma* = fume 2,254 or qe adeem*at 62), Pr Using eq. (10), 2 2 (#2) a 2 gd .() = aa’. law which states that the square Result (11) is known as Kepler's third nal to the cube of the semi-major of the period of elliptic motion is proportio! axis'and is independent of the minor axis.106 CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MECHANICg ER KePLer’s LAWS AND DERIVATION In seventeenth century, Kepler announced the following three laws of planetary motion : (The plancts move in ellipses with aun at one of foci. (ii) Arcas swept out by the radius vector from the sun to a planet in equal times are equal. (ii) The square of the period of revolution is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis. We have already proved (i) and (iii) law in article 4.5 which are restricted specifically to the inverse square law of force, while law (ii) has been proved in art. 4.2 and is true for any central force. We shall again derive them. (A) Derivation of Kepler’s second law : The attractive central force acting between sun and planet can be written as If) =- lr? or to=-ka, 7 where k =GMm; M being mass of sun and m that of planet revolving round the sun. # is the unit vector along the radius vetor r of the planet measured from the sun. If we take the orbital motion of the planet round the sun with sun at rest then force can be written as* : d 2 a eS dr dt? ‘Taking vector product of both sides of above equation with r, we have d?r k rx er ken at? my? As vectors r & f are parallel, so R.H.S. is zero so that Further, or, we can write ‘The above term can be identified as the areal velocity vector. Since it is constant, we infer that radius vector sweeps equal areas in equal time. ‘This is Kepler’s second law of planetary motion.FORCE RAL 107 ) Derivation of Kepler's first law ttractive force, under which there is planetary motion, is given by then fy=— bre? The equation of orbit under inverse square law is du ye m1 do? Paul (4) [Eq. (10) art 4.2-3) mis the mass of planet; /, the angular momentum and r, 0 are polar where . 7 gordinates with sun as the origin of coordinates. If . aden 1 ary i ro=1(2) =-hu®, Then equation of orbit is du 2 2 mk - Q) de 2 Let us put, yeou-™ d?y _d?u so that fy. ° do? da? ‘Then eq. (1) can be written as 2 fy +y=0 de This is a second order equation whose solution can be written as y =u! cos (0 - 0) where u! and @' are the constants of integration. Putting for », we have u— 7 ow cos (0-0) Pe or ua 5 w! cos (0-8) Pe or pe [p+ geoe-o| mk Pimk 72 141 cos (0-0) mk or For simplicity we can choose our coordinate system so that 6’ = Othen 2 Pink — @) 14d cos 0 mk r=108 CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MECHANICg From geometry, any conic section can be represented as (+6) 1+6cos 0 + (8) where eis the eccentricity of the orbit. For ¢ <1 the conic section is an ellipg, For ¢ = Oconic is a circle, for s = 1,a parabola and for ¢ > 1, a hyperbola, Orbit of a body moving under the influence of inverse square low is thus an ellipg, parabola or hyberbola. Ellipse is the case of bound motion with two turning points, say 7, andr}. 7», being the minimum value of radius (for 0 = 0), give’ by eq. (2) as 7, oi lmk (+e) “@ where we have put as is obvious from the comparison of eqs. (2) and (3). The maximum radius, 7, (for 6 = 1809 from eq. (8) is n=n i _Pimk (+8) fi Saaeace) using eq. (4). Hee ae aoa +. (6) The smallest radius, rp is called perihelion (for an object in solar orbit) or perigee (for an earth’s orbit) while largest radius, r,,is called the aphelion or apogee. These two refer to the turning points of the orbit at which total energy, E, equals the effective potential energy, Vey, given by 2 Var =V'=Very+ 2mr = eq. (1) art. 4.3] where, for attractive inverse square force, f (r)=-k/r?, potential energy, V ), is given by V(r) =-kIr he B so that Vey =- 2+ f= T te At turning points, ro and r,, we have Veg =E eff 2 Ale ee r 2mr a 0} e ie 2m \r r which is quadratic in (1/r) so that we can writeFORCE, pat F geet Ika fey eee (Pam E 20 1am : raf , aut Wt met po ae Pimk pel mk 2 1) 1 (1 4 Be mk™ or giving minimum value, : ry =—imk : 1a{16 28 mk” PI mk Fe 1-(16 28 mk Comparing eq. (7) with eq. (4) or eq. (5), we find that eccentricity, ¢, is given by ogi?” e=|1+— - ® mi We now write from eq. (2), using above value of ¢, the equation of the orbit under inverse square law of force as é Pimk 7 oni? 1+ (: + a cos 8 mk? A bound orbit has E <0, giving, from eq. (8), the eccentricity, ¢ <1. This Predicts that orbit of planet round the sun is an ellipse, which is Kepler's first law of planetary motion. (C) Derivation of Kepler’s Third Law + As the orbit is an ellipse, its area can be taken as (n ab) where a is semi-major axis and b is semi-minor axis of the ellipse. Further b=ayl a=semi major axis = half of the maximum diameter ws. (Ta) and maximum value n= vas (7b) .- Q)10 GLABBICAL AND STATISTICAL MECHA 3 OL ecac Ne 8 . 3 oP) nn cL 2 las 1- aol tesa 2 mk a2 Suppose dais the aren swept out by the radius vector in time, dt, then rate at which the area is swept out is given by #41, (8). 890! ++ (10) = > = fig. 4.2) ad 2 dt) 2 2m ee : Then period of elliptic motion, +, is given by area of ellipse t=—__tea of ellipse rate of which area is swept out _ nab _ 2nmab ~ 12m 7 (putting for &) or z Putting for (1 -”) from eq. (10), we get 2 2 4n*m)_3 : ( zl Je or 2 ca? which is Kepler’s third law of planetary motion. Ex. 1. Consider a particle moving in a central field of force. If we consider the radial motion only then @_ what is the effective potential in which the radial motion occurs ? (ii) calculate the angular frequency for circular orbit, if the central potential is > kr®. Sol. (i) Refer to art. 4.3. The effective potential energy of a particle moving in a central field of force is given by P eee ea Vi =Vory+ her? + -@ Qmr? 2 2mr? where the second term in V’ is the potential energy associated with the centrifugal force.ental FORCE 411 Gi) For circular motion, the total energy J is equal to the minimum gatue of V" TO find out (V") in «Wo differentiate oq, (1) with respect tor and Saquate it to 2er0, ie, or or ‘Thus angular frequency for circular orbit is w= (ki m). Ex. 2. A particle of mass, m, moves under the action of a central force whose potential is V(r) = kmr? (k> 0); then (a) for what energy and angular momentum will the orbit be a circle of radius, a, about the origin ? (b) calculate the period of circular motion, (0) if the particle is slightly disturbed from the circular mo radial oscillations about r =a. tion, what is the period of small Sol. (a) If the orbit is circular then attractive force = centrifugal force dV) _ mv? (Ee) . av mat a or d 3,__mv" © (amr3) = or Sp fem) = 2 or Bkr2 = or v=r J@hr) Ulpea = a V(8ka) (atr =a) = (D Therefore kinetic energy m.a® (3ka) + @) Angular momentum 1 =mav = ma” y(3ka) + (3)CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MECHay, leg a, (b) Angular velocity with 0=4 = /(@ka) a so that period of revolution is By itn 6 J(Bka) (6) After the particle is disturbed, the path changes from r =a to (9 Let us write r=a+x(t) If V(a) = kma? then from Taylor’ series expansion V(a + x) =V(a) + Vi(a) e+ ; Vi(ayx? +... where Vi(a@)= (2 Ceme®)) = 3mka” dr 2 =a a and V'(@= s (kmr®) =6mka dr rea The equation of motion to the first order in x is m+ [xe @) , va] x= 0 or & + 15kax=0 Hence the angular frequency is = @5ka). Ex. 3. The mutual potential energy V of two particles depends on their mutual distance, r, as follows : v-%-2, aro, b>0 r r 2 For what separation, r, are the particles in static equilibrium? Sol. In static equilibrium separation r= 22ceutrat FORCE 113 g LAPLACE-RUNGE-LENZ VECTOR (A) ‘Angular momentum L remains conserved in Kepler problem and we rerive orbit equation using constancy of angular momentum. There is nother vector called Laplace-Runge-Lenz Vector, denoted by A, which is also Spserved in motion under Kepler's force. This vector also provides alternative way tO derive orbit equation for Kepler's problem. We shall first soiain a expression for A and then derive orbit equation using it. 0 Laplace-Runge-Lenz Vector (A): Newton's second law of motion in vectorial form, for a central force, can be written as : P ft af; ~ () Its cross product with constant angular momentum vector L will be dp r BP L= fir) Ex(ex at fey xe Pp) = AD fox (ex as p= mir = nfo fr(x.i) ri] wa (2) ld sat? But pS yar so that ap, 1 tee) -r8) dt r = mile) ef) _ ri v re re = mieor EE | . (3) ‘ Now we write the term d dp a_i rso Sloe) = Px be x age ry ; : “*atise angular momentum Lis constant. Therefore using eq. (3), we write d dp i =PxL ee = mfcr)r? a 2d(r : =-mf(r)r’ a(E - (4)4 CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MECH ANI | 8 Vor Keplor problem, putting central force as frye £ in eq. (4), we got d d(x au ni ann emo (?) al r ) d mkr ¥ —l(px L)- 228 | 9 Na ria ae | mkr or (ox L- )= constant, r It implies that, for the Kepler problem, there exists a conserved vector A defined by Az pen 6) which is termed as the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector. Gi) Orbit Equation using Laplace-Runge-Lenz Vector : We know that : Lis perpendicular to px L so that (px L).L=0 andr is perpendicular to L=rx p so that .L=0 Therefore the dot product of vector A with vector L is Ate(pxt-24") 1 r =(px DL 1) = 0 r which means that A must be some fixed vector in the plane of the orbit. If 0 be the angle between fixed direction of vector Aand position vector r then A.r = Arcos® or Arcos =A. =[(pxD)=mk?] x 2 a =2.(px1)— er =r.(px L)-mkr - 6) But r.(px L) = L.(rx p) =LL =? Then eq. (6) becomes Ar cos@ = 1? — mkr or ee ma A )cgoreas FORGE ts o ‘ T+ ccon0 ( ink} is orbit equation for motion under Kepler's force (Refer to eq. 9 art. oe Thus Laplace-Runge-Lenz, vector provides another way of deriving orbit sion for Kepler problem. The eccentricity is cao, or IAl= mike ‘thus for Keplar problem, there are (i) two vector constants of motion, the angular momentum (L) and the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector (A), and (i) one scalar, E, the total energy. (0 wikia THEOREM We consider a system of mass points with position vectors r; and applied forces F, (including any forces of constraints). Fundamental equations of motion will be Bi Let us write a quantity G= © iti --() Its total time derivative will be ati PE +E Bit dt But Zippy =E mj ty.tj =E mjv? = 20 i i? and Spr, =2 Fr sothat WG ope kx; we) dt i The time average of eq. (2) over a time interval + will be i 16 4-0 +EK. 7/0 “a OT + SFr; 4 or 1 = 7100) - GO). @ “ght nah’ Motion is periodic and « i its period, then G(s) = G(0) and hence oe and side of eq, (3) is zero. If the motion is not periodic but there is an finite ites to G and the co-ordinates and velocities for all particles remain aapnggtte® taking + sufficiently large, right hand side can again be a ae to zero. Thus, for both the cases, right hand side is taken as T 1S F, (4) Which '§ known as the virial theorem.116 CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL MECHANog oe SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1 2. 3. 10. uu. When is it possible to reduce two body problem to equivalent one body problem, 1s of the motion of a particle under the action of a What are two main fentun central force. Show that energy and ang For central force, motion is always State Kepler's laws of planetary motion State the conditions under which the orbit of a planet will be (a) elliptical (b) circular (c) hyperbolic. Write differential equation of the orbit under central force. What is areal velocity. Write the law of areal velocity for a planetary motion, What is Bertrand’s theorem. What is Laplace-Lunge-Lenz vector. What are two vector constants of motion for Kepler problem. LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. 10. ue Derive the differential equation of the orbit in polar coordinates under a central force. Investigate motion of a particle moving under an attractive inverse square law. Explain how the problem of two bodies, moving under the influence of a mutual central force, can be reduced to one body problem. ‘A particle of mass, m, moves under a central force f(r). Show that the general equation of the orbit can be written as @o. 3 ae where w=1/r and J is the angular momentum. If the orbit described under a central force be given by r=a (1+cos 0) with centre at the origin, find the law of force. State the three Kepler's laws of planetary motion and explain them properly. If the law of gravitational attraction were different from the inverse square law which of the Kepler's law would still remain valid. Discuss the motion of a particle moving under a central attractive force inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the centre of force. Find the conditions under which the orbit will be an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola. Show that when a particle describes a circle under a central attraction directed to a point in the circumference, the law of force varies as the invers? fifth power of the distance. Show that the orbit of a particle moving in a central field of force lies in @ plane containing the centre of force. Show that for a central force, the angular momentum is conserved. A particle is moving in a central force field, the potential energy function being Varah where I is a constant, ris the distance of the particle from the origin. Sho¥ i ae Deon a circle of radius, r. The centripetal acceleration of # “3: What is the momentum of the particle, ogo m Pe fw)