UNDERSTANDING LIFE 21

Chapter 2
UNDERSTANDING LIFE

You know that plants, animals, bacteria and (iv) Respond to changes in environment and
maintain a constant internal environment.
fungi are living organisms whereas bricks,
(v) Grow in size, develop and produce offspring
stones and rocks are non-living; viruses are
similar to them.
neither living nor non-living. Also you might
(vi) Adapt to environmental changes and
instantly recognise a living object and
gradually evolve into new types of
distinguish it from a non-living one. What makes
organisms.
something alive?
The dictionary meaning of life is the property 2.2 ANALYSING THE LIVING THINGS
that distinguishes living beings from non-living
Study of all living organisms shows that life has
objects. Biologists, however, find it hard to define passed through simple to complex structural
life, though they have vast knowledge of living hierarchical levels, with each lower level
things. It is difficult to draw a fine line between emerging into a complex higher one. We now
living and non-living things. We may support the know that all organisms are formed of cells,
above statement by taking an example of virus. either one or many. When a group of cells is
The virus is a lifeless particle by itself, but it meant for a specific function it constitutes a
becomes active and multiplies rapidly when tissue. The tissues organise themselves into
inside a living cell. Actually, life is not a definable organs, which in combination with several
entity or property. Rather than trying to define organs, emerge as a system. We see that
life precisely, biologists focus on how life works. several systems are present and are required
2.1 ORGANISMS SHARE SOME UNIFIED AND to perform diverse life processes in a
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS multicellular organism. However, plants do not
exhibit organisation exactly parallel to that of
Despite the extraordinary diversity, organisms
animals.
have many things in common. Even the most
diverse forms of organisms – fungi, plants, insects, Levels of Biological Organisation
and vertebrates – are built of cells that are similar Biological organisation starts with
in their internal structure and function. Starting submicroscopic molecular level, passes through
from a single-celled microscopic amoeba or microscopic cellular level and microscopic or
bacterium to the unique humans, all organisms macroscopic organismic level and ends in
share some unified and basic characteristics. ecosystems and the biosphere.
These include order, energy utilisation, regulation The hierarchy of biological organisation
or homeostasis, growth, development, (Fig. 2.1) reveals that atoms are the lowest unit
reproduction, and adaptation. The basic features at the molecular level while the cells are the
of living organisms are listed below: smallest unit at microscopic level. Atoms combine
(i) Highly organised and complex entities formed to form molecules, which undergo chemical
of one or more cells. reactions to form organelles. Several organelles
(ii) Carry out and control numerous chemical are contained in the cell. A group of cells meant
processes. for a specific function constitutes a tissue. Above
(iii) Acquire and use energy for metabolism. the tissue level of organisation, many tissues
 22 BIOLOGY

ORGANISM LEVEL HIGHER LEVELS

(consisting of many organ systems) (populations, communities and ecosystems)

ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL

(digestive system)

ORGAN LEVEL
(stomach)
TISSUE LEVEL
(smooth muscle tissue)
CELLULAR LEVEL
(smooth muscle cell) MOLECULAR LEVEL
(DNA)

Fig. 2.1 The generalised hierarchy of biological organisation

become engaged to form a particular organ, like is occupied by organisms constitutes the
liver, stomach, lung, testis, ovary, etc., for a biosphere.
specific function. A system emerges when many What you would have understood from the
organs take up a particular life process, such above discussion is that we can identify the
as digestion, photosynthesis, respiration, branches of science related to the different levels
reproduction and several others. of organisation (Fig. 2.2). Thus, we need to look
The living things are called organisms which, into the natural systems with a holistic approach
in turn, contain many individuals. Groups of and to see interconnectedness amongst the biotic
individuals that interbreed or are potentially and abiotic factors of environment.
interbreeding form a species. These individuals
form population. A localised group of organisms Molecular Organisation : A Shift in Approach
belonging to the same species constitutes a Traditionally, our knowledge of living things is
population. Populations of different species living based on the observations made at
in the same area make up a biological morphological, anatomical and histological
community. Community interactions, integrated levels. No longer a biologist remains contented
with the non-living (abiotic) features of the simply with morphology – structure of cells,
environment, form an ecosystem. Within the tissues, organs, systems. Attention of biologists
ecosystem, an individual forms the smallest has shifted from organism level, i.e., the many
unit. A larger unit than ecosystem is the ways in which living things differ from one
landscape, which is a geographical unit with a another, to the molecular level, i.e., the way in
history. It shapes the features of the land and which they are similar. In fact, the analytical
organisms that inhabit it. The entire zone of air, techniques of physicists and chemists have
land and water at the surface of the earth that enabled us to analyse the living things
 UNDERSTANDING LIFE 23

Levels of Organisation Atoms are Nature’s Building Material

Size Science All living plants and animals and the non-living
Biosphere
substances, such as stones and rocks, are
formed of matter. Any material in the universe
Landscapes that has mass and occupies a space is defined
as matter. The building blocks of matter are
Ecosystems atoms. Atoms aggregate and constitute
elements. An element is a substance that
contains only one type of atom. There are more
Communities than 100 elements occurring in nature. Of these,
Ecology only 25 are essential to life. About 98 per cent of
the mass of every living organism, be that a
Populations
bacterium or a human being, is composed of
Conceptual just six elements, such as carbon (C), hydrogen
Species (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), phosphorous (P)
and sulphur (S). Other elements present in small
amounts in the living body are calcium (Ca),
Organisms Organismic
potassium (K), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg),
biology
iodine (I), etc. Such elements that are required
Organs by an organism in minute quantities are
Visible considered as trace elements. They are of
Tissues immense value as nutrients for the organisms.
For example, the element iodine is necessary for
Cell and
the vertebrates as an ingredient of a hormone
Cells molecular
produced by the thyroid gland. Plants need
biology
molybdenum for incorporation of nitrogen into
Microscopic Living biologically useful substances.
Non-living
Chemical Bonds are the Glue of Life
Organic
Molecules Atoms combine to form molecules. A molecule
Chemistry
may be defined as two or more atoms linked by
chemical bonds. A chemical bond is an attractive
Atoms
force that links two atoms to form a molecule.
Sub- When two atoms share a pair of valence electrons,
microscopic Subatomic Physics the bond is called covalent bond (Fig. 2.3). A bond
particles in which a single pair of electrons are shared
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.2 Various levels of organisation and the related
branches of science
H H H–H o o O=O
at the level far smaller than microscopic level.
H2 O2
Studies at the submicroscopic level have yielded (Hydrogen) (oxygen)
a few prominent points. These are:
(c) (d)
(i) The basic chemical organisations of living
things are complex but remarkably similar. H
H
(ii) The same materials and principles form the o H
–

O–H
H C H H–C–H
–

basis of both living and non-living things, H

–

that is, life is chemically based on the H H

universal physico-chemical laws and obeys H
H2O
them. CH4
(iii) Living matter lies in the biosphere interacts (water) (Methane)
with its surrounding non-living lithosphere, Fig. 2.3 Covalent bonds (a) single bond (b) and
hydrosphere and atmosphere. (c) double bond (d) multiple bond
 24 BIOLOGY

(e.g. H  H) is called a single bond. When two Hydrogen Bonds are of Great Advantage in
pairs of electrons are shared (O = O), the link is the Biological Systems
called double bond. A hydrogen bond is a weak bond; it has about
Water is a Polar Molecule one-tenth (10%) of the strength of a covalent
bond between a hydrogen atom and an oxygen
Molecules that exhibit charge separation are
atom. Weak hydrogen bonds are of great
called polar molecules because of their
advantage in the biological systems. The reason
magnetic poles. Water is a polar molecule. In the is that the contact between the molecules
water molecule, the oxygen atoms bear a partial becomes very brief. The molecules separate
negative charge (δ δ–) and each hydrogen atom a immediately after reacting with one another.
partial positive charge (δδ +) (Fig. 2.4a). In liquid Such advantage can be detected in the
water, the negatively charged oxygen atom of one transmission of chemical signals to the receptor
molecule of water is attracted to the positively molecules of brain. The signal molecules
charged hydrogen atom of another molecule of transmit the signal by using weak bonds. As a
water. The bond resulting from this attraction is result, they can separate much before the
called a hydrogen bond (Fig. 2.4b). Hydrogen initiation of response in the receiving cell. If there
bond is also formed when a positively charged is covalent bonding between the signal molecule
δ + ) hydrogen atom associates with one
(δ and the receptor molecule, the receiving cell will
δ –) oxygen atom and at the same
electronegative (δ continue to respond long after the transmitting
time becomes attracted to another cell stops sending message. Consider a situation
δ –) sodium atom.
electronegative (δ when you continue to hear a call long after the

(a)
δ+ δ+ H
+
δ–
Covalent bond
Hydrogen
8+ δ+ O
8n Oxygen O
Hydrogen H δ– H H
δ –
δ–
+
δ+

(b)
Oxygen atom

Hydrogen atom
Hydrogen bond
Unshared electron of
oxygen atom in water
molecule

An organic molecule

Water molecule

Fig. 2.4 (a) Molecular structure of water (b) Hydrogen bond in water molecule
 UNDERSTANDING LIFE 25

caller has stopped calling. Nevertheless, when tendency to join with another electron. Sodium
many hydrogen bonds are formed, they have atom can attain a stable condition, if the lone
considerable strength and greatly influence the free valence electron is lost to another atom
structure and properties of substances. In fact, whose valence shell is deficient in electron.
hydrogen bonding in water contributes to many In the event of loss of this electron, sodium
of the properties that make water significant for atom will be positively charged sodium ion
living systems. They also play significant role in (Na+). Chlorine atom has 17 electrons – 2 in
determining and maintaining the three- the inner energy level, 8 in the next level and
dimensional structure of giant molecules like 7 in the valence level. Again, this is an unstable
proteins and DNA. condition. The addition of another electron to
its valence level will make chlorine atom stable
Ions Form Bonds by Electrical Attraction
by transforming into a negatively charged
–
When one of the interacting atoms is much more chloride ion (Cl ). Since the electronegativity
electronegative than the other they cannot share of chlorine atom (3.1) is much higher than that
their valence electrons. In such cases, two atoms of sodium atom (0.9), any electrons involved
are held together by a complete transfer of one or in bonding will tend to be much nearer to the
more valence electrons from the more chlorine nucleus. Consequently, when placed
electronegative atom to the more electropositive together, metallic sodium and gaseous
one. The atoms become charged and transform chlorine react swiftly and explosively; sodium
into ions. Ions are electrically charged particles atom donates the free electron to chlorine
or atoms that form when atoms lose or gain one atom, forming sodium and chloride ions (Na +
or more electrons. The positively charged atom and Cl– ). These oppositely charged ions remain
is called cation and the negatively charged one associated in an ionic compound, sodium
anion. The bonds formed by electrical attractions chloride, which is electrically neutral, and
between ions bearing opposite charges (viz. results into an extended lattice (Fig. 2.5).
cation and anion) are designated as ionic bonds. Hence, no direct sodium chloride (NaCl)

Electrons donating electron

Nucleus
Sodium atom Chlorine atom Sodium ion Chloride ion
(a cation) (an anion)

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Fig. 2.5 Electron transfer and ionic bonding in sodium chloride

Common table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl), molecule is formed. The ions aggregate in a
is an important lattice of ions in which the matrix with a precise geometry to form crystal.
atoms are held together by electrical Such aggregations are called salt crystals.
attractions (ionic bonds). Sodium atom has 11 Sodium chloride is an important constituent
–
electrons — 2 in the inner energy level, 8 in of our blood. Na+ and Cl ions participate in
the next level and 1 in the valence level. The the transport of materials through cell
unpaired electron being unstable, has a strong membranes.
 26 BIOLOGY

Water Sustains Life OH groups of the sugar molecules. Actually, the

Water takes many forms (Fig. 2.6). Life on earth large number of hydrogen bonds, so formed, are
is totally dependent on water. Life originated in responsible for many of its properties. These
water and evolved there for about 3 billion years. include cohesion, high specific heat, and high
Organisms require water-rich environment for rate of vaporisation, good solvent for other polar
their growth and reproduction. About two-thirds molecules, storing of heat and maintenance of
relatively constant pH in the living systems.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.6 (a) & (b) Water crystals of snow and ice (c) Scantiness of water

of our body is formed of water. Between 70 per

cent and 90 per cent of living cells is water. All Hydration shells
the building blocks of life, the organic
molecules, including the monomers (amino
Cl-
acids, monosaccharides) and polymers
(polynucleotides, polysaccharides) accumulated –
+
and interacted in water in the primeval earth
conditions.
Why common salt and sugar dissolve in Na+
–
water? The polarity of water, as discussed
earlier, underlies its chemistry and the Water molecules Water molecules
chemistry of life. Being a polar molecule, water +
interacts with one another. Water is an effective
solvent because it is capable of forming
Fig. 2.7 Water molecules form hydration shells
hydrogen bonds. Water molecules gather closely
around a substance that bears an electrical Principal Inorganic Source of Carbon
charge. When placed in water, the electrical
attraction of water molecules disrupts the forces Carbon is the principal structural element of a
– living cell. Though carbon dioxide (CO2) contains
holding the Na+ and Cl ions in their crystal
matrix of NaCl. This results in the dissociation carbon (C), it is simpler than other organic
– compounds. It is generally considered inorganic
of the NaCl crystals into Na+ and Cl ions. Then
the water molecules form hydrogen bonds and is the principal inorganic source of carbon.
–
around individual Na+ and Cl ions and form a Our atmosphere contains only about 0.033 per
hydration shell around each ion (Fig. 2.7). cent carbon dioxide (CO2). Before it can take
Consequently, the ions cannot reassociate by part in a chemical reaction, CO2 needs to get
forming ionic bonds. dissolved in water. The thin aqueous films
The same explanation can be advanced as to covering almost every cell is sufficient to dissolve
why sucrose (table sugar) dissolves in water. CO2. The dissolved CO2 then reacts with water
Sucrose is composed of molecules that contain and forms carbonic acid. CO2 and H2O are the
slightly polar hydroxyl (OH) group. Water raw materials from which plants produce many
molecules form hydrogen bonds with individual complex essential organic compounds.
 UNDERSTANDING LIFE 27

Molecular Oxygen is Necessary for Life Macromolecules are traditionally grouped into
Molecular oxygen (O2) constitutes approximately four major categories: carbohydrates, lipids or
21 per cent of the atmosphere. It is essential fats, proteins and nucleic acids (Fig. 2.8).
for life and is utilised by most plants and Carbohydrates — the Main Energy Storage
animals in the process of extracting energy from Molecules
the nutrients. Oxygen serves as the ultimate
The simplest units of carbohydrates are the
acceptor of electrons. In its absence, the cells
monosaccharides, for example, Glucose (CH2O)6
exhibit only 5 per cent of their normal efficiency.
or C6H12O6. Two such monosaccharides may
Oxygen is weakly soluble in water. But the small
join by covalent bond and form ‘double sugars’
amount of dissolved oxygen is ample to meet the
or disaccharides (e.g. sucrose, a sugar; lactose,
needs of the aquatic organisms, provided the
water surface is exposed to air. Alternatively, a milk sugar). Simple sugars or monosaccharide
the water body must hold aquatic plants. In fact, subunits join together to form polysaccharides,
the green plants release oxygen during such as starch (the principal carbohydrate
photosynthesis. This oxygen is the source of all storage product of higher plants), cellulose (the
atmospheric molecular oxygen. major supporting material of plants), chitin (the
major structural component of insect
Building Blocks of Life exoskeleton and fungal cell walls) and glycogen
Oxygen, carbon dioxide and water are truly basic (the principal carbohydrate storage product of
to life, but the organisms also require many other animals). Carbohydrates contain either –CHO
compounds to capture, store, transport and or C = O bonds in which they store energy and
utilise energy to sustain life. Organic chemistry function as energy storage molecules. This
includes the reactions that are critical to life. energy is released when the bonds are broken.
Organic molecules may be small or large. Besides, carbohydrates make up the body of
They contain one or more functional groups — organisms and serve as carbon skeletons that
simple sugars or monosaccharides contain can be rearranged to form other molecules
hydroxyl (–OH) and CHO or C = O group. Large important for biological structures and
and complex assemblies of simple biological functions.
molecules are called macromolecules. For
example, linking of many simple ring-shaped Lipids — A Major Group of Insoluble
sugars or monosaccharides results in the Hydrocarbons having Many Functions
formation of polysaccharides. Similarly, several A simple form of lipids are hydrocarbons with a
amino acids form proteins; several nucleotides carboxyl (–COOH) group at one end. Being
produce polynucleotides (DNA and RNA). From nonpolar, such lipids are hydrophobic and
this, we can consider the macromolecules as insoluble or partly soluble in water. Lipids
polymers of small and simple molecules. dissolve in organic solvents like ether. Most lipids

Carbohydrate Lipid Protein Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid

Fig. 2.8 Biological macromolecules
 28 BIOLOGY

have an ionic group attached to the carboxyl end. The amino acid building blocks link together
The best example of lipids is the neutral fats, by covalent bonds called peptide bonds. These
called oils when liquid. A fat molecule is formed bonds form a chain of amino acid units which is
of fatty acids held together by a backbone of three called polypeptide chain. Protein molecules often
carbon atoms, each carrying a hydroxyl (–OH) consist of more than one polypeptide chain. The
group. Fats store energy and provide insulation, chains may be held together by weak hydrogen
cushioning and protection to the body. Lipids bonds (e.g. the protein haemoglobin), both
may also contain elements like phosphorous and hydrogen and covalent bonds (the protein
nitrogen. The membranes of cells are formed of hormone insulin).
modified lipids called phospholipids which Proteins perform many functions. They
contain one unit of glycerol, two units of fatty make up the main structural and functional
acids and a phosphate group (PO4) at one end, components of cells. About 50 per cent of the
often linked with a nitrogen-containing group. dry weight of living matter are proteins. Most
The phosphate group is polar and hydrophilic, organisms have between 1000 and 50,000
whereas the other end, being formed of two long proteins. Also they form structural elements
chains (hydrocarbon tails) of fatty acids, is like collagen (which forms matrix of bone cells,
nonpolar and hydrophobic. In water, the skin, etc.) and muscle proteins like actin and
nonpolar tails of phospholipids aggregate away myosin (which play the key role in muscle
from water, forming a lipid bilayer. This bilayer contraction). Biological catalyst or enzymes
is the basic framework of biological membranes. (e.g. hydrolytic enzymes, which cleave
Membranes often contain steroids. This is a polysaccharides), hormones (e.g. insulin,
type of lipid that contains four carbon rings. which controls blood sugar), immunoglobulins
The steroid cholesterol is present in most animal (e.g. antibodies, which mark foreign proteins
cell membranes. Other kinds of steroids are for elimination) and transporters (e.g.
hormones like testosterone and estrogens. haemoglobin, which transports oxygen and
Terpenes, component of many biological carbon dioxide in blood) are nothing but
pigments, (visual retinal pigment of animals), proteins.
are long chain lipids. Rubber is also a terpene.
Nucleic Acids : Information Storage Devices
Prostaglandins are formed of 20 carbons that
of Cells
are modified fatty acids. Prostaglandins act as
local chemical messenger in many vertebrate The nucleic acids are linear polymers of
tissues. repeating monomer subunits called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide is formed of a pentose sugar, a
Proteins : Structural and Functional Make phosphate group and a nitrogenous base (purine
Up of Cells or pyrimidine). The sugar is ribose in ribonucleic
All proteins are formed of subunits called amino acid (RNA) and deoxyribose (lacking one oxygen
acids. Only 20 different amino acids, which are atom) in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). There are
made primarily of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and four types of nitrogenous bases, two of purines,
nitrogen, are required for proteins. An amino adenine (A) and guanine (G) and two of
acid is a molecule containing amino (–NH2) pyrimidines, cytosine (C) and thymine (T) in DNA.
group, a carboxyl (–COOH) group and a In RNA thymine is replaced by uracil (U).
hydrogen (H) atom, all bonded together to a The sequence of nucleotides in a DNA
central carbon (C) atom. Besides, each amino molecule is constant for a species but varies
acid has a side chain or group. The side chains in different species. Usually, DNA molecules
may be simple (e.g. glycine) or complex (e.g. are formed of two polynucleotide chains
tryptophan). It is the chemical properties of the (double-stranded) that are held together by
side groups of amino acids that determine the weak hydrogen bonds between adjacent bases.
types and functions of proteins. If the side group The two chains are oriented in opposite
is polar or ionic, the amino acid is soluble in directions and are arranged side by side like a
water and if it is nonpolar at a pH 6.5 and 7 the ladder. The nitrogenous bases form the cross-
amino acid is insoluble in water. rungs of the ladder. The entire double-stranded
 UNDERSTANDING LIFE 29

structure becomes coiled spirally or helically reactions. Energy yielding chemical reactions
around central axis transforming into a double are known as exergonic reactions. On being
helix. Most RNA molecules consist of one initiated by activation energy such reactions take
polynucleotide chain (single- stranded). place spontaneously. A chemical reaction to
which a net input of free energy, from outside
2.3 THE ENERGY TRANSFER DEVICES OF source is needed for its initiation is called
LIFE endergonic reaction. An exergonic reaction has
Cellular activities such as growth, movement and an endergonic first step because, for two
active transport of ions across the cell membrane molecules to combine, they must come unusually
require energy. No cell manufactures energy but close and frequently one or more pre-existing
all organisms take in energy and transform it bonds must break.
into another kind to do many kinds of work. How Energy Flows
Green plants and bacteria take in solar energy
to produce their own chemical energy (food). In each step of the hierarchy of biological
organisation, chemical reactions play the
Animals obtain food from outside and break it to
intricate and key role by a constant flow of
obtain energy for performing the different
energy. All the daily activities, like running,
physiological functions. The potential for work
walking, moving, etc. require change in the form
is present where there is energy to be tapped. It
of energy. The Laws of Thermodynamics
can be weight of water stored behind a dam,
describe how energy changes. Thermodynamics
covalent bonds of glucose, an electron excited
is the study of energy transformations that
into a higher orbital by sunlight or tightly bound occurs in a collection of matter. According to the
nuclei of nuclear plants. First Law of Thermodynamics, the total
Energy is often Transferred with Electrons amount of energy in the universe is constant.
Energy can change from one form to another but
All atoms possess energy. It takes work to keep
it can never be created or destroyed.
the electrons in the orbital of an atom. Virtually,
If the energy needed to do work in a cell or a
all the energy for living organisms comes as
particular system is not already available
radiation in the form of photons from the sun
internally, it must be obtained from a source
and is captured by electrons. Organisms reap
outside the system, which thereby loses a
and use this energy to fuel all the processes of
corresponding amount of energy. When an
life. You have already learnt that during chemical
organism takes food it actually acquires energy
reactions electrons are transferred from one
by transferring some of the potential energy
atom to another. The loss of an electron is called
stored in the food to its own body. A green plant
oxidation, whereas the gain of an electron is
traps solar energy and converts it into high-
regarded as reduction. Reduction-oxidation
energy adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules.
(redox) reactions play key role in the flow of
This energy is converted to potential chemical
energy through biological systems.
energy in the form of carbohydrates (food
What is Enthalpy and Free Energy ? molecules).
In a biological system, the total energy, solar energy
including usable energy that can do work and 12H2O + 6CO2 → C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
unusable energy that is lost to disorder is called (sugar - energy rich compound)
enthalpy. The amount of usable energy that is
available for doing work when temperature and However, within a living system the
pressure are uniform throughout the system is potential chemical energy may be converted into
the free energy. It is ‘free’ because it is available other forms, such as kinetic energy (a measure
for work under certain conditions. for random motion of molecules) in the form of
The energy required to destabilise chemical light or electricity. During such conversions
bonds and to initiate a chemical reaction is some of the energy diffuses in the environment
called activation energy. Reactions that occur as heat. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
without outside intervention, release free energy explains why the total amount of free energy is
and can perform work, are called spontaneous declining in the universe as a whole. This
 30 BIOLOGY

law states that every transfer or transformation A closed system is one that does not exchange
of energy makes the universe disordered. In other matter and energy with its surroundings. For
words, no physical process or chemical reaction instance, a warm liquid is placed in a thermos
is 100 per cent efficient. Some energy is lost to flask or a bottle and the lids are tightened. Is it
associated disorder. Scientists use a quantity not the fact that the liquid has been isolated
called entropy as a measure of the disorder or from its surroundings ? The thermos flask more
randomness. Entropy of the universe increases or less represents a closed system. (Fig. 2.9b).
with every transfer or transformation of energy. There is no question of exchange of matter
The potential energy that the universe held after between the internal environment of the thermos
its origin some 10 to 20 billion years ago would flask and its surroundings. So far as energy is
never be available. Why this increasing entropy concerned, the liquid remains warm for
of the universe is less apparent? This is so considerable period of time, depending upon the
because the entropy takes the form of increasing efficiency of the thermos flask. During this
heat, which is the energy of random molecular period, the heat energy of the liquid is not
motion. released outside and it moves inside. This keeps
the liquid warm. Hence, thermos flask represents
Organisms are Open Systems
an example of closed system. There is no reason
If energy can never be destroyed (First Law of to believe that the first law of thermodynamics
Thermodynamics), what prevents the recycling does not apply to living organisms. In fact, it
of energy ? Answer to this question can be found applies to the universe as a whole or to any closed
in the Second law of Thermodynamics. The term system in the universe. It should be remembered
‘system’ denotes any part of the universe that an open system is only a part of a larger
containing specified matter and energy and closed system.
whose energy transformations are studied in
thermodynamics. The rest of the universe 2.4 METABOLISM IS THE TOTAL OF ALL
remains outside the system and is considered CHEMICAL REACTIONS
as surroundings. In an open system, such as Life on earth involves a never- ending flow of
living cells, matter and energy can be transferred energy within cells– from one cell to another,
between the system and the surroundings. The and from one organism to another. All living
very term ‘open’ refers to the fact that there is organisms need a continuous supply of energy
exchange of materials and energy between the and materials. Exchange of matter and energy
organisms and their surroundings. Organisms between an organism and its environment and
are open systems (Fig. 2.9a) because they the transformation of this matter and energy
interact continuously with their environment. within the organism is called metabolism.

(a) (b)

Raw materials Thermos flask

Plasma membrane enter
Waste materials
Nucleus
leave
Mitochondrion

Energy enters

Energy leaves
Fig 2.9 (a) Open System (b) Closed System
 UNDERSTANDING LIFE 31

In other words, metabolism is the total of all (Chlorophyll + Enzymes)

12H2 O + 6CO2 + Light energy   →
chemical reactions carried out by an organism
and arises from specific interactions between C 6 H12 O 6 6O 2 6H 2 O
molecules within the interior of cells. The (Glucose)
metabolic reactions of all cells are unusually
similar despite the enormous differences in the Anabolic pathways
(Photosynthesis)
cells and organisms.
In the reverse situation, reactions (e.g.
Enzymes Direct Metabolic Pathways photosynthesis) consume energy to make
A substance that speeds up a reaction but itself complex molecules, like glucose from simple
remains unchanged at the end of the reaction forms, like CO2 and H2O. This is called anabolic
is a catalyst. An inorganic catalyst like pathways or anabolism.
platinum is relatively unselective about the
Biochemical Pathways are highlyRegulated
reactions it helps. But the cells require specific
catalysts for specific reactions. For this reason, What will be the result if both anabolism and
cells have evolved an enormous variety of highly catabolism occur simultaneously? Apparently,
specialised organic catalysts, called enzymes. the net result can be guessed as to be a chemical
Organisms contain thousands of different chaos. The reason is very simple. A substance
kinds of enzymes that direct a variety of reactions. synthesised by anabolism would be immediately
Many of these reactions in a cell take place in broken down by catabolism. On the other hand,
sequences called biochemical pathways. Enzymes synthesis of an excess amount of compound in
guide the biochemical pathways along desired a biochemical pathway would result in the
directions. Most enzymes are globular protein unnecessary wastage of energy and raw
molecules with one or more pockets or clefts on materials. In effect, there is no such scope for
their surface called active sites. A particular either chemical chaos or wastage of energy and
enzyme generally interacts with only one type of raw materials to occur. Actually, operation of each
reactant or a pair of reactants called the substrate. metabolic pathway is tightly under the control
Substrates bind at the active sites of the enzymes of cell’s regulatory systems. Enzyme activity is
forming enzyme-substrate complex. For example, sensitive to the presence of specific substances
the enzyme sucrase will act only on sucrose to that bind to the enzymes. A substance that
produce glucose and fructose. It will not act on binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity is
other disaccharide, such as maltose. called an inhibitor; if it increases the activity of
an enzyme it becomes an activator.
Enzymes The regulation of simple biochemical
Substrate     → Product
pathways often depends on the allosteric site
Sucrase
Sucrose + H2 O   → Glucose + Fructose on the enzyme that catalyses the first reaction
in the pathway. An allosteric site is the part of
As a whole, metabolism is concerned with
an enzyme, away from its active site, that can
managing the material and energy resources
switch on/off the enzyme’s function. In the
of the cell. Some metabolic pathways release
metabolic pathways, the product of one
energy by breaking down complex molecules to
reaction may serve as the substrate for the next
simpler forms. These reactions harvest energy
reaction. Hence, enzymes ordinarily route
by breaking chemical bonds and are regarded
matter through the biochemical pathways by
as catabolic pathways or catabolism. In cellular
selectively accelerating each step. When
respiration, glucose (C6H12O6) and other organic
necessary, the final end product of one pathway
compounds are broken down to produce CO2
may become the allosteric inhibitor for the
and H2O and to release energy.
action of the first enzyme of that pathway. This
Enzymes
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2  → 6H2 O + 6CO2 + energy method of regulating mechanism is called
feedback mechanism (Fig. 2.10). Thus the
(Glucose)
Catabolic pathways regulation of simple biochemical pathways often
(Cellular respiration) depends on the feedback mechanism.
 32 BIOLOGY

Initial Initial
substrate substrate

Enzyme 1 End + Enzyme 1

product

Intermediate Intermediate
A A

Enzyme 2 Enzyme 2

Intermediate Intermediate
B B

Enzyme 3 Enzyme 3

End Product End Product

No feedback inhibition Feedback inhibition

Fig. 2.10 Biochemical pathways

2.5 HOMEOSTASIS – A FUNCTION OF carbon dioxide and water and ions of sodium,
REGULATORY SYSTEM calcium, hydrogen, etc. in the intercellular matrix
All organisms maintain relatively constant within narrow limits. The cells also respond to
internal conditions different from their signals, such as growth factors, hormones, etc.,
environment. For this, many organisms have in their immediate environment. In doing so they
regulatory mechanisms, which co-ordinate participate in regulating the body as a whole.
their internal functions, such as providing the Homeostasis is a fundamental property of life.
cells with nutrients, transporting substances It is considered to be a sign of good health. That
through the body. Others simply adjust to the is why the physicians commonly tell us to keep
environment by adopting the temperature, record of body temperature, test blood
salinity and other physical aspects of their composition and pressure and other measures
surroundings. In any case, maintenance of a of internal environment whenever we fall ill.
dynamic constancy of the internal environment
Thermoregulation
or steady state is termed as homeostasis.
Organisms are also capable of adjusting with In the living cells, thermal energy (heat) is
the fluctuation of their external environment. produced during exergonic reactions of
Similarly, cells of the multicellular organisms metabolism. The vast majority of vertebrates
have the ability to regulate their extracellular (fishes, amphibians, reptiles) and plants lose
fluid that bathes them. They can maintain most of their thermal energy to their
the concentrations of glucose, oxygen, environment. Such animals are called
 UNDERSTANDING LIFE 33

ectothermic. These organisms often depend on former set is stimulated by fall in temperature and
their environment for temperature regulation. the latter by the rise in temperature. Conversely,
Their skin may appear as either cold or warm, warming inhibits cold receptors and cooling
depending on the environment from which they inhibits warm receptors. The warm receptors are
have been taken for examination. If any of them located immediately below the epidermis (skin),
is picked up from a hibernaculum or caught while the cold receptors are located slightly deeper
beside a cold body of water, it is likely that the in the dermis. We have thermoreceptor also within
skin will be cold. This is the reason for calling the hypothalamus of our brain. These receptors
them as poikilothermous. Alternatively, if an monitor the temperature of the circulating blood
animal is examined during warm afternoon while and send the information of the body’s internal
it was basking in the sun, its skin will appear (core) temperature to the brain.
warm. Actually, these animals save energy for The thermoreceptors of the skin sense, say for
utilising in other functions like reproduction. example, any rise in external temperature caused
Mammals, birds and a few fishes (e.g., tuna fish by a perturbing factor like the sun, and send the
and sword fish), instead of losing thermal energy, message to the thermoreceptors of the
actually retain it for use. They have developed hypothalamus, which detect the change in the
insulating devices, such as fat, hair, feathers, etc., accompanying body temperature. The
for retardation of heat loss to the environment. hypothalamus now responds by activating the
They are endothermic. Their body temperature effector, that is, the sweat glands and the blood
remains relatively constant, which is usually vessels of the skin. As a result, release of sweat
higher than that of the environment. For this and dilation of the blood vessels are initiated, which
reason they are called homeothermous. Any cause cooling and diffusion of body temperature.
change in external temperature will not affect their In other words, the set point is defended by the
body temperature. When the ambient temperature hypothalamus. Since the regulation of temperature
is cold, superficial blood vessels constrict is by cooling the body, in this case, it is in the
(vasoconstriction) to divert the warm blood to deeper negative side or reverse direction. This type of
vessels. When the external temperature is warm, control system is called negative feedback loop
the superficial vessels dilate (vasodilation) so that (Fig. 2.11).
the warmth of the blood can be lost by radiation. When the perturbing factors of temperature are
snow or ice, the hypothalamus induces the blood
Homeothermy in Humans
vessels of our skin to constrict and skeletal
Being a mammal, we are endothermic and muscles to contract and we shiver. In that case,
homeothermic as well. To maintain the body the temperature is not lost due to radiation but
temperature, which is 37o C (98.6o F), we have raised due to blood going to deeper vessels. Thus,
sensors that detect the set point. This can be negative feedback loop keeps the body temperature
compared with the functioning of the thermostat of within a normal range.
a room air-conditioner machine. Usually, the
temperature of the thermostat is set at 21oC (70o F). 2.6 GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND
If the temperature of the room rises sufficiently REPRODUCTION
above the set point, a sensor present within the All organisms grow, develop and reproduce.
thermostat detects the change and activates the Increase in mass or overall size of a tissue or
effector of the machine. The air-conditioner then organism or its parts is called growth. Growth
reverses the deviation from the set point of the occurs due to synthesis of two different kinds of
thermostat. Finally, the room temperature is substances. These are protoplasmic substances,
controlled at the set point of the thermostat. such as cytoplasm and nucleus, and apoplasmic
Our skin contains two types of sensory neurons. substances, such as fibres of connective tissues,
They are sensitive to changes in the temperature matrix of bone marrow and cartilage. Apoplasmic
outside our bodies. They are termed as substances are those substances that are
thermoreceptors. Some of them are sensitive to produced by the cells and they form a constituent
cooler temperatures and are called cold receptors, part of the tissues. Secretions of cells like digestive
while the others are sensitive to warmer juices, sweat, etc. are removed from the cells and
temperatures and are called warm receptors. The organisms. As such these do not fall in the category
 34 BIOLOGY

Perturbing factor
Response

Body temperature Effector

drops
Sun

Blood vessels Glands release

dilate sweat

Stimulus

Body temperature
rises

Sensor Integrating
centre

Stimulus Effector

Body temperature
drops

Response Blood vessels Skeletal muscles

constrict contract

Body temperature
rises

Snow and ice

Perturbing factor Fig. 2.11 Negative feedback loop

of apoplasmic substances. Similarly, we take water The other two features that characterise
and food and our body mass increases. Such development are morphogenesis and differen-
increase in body mass cannot be considered as tiation. Morphogenesis produces new forms by
growth. involving cell movements. For example, a zygote
Growth is the result of metabolism, which involves transforms into blastula, a blastula into a
the transfer of energy. When the rate of anabolism gastrula and a gastrula into a miniature adult.
equals to that of catabolism, no increase in bulk of Differentiation results in increasing diversity
the cells or organism occurs. If the rate of the of cells. Some cells form nervous system, some
synthetic process or anabolism exceeds that of the others form heart and circulatory system and
destructive process or catabolism, growth occurs. so on. Cells of the nervous system are different
In the reverse situation, there will be degrowth. both in structure and function from those of
In general, growth involves three processes circulatory system. Attainment of such
or strategies. These are cell proliferation, cell structural and functional diversity is the main
enlargement and secretion of large amount of feature of differentiation.
extracellular matrix. Growth is one of the three Reproduction involves the production of
important characteristics of development. This progeny of the organisms. Reproduction is
is revealed by the fact that cell proliferation, necessary for the continuation of life and to
cell enlargement and secretion of extracellular compensate for the loss of life due to death.
materials occur during development of a zygote Organisms reproduce by asexual or sexual
into an embryo. means. In asexual reproduction the individuals
 UNDERSTANDING LIFE 35

undergo binary or multiple fission to produce

two or many offsprings. Sometimes a part of the
body can develop into an adult by
fragmentation or vegetative reproduction.
Sexual reproduction involves the formation of
specialised sex cells, called spermatozoa in
males and ova in females. All organisms pass
their hereditary materials to their offspring
during reproduction.
2.7 ADAPTATION
You might know that birds have wings, spiders
design web, night flowers are usually white and
emit scent, desert plants are either leafless or
have fleshy leaves and succulent or juicy stems
and so on. Usually, the beak of humming birds
is extremely narrow and elongated and they
suck nectar from flowers that are usually red
or yellow, nearly odourless and lack a landing
platform (Fig. 2.12). Fig. 2.13 An Orchid that assumes the shape of a
female fly to attract male flies

as flying insects, night flowers are so to attract

pollinators and desert plants are so for
conservation of moisture. Taking the example of
humming birds, we can explain that these birds
suck nectar from some flowers without landing
on them because there is no platform to land.
Humming birds can suck nectar while hovering
in front of flowers because of their extremely
narrow and elongated beak. Likewise, orchids
assume the shape of the females of certain bees
or flies and the male bees of that species
mistakenly attempt to copulate with orchid
flowers. However, in doing so, they transfer
pollens from flower to flower.
What you can conclude from the analysis of
Fig. 2.12 A humming bird hovering around scarlet gilla the above examples is that adaptation to the
environment is one of the most distinctive
You might see that some species of orchids features of living beings. Adaptation may be
resemble in shape, the colour and odour of defined as any characteristic of an organism,
the females of certain species of bees or flies which makes the organism better suited to its
(Fig. 2.13). environment. An organism is best adapted to a
Are these features of animals and plants given environment when it possesses inherited
without any significance ? What is the common features that enhance its survival and ability to
point that can bind all these different reproduce in that environment. Adaptation may
characteristics together ? Do they have any be structural, physiological or behavioural in
biological significance? A close examination and response to the environment. The mechanism
analysis of the characteristics of organisms of life processes, such as respiration, excretion,
would offer an explanation for linking the etc., vary from environment to environment.
different features. Birds use the wings for flight, These responses occur within the framework of
spiders design web for trapping their prey such natural selection acting over evolutionary time.
 36 BIOLOGY

2.8 DEATH the non living stones, rocks, etc. are formed of
Nothing goes on forever, including the capacity matter. They are cycled biologically. When
of a normal and well-nourished cell to keep organisms die, microorganisms decompose the
dividing. When a cell becomes senescent, it dead organisms. As a result, the elements of which
stops dividing but remains metabolically active the living bodies are constituted, such as C, H, N,
for a time so that it gradually degenerates. We O, Ca, K, P and S, are freed from their covalent
know that life is lost due to death and the bonds and return to the ecosystem. This is an
organism reproduces to compensate for this example of recycling of elements between living and
loss of life. In biology, death has a great non-living matter. Such recycling actually
significance. All living plants and animals and maintains the balance of matter in nature.

SUMMARY

Life is the property that distinguishes living from the non-living objects. Living
organisms are highly organised and complex entities formed of one or more cells, carry
out and control numerous chemical reactions. Biological organisation starts with
chemical organisation of life, passes through organism level and ends in ecosystems
and the biosphere. Atoms are the lowest unit at the molecular level, whereas the cells
are the smallest unit at organismal level. Atoms combine to form molecules, which
undergo chemical reactions to form organelles. Several organelles are contained in the
cell. A group of cells meant for a specific function constitute tissue. In the organisms
above the tissue level of organisation, many tissues become engaged to form organs,
several organs constitute a system and there are many systems to take up the life
process. Within the ecosystem, an individual forms the smallest unit. Individuals
form population. Populations of different species living in the same area make up a
biological community. The community interactions integrated with non-living (abiotic)
features of the environment form an ecosystem.
Chemical reactions are changes in the atomic composition or structural
organisation of the constituting atoms of substances. All chemical reactions involve
changes in the relationship of electrons with one another by shifting of atoms from
one molecule or ionic compound to another, Such shifting results in the formation or
breaking of chemical bonds but does not produce any change in the number or identity
of the atoms. Carbon is the principal structural element of a living cell. Though carbon
dioxide contains carbon, it is generally considered inorganic and is the principal
inorganic source of carbon. Before it can take part in a chemical reaction, CO2 needs
to get dissolved in water. Molecular oxygen (O 2) constitutes approximately 21per cent
of the atmosphere. It is essential for life and is utilised by most plants and animals in
the process of extracting energy from the nutrients. The green plants release oxygen
during photosynthesis, which is the source of all atmospheric molecular oxygen. Organic
molecules consisting of carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. Organic molecules
may be small and simple. Large and complex assemblies of simple biological molecules
are called macromolecules. The four important macromolecules are carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and the nucleic acids.
All proteins are formed of subunits called amino acids. Only 20 different amino
acids, which are made primarily of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, are required
for proteins. Proteins make up the main structural and functional components of
cells. They can also serve as biological catalysts or enzymes. Nucleic acids are long
polymers of repeating subunits called nucleotides. The nuleotides are formed of a
pentose sugar, a phosphate group and an nitrogenous base – purine or pyrimidine.
The sugar is ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA molecules. There are four types of
nitrogenous bases, two of purines - adenine and guanine, and two of pyrimidines -
cystosine and thymine.
UNDERSTANDING LIFE 37

Living systems have regulatory mechanisms for adjusting with the fluctuation of
their external environment. Many organisms maintain a balanced (steady-state)
internal environment by employing physiological and morphological or behavioural
mechanisms. Majority of vertebrates and plants lose most of their thermal energy to
their environments and are ectothermic and poikilothermous. Mammals, birds and a
few fishes are endothermic and homeothermous because they retain thermal energy
with the aid of thermoreceptors.
Growth occurs due to synthesis of protoplasmic and apoplasmic substances.
Organisms grow by cell proliferation, cell enlargement and secretion. It is the result of
a process called metabolism. Development involves growth, morphogenesis and
differentiation. Reproduction involves the production of copies of the organisms and
is necessary for the continuation of life and to compensate for the loss of life. Organisms
reproduce by asexual or sexual means and pass their hereditary materials to their
offspring. Adaptation is any characteristic of an organism, which makes it better suited
to its environment. Adaptation may be structural, physiological or behavioural. In
biology, death has a great significance. All living organisms and the non-living
substances are formed of matter. Living organisms are the biotic and the non-livings
are the abiotic features of the environment. When organisms die, microorganisms
decompose the dead materials and the elements are freed, returned to the ecosystem
and recycled. Such a recycling actually maintains the balance of matter in the nature.

EXERCISES

1. What are the basic characteristics that unify all living organisms?
2. Give a schematic representation of the levels of biological organisation and the related
branches of science.
3. Fill in the blanks
(i) ___________are the building blocks of matter and form the lowest biological unit.
(ii) The three subatomic particles relevant for life are _____________, _______________
and _______________.
(iii) Each proton has _____________ unit of positive charge and each electron has
____________ unit of negative charge, whereas a neutron has ____________ charge.
(iv) An _______________ is the smallest part of an element.
(v) Trace elements constitute ______________ percent of the organism’s body weight
and are of immense value as _______________ nutrients of the organisms.
(vi) The element iodine is necessary for the vertebrates as an ingredient of a hormone
produced by the _______________ gland.
(vii) Humans need a daily intake of only _______________ mg of iodine in the diet to
protect them from the disease called ___________.
(viii) Atoms combine by chemical bonding and form _______________.
(ix) Sodium chloride is an important lattice of _______________ in which the atoms
are held together by _______________bonds.
(x) Sodium and Chloride ions participate in the _______________of materials through
cell membranes.
(xi) A chemical reaction in which energy from outside source is needed for initiation
of chemical reaction is called _______________ reaction.
(xii) A chemical reaction that yields energy and does not require energy from outside
source is called _______________ reaction.
(xiii) Activation energy is the energy that is required to _______________chemical bonds.
38 BIOLOGY

4. Why weak chemical bonds are advantageous for the chemistry of life? Explain your
answer taking the common table salt as an example.
5. Explain feedback mechanism.
6. Describe the macromolecule that acts as the main energy source of cells.
7. Complete the following table.

Summary of the Major Classes of Macromolecules

__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Class Chemical Monomer Major Roles
Elements Subunits

1. _____________ C, H, O, N, P 2. _______________ 3. (a) _________________

(b) _________________

(a) Store energy

4. _____________ 5. ___________ 6. _______________ (b) Form biomem-
branes
(c) Hormones
Proteins 7. ___________ 8. _______________ 9. (a) _________________
(b) _________________
10. _____________ 11.___________ 12.______________ 13. _________________

8. How energy flows in the biological systems ?

9. What do you understand by ‘free’ energy ?
10. What is an open system? How does it differ from a closed system ?
11. What is metabolism? Mention the role of enzyme in metabolism.
12. Differentiate between anabolic and catabolic pathways. How are the two pathways
regulated ?
13. Define homeostasis. Briefly describe the two broad mechanisms of temperature regulation
in the different groups of vertebrates.
14. Explain the mechanism of feed back loop with special reference to homeothermy in
humans.
15. What is growth ? How growth is related to metabolism ?
16. What are the three important characteristics of development? Discuss the
interrelationship between growth, development and reproduction in the maintenance
of life.
17. Define adaptation. Explain the phenomenon with a suitable example.
18. What is death? Mention the biological significance of death.