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AP® English Language and Composition Study Guide
The Rhetorical Situation

WHAT IS RHETORIC?

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Rhetoric is “

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Analyzing Rhetoric

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What is the context of the interaction,
formal or informal, global or private, etc.?

What the occasion is

MAIN IDEA, PURPOSE, AND TONE

Whether analyzing a multiple-choice
passage or a free response question,
there are three general characteristics
that you must examine.
Main Idea
• Refers to the content of the passage.
Rhetorical Appeals • Answers the question “What is this
passage about?”
Purpose
• Related to Main Idea, but not the same.
• Answers the question “What does the
APPEAL TO AUTHORITY APPEAL TO EMOTION APPEAL TO LOGIC
speaker hope to accomplish through
the main idea?”
Tone
can present details or supplying any of the • Refers to the author’s attitude about
their audience feel any their subject.
• Facts • As you read through the passage,
• Statistics or data circle any extreme words, and look for
images and associations and consider
• Moral character • Sympathy how the collection of tone words affect
• Rational and logical the audience. How would that effect
• Credentials • Sadness
argument help the speaker achieve his purpose?
• Accolades • Anger
• Joy When writing a rhetorical analysis, it
• Pride is important to address how a writer’s
• Fear rhetorical choices affect the audience
by appealing to one of these six
universal topics:
Writing the Analysis • Moral
Inadequate: • Spiritual
• Political
• Social
audience trust him • Psychological
• Historical

Adequate Justification: In the first example, the

student states that Lincoln “uses ethos.”
This is a common mistake—a speaker
cannot “use” ethos (or logos or pathos
for that matter); however, a speaker
Sophisticated: will make a choice that establishes
credibility with the audience. While
the adequate paragraph is “technically
correct,” it lacks an explanation of
how Lincoln’s words would induce
the audience to move forward. A
sophisticated writer analyzes how a
rhetorical choice creates a logical or
emotional impact on an audience and
https://secure-media.collegeboard.org/apc/eng_lang_frq_02_10330.pdf
examines what sort of assumptions
a writer made about his audience to
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AP® English Language and Composition Study Guide
Diction

DICTION Why Diction Matters

Writers carefully consider which
Understanding diction is essential to doing well in AP® English Language. Sure, words to use to best accomplish their
diction in the literal sense may simply be the “distinctive vocabulary choices and rhetorical goals.
style of expression” an author/speaker uses. But truthfully, there are layers and
stages to what diction is and how good writers use it. Consider the evolution of the following
sentence:
• The stone looked like it could roll
elevated or informal and casual, make it strong or weak, and diction can even down the hill.
• The rock was about to crash down the
intelligently about the author’s use of diction, you can own this test! mountain.
• The boulder was destined to come
crashing down the cliff.
Denotation and Connotation The sentence starts out without a lot
Every word has two kinds of meaning: of excitement, but it gets progressively
more dramatic with each version.
• Denotation Each sentence conveys more or less
• Connotation is the feeling a word conveys. the same idea, but each one fulfills a
different rhetorical purpose.
Consider these two versions of another sentence:
• Angry students protest dress code policies. HOW TO TALK ABOUT DICTION:
• Outraged students riot against dress code policies. In the free-response section of the
test, it isn’t enough to just bring
diction up; you have to be specific
connotations
about it. First give a description of the
of the bolded words: “angry” and “outraged” have the same denotation: they
type of language the author uses—
both mean something like “mad.” But “angry” students sound like they could be is it objective? Subjective? Literal?
calmed down, while “outraged” students must have their concerns addressed. Abstract? Then be sure to explain why
What about “protest” versus “riot”? Do they have the same denotation? What an author has used particular words
about their connotations? and how those words helped achieve a
specific purpose.

HOW WRITERS MANIPULATE DICTION

Adjectives for Describing Diction
Qualifying Language Imagery high or low or neutral
Authors can manipulate the degree Here are some words used to describe formal informal
of doubt or certainty of something by Rome in a passage from The Decline precise exact concrete
using qualifying words. by
abstract plain simple
Edward Gibbon:
• The following words indicate a
homespun esoteric learned
lack of certainty: • swelled, ripened, decay
could, may, might, perhaps, cultured literal
The words describe the decline and
hope, sometimes connotative symbolic picturesque
fall of the Roman Empire in a way that
• Using more absolute language makes it sound like an overripe fruit. sensuous literary provincial
indicates more certainty: What if those words were changed to colloquial slang idiomatic
less image-laden ones?
neologistic inexact euphemistic
• An author can also indicate • grew, matured, decline
trite obscure pedantic
criticism by using works like the These words would give a less bombastic grotesque vulgar
following: nuanced, less dramatic description.
predictable, dubious, jargon emotional obtuse
fantastical, unexceptional moralistic ordinary scholarly
insipid proper pretentious
old-fashioned

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AP® English Language and Composition Study Guide
Analyzing Sojourner Truth’s “Ain’t I a Woman?”

Context:
Truth is speaking at a Women’s Convention, so we can assume her audience is Who was Sojourner Truth?
likely to be sympathetic to her message about Women’s Rights and interested in
her personal story. Crucially, the speech is situated in the North in 1861 before
the Civil War.

Audience:
An audience includes all the people who will listen to a speech or read a text (i.e.,
the primary audience) and the wider public who will read a copy of the speech
in the future (i.e., the secondary audience). Based on the what you know about
Sojourner Truth and the context of the speech, you can make assumptions about
the audience based on the following questions.
— What conclusions can you draw based on the contextual
informational?
— Based on the religious appeals that Truth uses in her speech, what
can we assume about her audience?
— What other ideas, beliefs, values, or needs of the audience are Sojourner Truth was an important ac-
revealed through Truth’s speech? tivist for African-American and Wom-
en’s Rights in the nineteenth century.
She was born around 1797 in Swartekill,
Purpose: New York and was sold off at least four
As stated in the prompt, Truth’s purpose was to relay a message about women’s separate times in her childhood and
rights to her audience. Consider the following to help you further understand her early adulthood.
purpose.
In her early childhood, she was owned
— What is Truth saying about women’s rights? Do they need more or by a Dutch family and spoke only
less? Who is going to give them these rights? Dutch. Her experience as a slave was
filled with physical abuse, rape, and
— When abolitionists spoke about slavery, who did they primarily
violence. Her fourth slavemaster beat
speak for: slave men or slave women?
her first husband to death. She adopt-
— When women’s rights activists spoke out, who were they advocating ed the name “Sojourner Truth” in 1843,
for, white women or African-American women? claiming that God had called her to
preach in the countryside. She sup-
In this passage, Truth’s purpose is quite clear: she is advocating for the rights of ported the Union Army during the Civil
African-American women, a group that was often overlooked in discussions of War and challenged existing laws that
civil rights. treated African-Americans as property.
Since her death in 1881, Sojourner Truth
Exigence: has been considered one of the most
Truth’s motivation or exigence concluded from her message. Women are strong, important voices for civil rights in
capable, and deserving of the same rights as men. To prompt this analysis, American history.
consider the following:
— What have you learned about Truth through the lesson that would

What is Exigence?
— What assumptions do her and the audience have to agree on in
order to accomplish her purpose? “Exigence” is the motivation behind the
speaker’s purpose. It is often unsaid,
— What universal truth is she discussing? which makes it challenging for students
to discuss, but it is an important
differentiator among essay scores
SUMMARY because it allows for richer and deeper
commentary. In order to analyze the
Because many in the North supported the abolition of slavery, Truth was able to exigence, the you must first understand
speak candidly about the hardships she encountered and her desire for equal how the context, audience, and purpose
rights for slaves and women. connect to the speaker.

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AP® English Language and Composition Study Guide
Analyzing Sojourner Truth’s “Ain’t I a Woman”

Passage and Commentary:

Passage Commentary
1 She isn’t condescending to her audience
Well, children, where there is so much racket there 1 by calling them “children.” She is actually
must be something out of kilter. I think that ‘twixt
to her audience on a personal level.
the negroes of the South and the women at the North,
Line 2 2 What she does here is both funny and
5 pretty soon. But what’s all this here talking about? ingenious. She is an African-American
woman from the South, speaking to
That man over there says that women need to be 3 white women in the North, about denied
helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to rights for both groups of women. Despite
have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me 4
into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any two groups together by a goal both can
understand—all of us women are talking
10 best place! And ain’t I a woman? Look at me! Look . She points out their common
at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered opponent: white men, who, she predicts
into barns, and no man could head me! And ain’t I a —and it sounds
woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a like it’ll be at the hands of these women
who talk about their rights. By uniting her
man—when I could get it—and bear the lash as well! audience through a common enemy, she
15 And ain’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, sets up a call to action.
and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried
3 From the text, we can’t tell who the man
out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! is, but we can imagine her pointing at him
And ain’t I a woman? or gesturing toward him. Whoever he was,
Then they talk about this thing in the head; what’s she didn’t bother to name him—he is only
20 this they call it? [member of audience whispers, that man over there. We can guess he’s the
kind of white man she was just talking
“intellect”] That’s it, honey. What’s that got to do with about. Additionally, like many slave owners
women’s rights or negroes’ rights? If my cup won’t who stripped away the slave’s name as a
hold but a pint, and yours holds a quart, wouldn’t you form of identity, she has stripped away the
be mean not to let me have my little half measure full? white man’s identity and power. Truth’s
25 Then that little man in black there, he says women a picture of the “helpless” women, while
can’t have as much rights as men, ‘cause Christ wasn’t in all reality her audience members were
a woman! Where did your Christ come from? Where fully capable of accomplishing these tasks.
did your Christ come from? From God and a woman! 4 Truth accepts the man’s argument but
Man had nothing to do with Him. shows how it doesn’t apply at all to her own
30 experience. Women may deserve respect
enough to turn the world upside down all alone, these and may expect gentlemanly behavior,
but these niceties are not extended to her
women together ought to be able to turn it back, and get personally. Not only does Truth highlight
it right side up again! And now they is asking to do it, the “injustices” she is faced with, but she
the men better let them. again sets up her main point—women can
35 Obliged to you for hearing me, and now old do hard things. She has done them.
Sojourner ain’t got nothing more to say.

Notes:

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AP® English Language and Composition Study Guide
Analyzing Sojourner Truth’s “Ain’t I a Woman”

Passage Commentary
5 She asks an obvious and daring question:
Well, children, where there is so much racket there “Ain’t I a woman?” Of course she is a
must be something out of kilter. I think that ‘twixt woman. There is only one way to answer
that question, and that’s what makes it
the negroes of the South and the women at the North,
Line audience to nod their heads along with
5 pretty soon. But what’s all this here talking about? hers.
That man over there says that women need to be 6 Here she shifts to direct commands to
helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to her audience: Look at me! Look at my arm!
have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me She is presenting her body as physical
into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any evidence to her hard, toilsome labor.
10 best place! And ain’t I a woman? Look at me! Look 5 6
7 Truth also appeals to her own credibility—
at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered 7 her ethos—by citing her personal
into barns, and no man could head me! And ain’t I a experience. She could also be extending
her criticism towards that man over
woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a 8
there. For all of his careful duty toward
man—when I could get it—and bear the lash as well! women, we can tell that he views them as
15 And ain’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, 9 fragile and in need of male help. But not
and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried Sojourner Truth: she doesn’t need a man
to open the door for her. She is not that
out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! man’s stereotypical caricature of a woman.
And ain’t I a woman? She’s stronger than any man and yet she
Then they talk about this thing in the head; what’s asks Ain’t I a Woman? Shouldn’t she get to
20 this they call it? [member of audience whispers, enjoy those same acts of chivalry shown to
her white peers?
“intellect”] That’s it, honey. What’s that got to do with
women’s rights or negroes’ rights? If my cup won’t 8 She is not just comparing herself to
hold but a pint, and yours holds a quart, wouldn’t you men at this point, she is developing an
autobiography of an African-American
be mean not to let me have my little half measure full? woman in bondage: her food came when
25 Then that little man in black there, he says women . She had to bear the lash.
can’t have as much rights as men, ‘cause Christ wasn’t
a woman! Where did your Christ come from? Where 9 This is the climax of her brief story and
did your Christ come from? From God and a woman! the most important of her credentials as
Man had nothing to do with Him. a woman. She is a mother. She not only
30 ensures her credibility here—her ethos—
enough to turn the world upside down all alone, these audience on a deeply emotional level—an
women together ought to be able to turn it back, and get appeal to . Her thirteen children.
it right side up again! And now they is asking to do it,
the men better let them. slavery. Truth did all that a mother, an
enslaved mother, could do.
35 Obliged to you for hearing me, and now old
Sojourner ain’t got nothing more to say.

Notes:

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AP® English Language and Composition Study Guide
Analyzing Sojourner Truth’s “Ain’t I a Woman”

Passage Commentary
10 To the women in her audience—decent,
Well, children, where there is so much racket there upstanding members of society, the
must be something out of kilter. I think that ‘twixt vast majority of whom were wives and
mothers—this is the most personal and
the negroes of the South and the women at the North, emotional appeal she could possibly
Line make. She continues to connect with her
5 pretty soon. But what’s all this here talking about? audience. While some of her listeners may
That man over there says that women need to be not be able to relate to or identify with her
strength, they may be able to connect to
helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to her as mother.
have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me
into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any 11 The majority of the women in the
audience would identify themselves as
10 best place! And ain’t I a woman? Look at me! Look Christians, which explains why saying
at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered would leave such
into barns, and no man could head me! And ain’t I a a powerful impact. Not only did she have
woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a thirteen children and have to watch them
man—when I could get it—and bear the lash as well! only having the freedom to grieve bitterly
15 And ain’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, for them, but she also had to do it alone.
and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried 10 No one would have the decency to come
out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! 11 beside her and help her through each
of her thirteen tragedies. Only Jesus,
And ain’t I a woman? 12
whom Sojourner and these women both
Then they talk about this thing in the head; what’s 13 worshipped, would hear both the cry of an
20 this they call it? [member of audience whispers, enslaved woman and a free white woman
“intellect”] That’s it, honey. What’s that got to do with and hold them in the same regard.
women’s rights or negroes’ rights? If my cup won’t 14 12 This is the fourth And ain’t I a woman? Yes,
hold but a pint, and yours holds a quart, wouldn’t you she is a woman, and it seems as if she’s
be mean not to let me have my little half measure full? more of a woman than anyone else. Her
repetition of the question continues to
25 Then that little man in black there, he says women draw her audience in, to remind these
can’t have as much rights as men, ‘cause Christ wasn’t women of their own strength in the face
a woman! Where did your Christ come from? Where of adversity.
did your Christ come from? From God and a woman! 13 Here again is one of her favorite rhetorical
Man had nothing to do with Him. devices, the rhetorical question, being
30
enough to turn the world upside down all alone, these to transition to her next argument and
women together ought to be able to turn it back, and get audience member—honey—on her way to
it right side up again! And now they is asking to do it, enriching her case. This could also serve
the men better let them. as a counter argument and refutation.
35 Obliged to you for hearing me, and now old She is a smart woman, and she is aware
of the arguments that men make against
Sojourner ain’t got nothing more to say. women’s rights.

14 Here she concedes that even though she

has less formal education and less intellect
than her audience, she is still deserving of
rights. (Wouldn’t it be mean, indeed.)

Notes:

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AP® English Language and Composition Study Guide
Analyzing Sojourner Truth’s “Ain’t I a Woman”

Passage Commentary
15 She moves on from children and honey
Well, children, where there is so much racket there towards that little man in black there,
must be something out of kilter. I think that ‘twixt who has apparently made the mistake of
arguing that
the negroes of the South and the women at the North,
Line The man is wearing black and it’s relevant
5 pretty soon. But what’s all this here talking about? enough for her to mention, so we can
That man over there says that women need to be safely guess that he is a priest or minister.
Again, Truth does not give this man a
helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to name. She strips away the humanity
have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me that he may have in order to serve her
into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any purpose—keeping the audience focused
10 best place! And ain’t I a woman? Look at me! Look on women’s power and women’s rights.
at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered 16 She opposes his theological argument by
into barns, and no man could head me! And ain’t I a asking,
woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a (Twice.) Truth makes her argument more
powerful, more insistent by repeating
man—when I could get it—and bear the lash as well! herself. She calls this man’s teaching out
15 And ain’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, by referencing Christian belief: Jesus was
and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried born of a virgin and his father was God
out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! himself. No man necessary! Sojourner
Truth doesn’t just best men in physical
And ain’t I a woman? challenges, she schools them in theology
Then they talk about this thing in the head; what’s too! This appeal to reason gives her
20 this they call it? [member of audience whispers,
“intellect”] That’s it, honey. What’s that got to do with
thought a woman was strong enough to
women’s rights or negroes’ rights? If my cup won’t carry Christ, He certainly believes they are
hold but a pint, and yours holds a quart, wouldn’t you strong enough to think for themselves.
be mean not to let me have my little half measure full?
17 This is a clever, brilliant argument. She
25 Then that little man in black there, he says women 15
accepts the premise that Eve caused the
can’t have as much rights as men, ‘cause Christ wasn’t downfall of mankind, but then uses that
a woman! Where did your Christ come from? Where 16 premise to reach the opposite conclusion
did your Christ come from? From God and a woman! of the little man in black over there. If
women caused the fall, they must be the
Man had nothing to do with Him.
30 17
enough to turn the world upside down all alone, these 18 This assertive statement makes her
purpose clear—men can no longer
women together ought to be able to turn it back, and get subjugate women. This call to action
it right side up again! And now they is asking to do it, unites her audience once more through
the men better let them. 18

35 Obliged to you for hearing me, and now old 19 make the world a better place.
Sojourner ain’t got nothing more to say. 19 In spite of the force and power of her

polite and gracious way by acknowledging

and thanking her audience. She ends her
message in a gracious manner to illustrate
that a woman can be strong and assertive,
while still being gracious to her audience.

Notes:

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AP® English Language and Composition Study Guide
The Analysis Essay

Like the Synthesis essay, the Analysis essay has reading that you have to respond
to. What makes the Analysis essay distinct is that there’s only one essay, which

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will be about a page long, and there’s no separate “reading time” for this one.

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What Does “Analysis” Mean?

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Read the instructions in the prompt carefully. They will say something like “write

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an essay in which you analyze the rhetorical strategies [the author] uses to

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convey his message.” To analyze means to explain how or why the author makes

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What is the context of the interaction,

particular rhetorical choices, not just to list them or summarize the passage. formal or informal, global or private, etc.?

What the occasion is

How to Analyze Common Rhetorical Choices:

The following gives a guideline for how much time to spend on each of the Rhetorical speakers will often
following steps, but these are not set in stone. As you practice, you can manipulate their audience with one or
experiment with whether you’ll do better with a little more time for reading, a more of the choices below. As you read
little more time for planning, exactly the suggested times, or something else. the text, look for the evidence of the
following:
Structure:
1. Read—10 minutes
You have to read both the prompt (read it twice, to be sure you understand it) • Juxtaposition literally means to place
and the passage carefully. As you read the passage, think about the following two things side by side. Authors
points: uses juxtaposition to discuss two
contrasting or opposing ideas.
1. Identify the relationship between the speaker, subject, and audience—often,
• Parallelism is about expressing similar
much of this information can be found in the prompt of a Q2 essay.
ideas in similar grammatical or
2. As you read the passage, chunk by primary points. This can be determined syntactic structures.
by asking yourself: “What is the author pointing out to the audience?” There • Repetition involves repeating the
may be one primary point for several paragraphs. same words or phrases a few times to
3. Take note of textual evidence that appeals ethically, logically, or emotionally make an idea clearer.
to the audience or strengthens the speaker’s credibility. Figurative Language:
4. Examine the speaker’s purpose for writing the passage. Consider which • An allusion is a brief reference to
primary points best support his/her purpose. a famous person, group, historical
event, place, or work of art.
• Irony is a figure of speech in which
2. Plan—2 minutes words are used in such a way that
Before you can start writing, you need to know what you’re going to write. their intended meaning is different
Consider the following points to determine what you’ll write about in your essay: from the actual meaning of the
• Be sure you know what the argument is. words.
• Choose the rhetorical choices you noted while you were • Imagery means to use figurative
reading. You likely won’t have time to discuss all of them, so make sure the language to represent objects,
actions, and ideas in such a way that it
• Make a basic outline with a thesis and the idea for each paragraph. appeals to our physical senses.

3. Write—33 minutes Diction:

Monitor the time you spend writing, as the proctor won’t tell you when to move Often, an author will develop a specific
on to the next essay. For maximum success, follow these guidelines: tone throughout a passage, and this
is accomplished using specific types
• Write as fast as you can while still keeping your handwriting legible.
of diction the author chooses. Ask
• You do want to make clear that you understand what the argument is about, yourself, how would you describe the
but don’t spend too much time summarizing or quoting the passage: the word choice? What is the impact of
graders are familiar with it. such word choice?
• Remember to focus on the why and the how of the rhetorical devices:
Why did the author make that particular choice? Syntax:
How does each choice help the author accomplish a particular goal? Additionally, an author will manipulate
the sentence structure to impact the
audience. If an author incorporates
several long or run-on sentences, they
might mirror an extended period of
mistreatment that the audience has
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