Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

Chapter 1

Introduction to Computer Networks

1. Data Communication
When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance.

1.1. Components
A data communications system has five components.

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may
be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

1.2. Data Representation

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and
video.
 Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s
or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each
set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the
prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or
character used in any language in the world.
 Numbers: Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as
ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary
number to simplify mathematical operations.
 Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is
composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The
size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For example, an image can be divided into
1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case, there is a better representation of the
image (better resolution), but more memory is needed to store the image. After an image
is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the
pattern depend on the image. For an image made of only black-and- white dots (e.g., a
chessboard), a 1-bit pattern is enough to represent a pixel. If an image is not made of
pure white and pure black pixels, you can increase the size of the bit pattern to include
gray scale. For example, to show four levels of gray scale, you can use 2-bit patterns. A
black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray pixel by 10,
and a white pixel by 11. There are several methods to represent color images. One
method is called RGB, so called because each color is made of a combination of three
primary colors: red, green, and blue. The intensity of each color is measured, and a bit
pattern is assigned to it. Another method is called YCM, in which a color is made of a
combination of three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
 Audio: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by
nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when
we use a microphone to change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a
continuous signal.
 Video: Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can
either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a
combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
Again we can change video to a digital or an analog signal.
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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

1.3. Data Flow

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. It refers
to the direction in which data moves between two devices.
 Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.

 Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not
at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication
in both directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for
each direction. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex
systems.

 Full-Duplex: In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive

simultaneously. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of
the link: with signals going in the other direction. One common example of full-duplex
communication is the telephone network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

2. NETWORKS
2.1. Computer Network
A computer network is an interconnection among two or more computers or computing
devices. Such interconnection allows computers to share data and resources among each
other.

A sample network diagram

 Notes:
- In a communication network, each device that is a part of a network and that can
receive, create, store or send data to different network routes is called a node.
- A special computer which provides services to other computer/devices in a network
is called server.
- A computer/device connected in a network sending request to server is called client.
2.2. Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these
are performance, reliability, and security.
A) Performance
The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the
efficiency of the software.
 Parameters for Measuring Network Performance
 Bandwidth: The maximum amount of data that can be transmitted over a network in a
given amount of time, typically measured in bits per second (bps).
 Throughput: Throughput is measured by tabulating the amount of data transferred
between multiple locations during a specific period of time, usually resulting in the unit
of bits per second (bps).

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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

While bandwidth lets you set the theoretical limit of data transfer, throughput measures
the actual amount of data packets successfully sent to the destination via the network.
 Latency: In a network, during the process of data communication, latency (also known as
delay) is defined as the total time taken for a complete message to arrive at the
destination, starting with the time when the first bit of the message is sent out from the
source and ending with the time when the last bit of the message is delivered at the
destination. Latency is measured in milliseconds (ms).
Latency = Propagation Time + Transmission Time + Queuing Time + Processing Delay
 Propagation Time: It is the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination. For example, for an electric signal, propagation time is the time taken for the
signal to travel through a wire.
Propagation time = Distance / Propagation speed
 Transmission Time: Transmission Time is a time based on how long it takes to send the
signal down the transmission line.
Transmission time = Message size / Bandwidth
 Queuing Time: Time a packet spends waiting in queues.
 Processing Delay: Time for a router or switch to process the packet.
 Jitter: The variation in packet delay over time. It is critical for real-time applications like
voice and video streaming.
B) Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a
catastrophe.
C) Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data
from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery
from breaches and data losses.
2.3. Advantages of Computer Network
 Resource Sharing: Data, Hardware resources (Modem, Hard Disk, DVD Drive, Scanner,
etc.) and Software resources (Application Software, Anti-Virus tools, etc.) can be easily
shared on computer networks by connecting these devices to one computer (server).
 Cost saving: Sharing of resources in computer networking leads to cost saving.

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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

 Improved Communication: A computer network enables fast, reliable and easy

communication among its users. We can easily communicate with anyone through email,
video conferencing or chatting through networking.
 Time saving: It takes negligible time to send and receive messages, audio, video and
images on a computer network. We can easily watch live videos and can talk live to
anyone sitting in some other corner of the world on the computer network. This leads to
time saving.
 Increased storage: On a computer network, same data is replicated on multiple computers
to ensure the availability of data in case of some computer getting faulty. Mostly the data is
kept on servers and is shared with legitimate users. This ensures data security and
reliability.

2.4. Physical Structures

2.4.1. Type of Connection
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
 Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices. When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.
 Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity
of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the
link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.

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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

2.4.2. Physical Topology

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. The
topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links
and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies
possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
A) Mesh topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.

 Mesh topology advantages

- It offers highest reliability, privacy and security. Every message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it.
- Traffic problems are eliminated. because there is a dedicated link between any two
devices which guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load.
- Mesh topology is robust because the network does not crash if one link becomes
unusable.
- Fault identification and fault isolation is easy. This enables the network manager to
discover the precise location of fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.
 Mesh topology disadvantages
- Main disadvantage is the amount of cabling required to interconnect the devices and the
number of I/O ports needed at each device.
- Installation of new devices and reconnection is difficult.
- Mesh topology is expensive due to large number of hardware requirement (cables/ports).

B) Bus Topology
In a bus topology, one long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection
running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into
the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic
core.

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 Bus topology advantages

- Easy to install.
- Main cable can be laid out to attach new node when required.
- Less cabling required as compare to mesh.
 Bus topology disadvantages
- As the signal travels along the backbone, it becomes weaker. Hence there is limit on the
number of devices that a bus can support.
- It is difficult to identify and isolate fault (determine cause of a problem).
- Signal reflection/loss of signal at taps cause degradation in quality of the signal.
- A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.

C) Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star
topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange:
If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then
relays the data to the other connected device.

 Star topology advantages

- Since each device requires only one link to the controller, it is less expensive than mesh
topologie.
- Easy to install and reconfigure.
- It is robust because even if one link fails, the other remain active.
- Fault identification and isolation is easy.
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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

 Star topology disadvantages

- Performance of network depends entirely on the hub. If the hub fails entire network stops.
- Speed of communication depends upon number of devices connected to the hub.
- Cabling cost is more than some other topologies since cables must be pulled from all
computers to the central hub.

D) Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits
and passes them along.

 Ring topology Advantages

- Since each device is linked only to its immediate neighbors, the ring network is easy to
install or reconfigure.
- Fault isolation is easy since the faulty device can be bypassed by altering the
connections.
- Only one device can send data at a time. The device which wants to send data must
capture a special frame called token.
 Ring topology disadvantages
- A break in the ring (such as disabled station) can disable the entire network.
- The major constraint is the maximum ring length and the number of devices
connected.
- Since the traffic is unidirectional, data transfer is slow.
- Failure of one computer on the ring can affect the whole network.
E) Hybrid Topology
A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology.
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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

2.5. Network Devices

Other than the transmission media many other devices are required to form computer
networks. Some of these devices are:
 NIC (Network Interface Card):An NIC (Network Interface Card) is a device that enables
a computer to connect to a network and communicate. Any computer which has to be a part
of a computer network must have an NIC installed in it.

 MODEM: A modem (Modulator - Demodulator) is a peripheral device that enables a

computer to transmit data over, telephone or cable lines. It converts the digital data from the
sender computer into analog form to be able to send it over telephone lines. At the receiving
end modem converts the data from analog form to digital form and stores into receiving
computer.
 HUB: A Hub is an electronic device that connects several nodes to form a network and
redirects the received information to all the connected nodes in broadcast mode. The
computer(s) for which the information is intended receive(s) this information and accept(s)
it. Other computers on the network simply reject this information.

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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

 SWITCH: A Switch is an intelligent device that connects several nodes to form a network
and redirects the received information only to the intended node(s).
The difference between the switch and the hub is that Hub broadcasts the received
information to all the nodes. Switch does not broadcast instead sends the information
selectively only to those computers for which it is intended. This makes a switch more
efficient than a hub.

 Repeater: A Repeater is a device that is used to regenerate a signal which is on its way
through a communication channel. A repeater regenerates the received signal and
retransmits it to its destination.
 Gateway: A Gateway is a device, which is used to connect different types of networks.

2.6. Categories of Networks

Computer network can be classified based on the geographical area they cover, i.e. the
area over which the network is spread. Computer networks are broadly categorized as:
- PAN (Personal Area Networks)
- LAN (Local Area Networks)
- MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)
- WAN (Wide Area Networks)

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2.6.1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

The interconnection of devices within the range of an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters. For example, a wireless network connecting a computer with its
keyboard, mouse or printer is a PAN. Also, a PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) that
controls the user's hearing aid or pacemaker fits in this category. Another example of PAN
is a Bluetooth. Typically, this kind of network could also be interconnected without wires
to the Internet or other networks.

2.6.2. Local Area Network (LAN)

Privately-owned networks covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, building
or group of buildings (e.g. campus). They are widely used to connect computers in
company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or
nanoseconds), and make very few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.

2.6.3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Covers a larger geographical area than is a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings
to entire cities. MANs can also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high
data rates. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually
will be used by many individuals and organizations. MANs might also be owned and
operated as public utilities. They will often provide means for internetworking of LANs.
Metropolitan Area Networks can span up to 50km, devices used are modem and
wire/cable.
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2.6.4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN (Wide Area Network) is a type of computer network that covers a large
geographic area, typically connecting multiple smaller networks like LANs or MANs.
WANs allow devices in different locations, such as cities, countries, or continents, to
communicate and share resources.
 Key features of WAN:
- Geographic Scope: Covers large areas, potentially intercontinental.
- Connectivity: Uses public or private transmission lines, such as leased lines,
satellites, or fiber optics.
- Speed and Bandwidth: Typically offers lower speeds compared to LANs due to
long-distance data transmission, but modern WANs can achieve high speeds using
advanced technologies.
 Examples:
- The Internet is the largest WAN, connecting millions of devices globally.
- A company's corporate WAN connects offices in different countries, allowing
seamless data access and communication.

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3. The Internet
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected the way we do
business as well as the way we spend our leisure time. Count the ways you've used the Internet
recently. Perhaps you've sent electronic mail (e-mail) to a business associate, paid a utility bill,
read a newspaper from a distant city, or looked up a local movie schedule-all by using the
Internet. The Internet is a communication system that has brought a wealth of information to
our fingertips and organized it for our use.
3.1. Brief History
An internet (note the lowercase letter i) is two or more networks that can communicate
with each other. The most notable internet is called the Internet (uppercase letter I), a
collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. Private
individuals as well as various organizations such as government agencies, schools,
research facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than 100 countries use the Internet.
Millions of people are users. Yet this extraordinary communication system only came into
being in 1969.
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were standalone devices.
Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another.
The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD)
was interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers they funded
could share their findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort.
In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its
ideas for ARPANET, a small network of connected computers. The idea was that each host
computer (not necessarily from the same manufacturer) would be attached to a specialized
computer, called an inteiface message processor (IMP). The IMPs, in tum, would be
connected to one another. Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as
well as with its own attached host. By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. Four nodes, at the
University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at Santa
Barbara (UCSB), Stanford ResearchInstitute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were
connected via the IMPs to form a network. Software called the Network Control Protocol
(NCP) provided communication between the hosts.
In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core ARPANET group,
collaborated on what they called the Internetting Projec1. Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973
paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-to-end delivery of packets. This paper on
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) included concepts such as encapsulation, the
datagram, and the functions of a gateway.
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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to split TCP into two protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internetworking Protocol (lP). IP would handle
datagram routing while TCP would be responsible for higher-level functions such as
segmentation, reassembly, and error detection. The internetworking protocol became
known as TCP/IP.
3.2. The Internet Today
The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today is not a simple
hierarchical structure. It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined by
connecting devices and switching stations. It is difficult to give an accurate representation
of the Internet because it is continually changing-new networks are being added, existing
networks are adding addresses, and networks of defunct companies are being removed.
Today most end users who want Internet connection use the services of Internet service
providers (ISPs). There are international service providers, national service providers,
regional service providers, and local service providers. The Internet today is run by private
companies, not the government.

4. Protocols and standards

4.1. Protocols
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An
entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities
cannot simply send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For
communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules
that govern data communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated.
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4.2. Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for
equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of
data and telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to
manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the
kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in international
communications.
5. Network models
A network model is a conceptual structure which allows better understanding of how
networking tasks are performed.
Two important network models:
1. OSI Reference Model
2. TCP/IP Reference Model

5.1. The OSI Reference Model

This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization
(ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the
various layers (Day and Zimmermann, 1983). It was revised in 1995(Day, 1995). The
model is called the ISO-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it
deals with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for communication
with other systems.
The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not
become unwieldy.

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The OSI reference model

 The Physical Layer
It is connected with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel from one node to
the next. It deals with physical devices required for data communications. The physical layer
deals with the following issues:
 Mechanical: Consider the physical properties of the medium and interfaces between
devices like connectors, cables, etc.
 Signal representation: How to represent data bits on the transmission medium
encoding mechanisms.
 Timing: Number of bits sent per second i.e. Transmission rate, bit duration.
 Synchronization: Sequence of events, synchronization between sender and receiver,
connection establishment, etc.
 Line configuration: Connection of devices to communication links - point to point,
multipoint, etc.
 Physical topology: How to connect the devices - mesh, star, ring etc.
 The Data Link Layer
This layer is responsible for error-free transmission of frames from one hop to the next. Its
main task is to transform raw data bits into a frame that is free of transmission errors. It
accomplishes this task by breaking the data into frames and takes care of identification of
frames.

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The main functions of the Data link layer are:

 Framing: The stream of bits is divided into logical units called frames.
 Error control: Provides mechanisms to detect or correct errors.
 Flow control: Ensures that a fast sender does not overwhelm a slow receiver.
 Physical addressing: Identifies a machine (sender as well. receiver) in the network
using its physical address.
 Multiple access control for multipoint links, it provides mechanisms to access the
shared communication channel between multiple machines.
 Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the transfer of data packets from source to destination
machines across the communication subnet i.e. across multiple networks.
The main functions of the Network layer are:
 Addressing: The network layer identities a machine on the basis of its logical
address. The logical address identifies the network to which the machine belongs.
 Routing: A key design issue is to route packets from source to destination. Therefore
routine algorithms are used.
 Congestion control: since the data packet has to travel through the communication
subnet, congestion control is another function of this layer.
 Transport Layer
This is an end-to-end layer, which ensures process-to-process delivery from the source
application to the destination application.
Its job is to ensure that the whole message arrives intact and in order, at the destination.
It isolates the upper layers from the lower layers so that the complexities, physical and
logical characteristics of the subnet are hidden from the end users.
The main functions of the Transport layer are:
 Port addressing: The transport layer has to identify the application in the host
machine for whom the data is intended. It does this by an address called port address.
 Segmentation and reassembly: A large message may be split up if needed. This layer
takes care of sequencing and reassembly at the destination.
 Services: It also determines what type of service to provide to the upper layers,
connection-less or connection-oriented.
 Flow and Error control: It provides end-to-end flow control and also ensures end-to-
end error free delivery of data.

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 Session Layer
This layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. Sessions
offer various services like dialog control (halfduplex, full-duplex), token management
(preventing two parties from performing the same critical operations simultaneously),
authorization, synchronization, checkpoint mechanism to allow transmission to continue
from the last point in case of a crash.
 Presentation layer
This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of data transmitted i.e. it defines the
format of data to be exchanged between applications and offers services like format
transformation, encryption, compression etc.
 Application Layer
This layer provides a means for user applications to access the network. It contains a variety
of services commonly needed by users like file transfer, e-mail, remote terminal access,
access to the World-Wide-Web etc one widely used application protocol is HTTP.

5.1.1. Layered tasks

 Definitions
 Layer: The network software is designed or organized as a series of layers or levels to
reduce their design complexity. The number of layers, their names and functions vary
from network to network.
 Services: The purpose of each layer is :
- Offer certain services to the higher layers.
- Use the services of the layer below it.
A layer on one machine carries on a conversation only with its corresponding layer on
another machine that is layer 'n' on one machine communicates only with layer 'n' on
another machine. The rules and conventions used for this conversation are known as
layer-n-protocol.
Corresponding layer entities on different machines are called peers i.e. peers
communicate using a protocol.
The peers may negotiate on different parameters in the protocol like maximum packet
size, timer values, etc.
 Interface: Between each pair of adjacent layers, there is an interface. This defines which
primitive operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper one. Interfaces
should be clear-cut and the amount of Information passed between the layers should be
minimum.
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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

 Relationship between services and protocol: A service is a set of operations that a layer
(service provider) provides to the layer above it (service user). These operations are
specified in an abstract manner with no details of how to provide that service.
On the other hand, a protocol specifies a set of rules to carry out communication between
peers i.e. communicating entities in the same layer on different machines. Protocols
clearly define "how to carry out the communication.
Entities use protocols to implement services. Different layers use different protocols for
communication.
Thus, services correspond to the interface between adjacent layers while protocols
correspond to communication between peer entities in the corresponding or same layer on
different machines.

Communication between layers

 Example
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two friends
who communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available from the post office. Below Figure shows the
steps in this task.

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In Figure we have a sender, a receiver, and a carrier that transports the letter. There is a
hierarchy of tasks.
- At the Sender Site:
Let us first describe, in order, the activities that take place at the sender site.
 Higher layer. The sender writes the letter, inserts the letter in an envelope, writes the sender
and receiver addresses, and drops the letter in a mailbox.
 Middle layer. The letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the post office.
 Lower layer. The letter is sorted at the post office; a carrier transports the letter.
- 0n the Way:
The letter is then on its way to the recipient. On the way to the recipient's local post office,
the letter may actually go through a central office. In addition, it may be transported by
truck, train, airplane, boat, or a combination of these.
- At the Receiver Site
 Lower layer. The carrier transports the letter to the post office.
 Middle layer. The letter is sorted and delivered to the recipient's mailbox.
 Higher layer. The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope, and reads it.
5.1.2. Encapsulation and Layered Communication
As data is passed from the user application down the virtual layers of the OSI model, each
layer adds a header (and sometimes a trailer) containing protocol information specific to
that layer. These headers are called Protocol Data Units (PDUs), and the process of
adding these headers is called encapsulation.
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Module : Computer Networks 2nd year Computer Science Abdelhafid Boussouf University Center, Mila Year : 2024/2025

The PDU of each layer is identified with a different term:

Each layer communicates with the corresponding layer on the receiving device. For
example, on the sending device, source and destination hardware addressing is placed in a
Data-link header. On the receiving device, that Data-link header is processed and stripped
away (decapsulated) before being sent up to the Network and other upper layers.
The Decapsulation is the process of removing the header and trailer information from a
packet, as it moves toward its destination. The destination device receives the data in its
original form.

5.2. The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model
used in the current Internet architecture as well.
 History: The TCP/IP model was built on the ARPANET modes which was developed by
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Dept. of Defense (DOD) in the
late 1960's. ARPANET was very successful but was unable to connect diverse networks.
This led to the development of a new architecture for internetworking.
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 Goals: The TCP/IP reference model was developed prior to OSI model. The major design
goals of this model were,
1. To connect multiple networks together so that they appear as a single network.
2. To survive after partial subnet hardware failures.
3. To provide a flexible architecture.
 Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model: There are 4 layers that form the TCP/IP
reference model:

 TCP/IP protocol suite: Protocols used in the various layers of TCP/IP model are as shown
in following diagram:

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 Network Access Layer:

- A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP.
- A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the
OSI reference model.
- It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
- This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the
same network.
- The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
- The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
 Internet Layer:
- An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
- An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
- The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
- Following are the protocols used in this layer:
 IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer and it is the most significant part of the
entire TCP/IP suite. This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP
addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the
device and to provide internetwork routing.
 ARP Protocol:
- ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
- ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.
- The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it
broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and
process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and send back its physical
address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache
memory and to the datagram header.
 ICMP Protocol:
- ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
- It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
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- An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:

o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding
or not.
- The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them.
The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
 Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control and
correction of data which is being sent over the network. The two protocols used in the
transport layer are User Datagram Protocol and Transmission Control Protocol.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP):
- It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
- It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
- User Datagram Protocol discovers the error and ICMP protocol reports the error to the
sender that user datagram has been damaged.
- UDP consists of the following fields:
o Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application
program that has created the message.
o Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the
application program that receives the message.
o Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
o Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
- UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not
contain any ID of a data segment.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
- It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
- It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration
of the transmission.
- TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
- At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment,
and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the
frames to form an original message.
- At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence
numbers.
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 Application Layer:
- An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
- It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
- This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
- When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it
forwards its data to the transport layer.
- There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system.
- For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser using
HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer
protocol.
- Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
 HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access
the data over the World Wide Web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio,
video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a
hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
 SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to
send the data to another e-mail address.
 DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead
of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as
Domain Name System.
 TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
 FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.

5.3. Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

 Similarities:
- Both are layered network models based on the concept of an independent protocol stack.
- The functionalities of the Network, Transport and Application layers are similar.
- The higher layers are end-to-end layers, whereas the lower ones deal with host to
intermediate processors.
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 Differences:
- OSI has 7 while TCP/IP has 4 layers. The common layers are Network, Transport and
Application layer.
- OSI model supports connection oriented and connection less service in the Network layer
and only connection – oriented communication in the Transport layer.
- TCP/IP has only connectionless mode in the Internet layer but supports connection oriented
and connectionless in the Transport layer.
- The OSI model makes a clear distinction between services, interfaces and protocols,
whereas TCP/IP model does not clearly distinguish between them.
- The OSI reference model is a general purpose model. Hence, this model was not biased
toward one particular set of protocols.
- In TCP/IP, the protocols were developed first and the model fits the protocol description.
Hence, it does not fit any other protocol stack.
- OSI model does not take care of internetworking. The TCP/IP protocols were designed first
and the main goal was to handle internetworking.
- The session and presentation layers in the OSI model are nearly empty whereas the data link
and network layers are overfull.
- The TCP / IP model on the other hand, does not distinguish - nor mention physical and data
link layers.
- The OSI model is very useful to discuss and understand - computer networks but the OSI
model has not been implemented. In contrast, the protocols in the TCP/IP model are
universally used.
 Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference
Model

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