TOPIC: SOME PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL (continued)

CONTENT:

Animal nutrition

Balanced diet

Heterotrophic Nutrition

Sub- Topic 1: Animal Nutrition

All living things feed in order to obtain energy for their daily activities and also to carry out their
metabolic processes. Plants can manufacture their own food (i.e. make complex chemical compounds)
from simple raw materials (CO2 and H2O) through the process of photosynthesis. Plants need minerals
to make some of the complex compounds and these are obtained from the soil as mineral ions. Animals
however cannot manufacture their own food, they depend directly or indirectly on plants. Nutrients that
animals require are present in their diet.

Hamburger and Fries

One of the meals most associated with the United States is a hamburger and french fries. This burger
and fries, a daily special, is accompanied by baked beans and coleslaw.

Food Substances

All food taken in by animals can be divided into six groups of food nutrients namely Carbohydrates,
Protein, Fats, Vitamins, Minerals, and Water. Fibre/roughage is also an important component of a diet
but it is not a nutrient. All these are needed for a balanced diet, for humans.

Carbohydrates, Protein, Fat & oil, and Water are primary food substances and are necessary for the
maintenance of life. Minerals salts and Vitamins are welfare food substances and are essential for the
well being of an individual.

Types of Food Substances

CARBOHYDRATES
These contain the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O). The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is
2:1. Carbohydrates are represented by the formula Cx (H2O)y. The major sources of carbohydrate are
Sugar (e.g. glucose, maltose) and starches (e.g. yam, maize, rice).

Types of Carbohydrates

1) Monosaccharides / Simple sugars: These are made up of only one unit of simple sugar e.g.

Hexose sugars: These consist of six carbon atoms arranged into a ring e.g. glucose, fructose and
galactose. They make up the most important energy storage molecules in an organism. Their chemical
formula is C6H12O6

Pentose sugars: These consist of five carbon atoms e.g. ribose and de-oxyribose. They are used in the
formation of nucleic acids.

2) Disaccharides / Complex sugars: These are formed by the condensation (i.e. chemical bonding of two
molecules) of two simple sugar molecules. They are represented by the formula C12H22O11 .

Examples are:

Maltose (glucose + glucose H2O) found in malted cereals and spouting grains.

Lactose (glucose + galactose H2O) found in milk.

Sucrose (glucose + fructose H2O) found in sugar cane stems, ripe sweet fruits, sugar beet and carrot.

NB All sugars are sweet and soluble and provide energy in a ready-to-use form.

3) Polysaccharides: These are formed by the condensation of hundreds of simple sugar molecules. They
are represented by the general formula

(C6 H10O5) n where n represents a large number. Examples include starch, cellulose, glycogen (animal
starch). Starch and glycogen are insoluble and do not taste sweet.

NB Condensation is a reaction in which two or more molecules join to form a large molecules with
the removal of a molecule of water (H2O) or some other simple molecule.

Improtance of Carbohydrates

They provide us with energy.

It provides heat during its oxidation which is used in maintaining body temperature.

It is used in building the exoskeleton of arthropods.

PROTEIN

Proteins are complex molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (N) many also have
sulfur (S). They are long chain molecules made up of smaller molecules called aminoacid. There are 25
types of amino acids and these occur in different numbers and order in different types of protein. Thus
one protein is different from the other. Each individual amino acid joins the chain by means of a peptide
bond.

During digestion the breakdown of protein occur in the following sequence;

Protein → Proteoses → Peptones → Polypeptides → Amino Acids.

Examples of Proteins include:

Soluble proteins e.g. haemoglobin (in blood), enzymes (in water/cytoplasm), antibodies, and some
hormones (e.g. insulin).

Insoluble proteins e.g. keratin (a fibrous protein found in skin and hair), collagen (found in bones and
cartilage), myosin and actin (found in muscle cell). Sources of protein include (a) animal sources such as
fish, meat, milk, egg and cheese. (b) Plant sources such as beans, groundnut and soya beans etc.

Cooking Meat

Chefs prepare meat for cooking in a restaurant kitchen in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Cooking methods
depend on the cut of meat: Tender meat may be easily roasted or grilled, while tougher cuts may
require stewing or boiling.

Protein is used for making body building substances which are necessary for building new cells and
replacing old ones.

Essential for the repair of cells and worn- out tissues.

Essential for formation of enzymes

Essential for formation of hormones

Essential for formation of antibodies

Essential for formation of heamoglobin etc.

Essential components of cell membranes

It may be required to provide energy.

FATS AND OILS

These are also called lipids and are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Each fat molecule is
made up of one molecule of glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids. There are different types of fatty acids
and these form different fats with different properties. At room temperature fats are solid while oils are
liquid. Lipids are macromolecules and have to be broken down into fatty acids and glycerol before they
can be absorbed into the body. Sources of fats include margarine, butter, cheese, fatty meat, melon,
groundnuts, palm fruits, castor oil seeds, lard etc.

IMPORTANCE

Fats and oil are used for energy storage in the body. They provide more energy to the body than
carbohydrate when metabolized.

They are solvents for fat soluble vitamins and also for hormones.

They are important components of cell membranes.

They help in maintaining the body temperature / for thermal insulation in the body. In cold countries,
the fat layers under the skins of mammals act as insulators and prevent loss of heat from their bodies.

Fats give buoyancy to marine animals e.g. whales have a thick layer of blubber.

MINERAL SALT

These regulate the metabolic activities within the body. They are also important components of
enzymes, pigments and structural parts.

The major source of mineral salts is the diet. Examples of minerals include sodium, potassium, calcium,
chlorine, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, copper, cobalt, fluorine and manganese.

Sodium calcium and phosphorus are needed in large quantities in the body while some others like iron
and iodine are only needed in small quantities.

A lack of minerals in the diet results to ill health and development of symptoms of deficiency diseases.

SOURCES, FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMTOMS OF SOME MINERALS

Mineral
Function

Deficiency symptom

Sources / Daily need

Iron

Formation of haemoglobin in red blood cells; myoglobin in muscle cells and enzymes involved in cell
respiration.

Tiredness, lack of energy (Anaemia)

Liver, meat, cocoa, eggs, green vegetables (10mg)

Calcium

Strengthens bones and teeth; needed for blood clotting, proper functioning of heart and nervous
system, and normal contraction of muscles.

Weak, brittle bones and teeth (Rickets)

Muscle weakness and cramps.

Milk, fish, green vegetables (1g)

Sodium

Important component of blood plasma; maintains correct osmotic pressure of body fluids; needed in
transmission of impulses in nerves, sensory cells and muscles and for normal cell membrane
permeability.

Dehydration muscle cramps, kidney failure.

Salt, natural foods especially meat, milk and eggs

(5-8g)

Phosphorus
Involved in transfer of energy, required for most chemical reactions in the body ; essential component of
DNA and RNA; major component of bones & teeth.

Rickets

Fish, shell-fish,eggs,milk and cheese.(1.5g)

VITAMINS

These are organic compounds required by man and other animals in only small quantities for normal
growth and healthy development. They are biocatalysts (they promote chemical reactions in the body).

Examples include vitamins A, D, E and K which are water soluble. The main sources are fruits, eggs, milk,
palm oil, vegetables and animal organs. Inadequacy or lack of these vitamins leads to nutritional
deficiency diseases and ill health.

SOURCES, FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMTOMS OF SOME VITAMINS

Vitamin

Function

Deficiency Symptom

Sources

(1) Vitamin A

(Retinol)

(i) For normal growth of body cells and skin

(ii) For proper vision of the eye in dim light.

(i) Skin becomes flaky.

(ii) Night blindness

(iii) Xerophthalmia

Fish liver, oil, egg yolk, green and yellow vegetables, fruits.
(2) Vitamin D

(Calciferol)

(i) For strong bone and teeth formation and development.

(ii) It increases the absorption of calcium and phosphorus in the intestine.

(i) ricket in children

(ii) Softening of bones in adults (osteomalacia).

Fish, milk, egg, liver, butter, synthesized in the skin when exposed to sunlight.

(3) Vitamin E

(tocopherol)

(i) Promotion of fertility in animals

(ii) Protects fatty acids and cell membrane from oxidation.

(i) Sterility and premature abortion.

Leafy green vegetables, seeds, egg, milk, liver.

(4) Vitamin k

(phylloquinone)

(i) Aids blood clotting.

Slow clotting of blood leading to severe bleeding from cuts

(Haemorrhages).

Liver fresh green vegetables, made by intestinal bacteria.

(5) B1
(thiamine)

(i) Needed for formation of co-enzymes involved in cellular respiration.

(ii) For normal growth.

(iii) Proper functioning of heart and nervous system.

(i) Reduced growth.

(ii) Beriberi (a disease of the nervous system).

Yeast, rice bran, beans, groundnut, liver.

(6) B2

(Riboflavin)

(i) For formation of co-enzymes involved in cellular respiration

(ii) For growth, healthy skin and proper functioning of the eye.

(i) Slow growth.

(ii) Sores in skin (dermatitis) and around the mouth.

Eggs, liver, kidney, yeast, leafy vegetables.

(8) B5

(pantothenic acid or Folic acid)

(i) For formation of co-enzymes in cellular respiration.

(ii) For formation of red blood cells.

Disorder of nervous system and gut.

Anaemia

Yeast, eggs, rice bran.

Leafy vegetables, liver.

(9) Vitamin C

(Ascorbic acid)

(i) For maintenance of connective tissues, bones and dentine

(ii) Helps to resist inflection

(i) Scurvy

(ii) Wounds heal slowly.

Fresh citrus fruits, pawpaw, guava, green vegetables.

Apples

The apple tree is widely cultivated throughout temperate regions of the world for its juicy, edible fruit.
The many varieties of apples have been popular for centuries and growers have selectively bred certain
superior wild varieties for domestication and mass production.

WATER

This is composed of hydrogen and oxygen and makes up two-thirds (70%) of the body mass of a human
being.

Water is taken in when we eat or drink. Sources include metabolic water from food, water from rivers,
rain, ponds, springs, etc.

IMPORTANCE
It is required for metabolic activities in the body. It makes up a large part of the protoplasm, thus it is
the medium in which chemicals reaction take place in the body.

It transfers digested food substances, excretory products (urine & sweat) and hormones.

It plays an important role in the regulation of body temperature (sweat cools us down)

It helps to maintain the osmotic content of the body tissues.

It is an important solvent for food substances during digestion.

It constitutes a greater part of the blood.

It is the main component of plants and animals.

Daily intake of water must equal the loss in urine, faeces, sweat and breath to keep healthy.

ROUGHAGES / FIBRE

This is indigestible fibrous materials derived mainly from vegetables, fruits and seed coats (of
carbohydrates and proteinous seed).

Fibre adds bulk to food thus stimulating the movement of the bowel. It passes down the entire gut from
mouth to anus and does not provide any energy.

Sources include bran cereals, cabbage, sweet corn, celery, etc.

Papaya Fruit

A view of the interior of the papaya fruit shows the pulp and seeds. This edible fruit, capable of growing
as large as 9 kg (20 lb), is widely cultivated in the tropics. The latex of the fruit contains a substance
called papain, which can be extracted and used to tenderize meat.

IMPORTANCE

Fibre helps the movement of food in the alimentary canal by peristalsis so preventing constipation.

Fibre absorbs poisonous waste from bacteria in the gut.

Many doctors believe a high fibre diet lowers the concentration of cholesterol in the blood.

Fibre reduces the risk of heart diseases and bowel cancer.

SUB-TOPIC 2: BALANCED DIET

The intake of a variety of food in the right quantity and proportion that provides the body with all the
nutrients and energy needed to sustain the body and ensure good health and growth is referred to as a
balanced diet.

A balanced diet must contain the seven food substances i.e Carbohydrates (60%), Proteins (15%), Fats
(15%), Vitamins (10%), Minerals,Water and Fibre.

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

Even at rest energy is required for basic functions such as heart beats, working of the lungs and keeping
body temperature constant. Also chemical reactions in the body such as those involved in growth &
repair are occurring and these need energy. The energy required for these body functions is called the
basal metallic rate.

USDA Food Pyramid

The United States Department of Agriculture Food Pyramid provides a practical visual guide to healthful
eating, indicating the recommended daily portions of the basic food groups.

(BMR). BMR varies from person to person; an adult needs 7000kg per day, even at rest this energy is still
required.

THE IMPORTANCE OF A BALANCED DIET

It is required for normal healthy living.

It gives us resistance to diseases.

It provides energy required for normal activities.

It prevents malnutrition / deficiency diseases e.g. a lack of protein in the diet can cause kwashiorkor and
marasmus in children.

EVALUATION

Name the constituent element, four food sources and three functions of each of the following

(i) Carbohydrates (ii) Protein (iii) Lipid

List the sources and functions of four vitamins and minerals.

State one deficiency disease/condition associated with each type of nutrient mentioned in 1 and 2
above

Define the terms: (a) balanced diet (b) BMR

Mention three importance of taking a balanced diet

OBJECTIVE TEST

1.During which of the following processes is food for animals produced? (a) Digestion (b) Photosynthesis
(c) Respiration (d) Transpiration

2. Which of the following is the odd one out? (a) Calcium (b) Calciferol (c) Iron (d) Manganese

3. The deficiency of vitamin D leads to (a) pellagra (b) polio (c) rickets (d) scurvy

4. Which of the following food substances turns bright red when warmed with Sudan III solution? (a) Fat
(b) Protein (c) Reducing sugar (d) Starch

5. The arrangements below are steps in protein digestion. Which is the correct sequence?

I. Amino acid II. Peptone III. Polypeptide IV. Protein

(a) I→ II→ III→ IV (b) II→ III→ I → IV

(c) II→ IV → I→ III (d) IV → III→ II→ I

Sub- Topic 3: HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

This is the type of nutrition in which the organism feeds on complex organic molecules. There are
different forms of heterotrophic nutrition.

Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition

Holozoic Nutrition: In this type of nutrition an organism feeds on complex organic materials, usually in
solid form. These materials require ingestion, digestion and absorption before assimilation into the
body.

Animals that practice holozoic nutrition include herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.
Parasitic Nutrition: In this form of nutrition, one organism (the parasite) lives in or on another organism
(the host) causing harm/death to the host. Parasites may be plants or animals.

Parasitic plants attach themselves to the host by means of suckers and send special absorbing organs
called haustoria into the tissues of the hosts stem where they absorb water, mineral salts and food
substances. Examples are the dodder plant, cassytha and mistletoe (a partial parasite).

Mistletoe Corn smut

Parasitic animals which live outside the host (ectoparasites) have mouth parts that are modified for
piercing or boring into the skin of animals or epidermal layer of plants and suck the body fluid of the
host. Examples are ticks, aphids, lice, etc. parasitic animals which live within the host (endoparasites)
possess attachment organs such as suckers with which they fasten themselves onto the walls of the
hosts gut and suck already digested food. Examples are tapeworm, liverfluke, plasmodium and
hookworm.

Tsetse fly; an ectoparasite Chigger; an ectoparasite

Plasmodium; an endoparasie Tapeworm; an endoparasite

Saprophytic Nutrition: This is a form of nutrition in which an organism feeds on dead and decaying
organic matter. Examples are Rhizopus, mushroom, mucor, toadstool and bacteria. These organisms
have rhizoids through which they secrete enzymes into the substrate extracellularly. The digested
portion is then absorbed into the body of the saprophyte.

Sub Topic 3: Feeding Mechanisms In Holozoic Organisms

All animals obtain their food directly from plants or by feeding on other animals. Their nutritional
requirements are obtained from ingested food. Various organisms obtain and ingest their food in
different ways; this is referred to as their feeding mechanism. The feeding mechanism of an organism
depends on the organisms mode of nutrition and the type of food on which it feeds.

The ingested food is broken down into simple, soluble and diffusible substances through the process of
digestion. The digested food is then absorbed into the fluids of the organism and transported to the
body cells where it is assimilated (i.e. used). Undigested food is egested from the body.

Feeding mechanism in holozoic organisms include the following;

Use of pseudopodia to engulf food e.g. in Amoeba

Beating movement of cilia to move food into the oral groove e.g. Paramecium.

Sweeping movement of flagella to move food into the mouth e.g. in Euglena.

Use of tentacles e.g. Hydra.

Filter feeding e.g. Mosquito larvae, whales, oysters, etc.

Fluid feeding e.g. Insects, hummingbirds, etc.

Saprophytic feeding e.g. mushroom, rhizopus, etc.

vii. Parasitic feeding e.g. Dodder plant, Mistletoe, liver fluke, lice, guinea worm,

tapeworm, etc.

EVALUATION

What are heterotrophs?

Give and explain two forms of heterotrophic nutrition

Mention two forms of feeding mechanism in holozoic organisms

Briefly describe the modification of the mouth parts of a grasshopper to its mode of feeding.

Sub Topic 5: ENZYMES

An enzyme is an organic catalyst. A catalyst is a substance which brings about or greatly speeds up a
chemical reaction and it is not used up or changed during the reaction. Enzymes speed up metabolic
reactions in living cells without changing their composition in the

process. Enzymes are protein molecules and are manufactured by an organisms own cells.

Structure and function of an enzyme

TYPES OF ENZYMES

Enzymes are classified based on the nature of chemical changes brought about on a substrate. Example;

Hydrolases: These bring about the decomposition of a substrate by the addition of water molecules to it.
This process is called hydrolysis. However, they can also bring about a reverse reaction in which complex
substance are synthesized from simple substances by the removal of water (condensation). Most
digestive enzymes are hydrolysis enzymes.

E.g. Starch Glucose

Oxido reductase: These bring about oxidation of a substrate by the addition of o