ALL SAINTS SCHOOL

SESSION 2025-26

CLASS – X

SUBJECT – MATHEMATICS

NOTES

KRITI PARASHARI

TGT (MATHEMATICS)
 CHAPTER 1 REAL NUMBERS

R = Real Numbers:
All rational and irrational numbers are called real numbers.
I = Integers:
All numbers from (…-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3…) are called integers.

Real numbers of the form p/q, q ≠ 0, p, q ∈ I are rational numbers.

Q = Rational Numbers:

 All integers can be expressed as rational, for example, 5 = 51

 Decimal expansion of rational numbers terminating or non-terminating recurring.
Q’ = Irrational Numbers:
Real numbers which cannot be expressed in the form pq and whose decimal expansions are non-terminating and non-recurring.
 Roots of primes like √2, √3, √5 etc. are irrational
N = Natural Numbers:
Counting numbers are called natural numbers. N = {1, 2, 3 …}
W = Whole Numbers:
Zero along with all natural numbers are together called whole numbers. {0, 1, 2, 3…}
Even Numbers:
Natural numbers of the form 2n are called even numbers. (2, 4, 6 …}
Odd Numbers:
Natural numbers of the form 2n -1 are called odd numbers. {1, 3, 5 …}
Prime Numbers:
The natural numbers greater than 1 which are divisible by 1 and the number itself are called prime numbers, Prime numbers
have two factors i.e., 1 and the number itself For example, 2, 3, 5, 7 & 11 etc. 1 is not a prime number as it has only one factor.
Composite Numbers:
The natural numbers which are divisible by 1, itself and any other number or numbers are called composite numbers. For
example, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 etc.
Euclid’s Division lemma
Given two positive integers a and b, there exist unique integers q and r satisfying a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r ≤ b.Notice this. Each time ‘r’ is
less than b. Each ‘q’ and ‘r’ is unique.

Application of lemma
Euclid’s Division lemma is used to find HCF of two positive integers. Example: Find HCF of 56 and 72?
Steps:
 Apply lemma to 56 and 72.
 Take bigger number and locate ‘b’ and ‘r’. 72 = 56 × 1 + 16
 Since 16 ≠ 0, consider 56 as the new dividend and 16 as the new divisor. 56 = 16 × 3 + 8
 Again, 8 ≠ 0, consider 16 as new dividend and 8 as new divisor. 16 = 8 × 2 + 0
Since remainder is zero, divisor (8) is HCF.
Although Euclid’s Division lemma is stated for only positive integers, it can be extended for all integers except zero, i.e., b ≠ 0.
Constructing a factor tree
Steps
 Write the number as a product of prime number and a composite number
Example:
Factorize 48
 ∴ Prime factorization of 48 = 24 x 3
 Repeat the process till all the primes are obtained

Fundamental theorem of Arithmetic

Every composite number can be expressed as a product of primes, and this expression is unique, apart from the order in which
they appear.
Applications:
1. To locate HCF and LCM of two or more positive integers.
2. To prove irrationality of numbers.
3. To determine the nature of the decimal expansion of rational numbers.
1. Algorithm to locate HCF and LCM of two or more positive integers:
Step I:
Factorize each of the given positive integers and express them as a product of powers of primes in ascending order of magnitude
of primes.
Step II:
To find HCF, identify common prime factor and find the least powers and multiply them to get HCF.
Step III:
To find LCM, find the greatest exponent and then multiply them to get the LCM.
2. To prove Irrationality of numbers:
 The sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is irrational.
 The product or quotient of a non-zero rational number and an irrational number is irrational.
3. To determine the nature of the decimal expansion of rational numbers:
 Let x = p/q, p and q are co-primes, be a rational number whose decimal expansion terminates. Then the prime
factorization of’q’ is of the form 2m5n, m and n are non-negative integers.
 Let x = p/q be a rational number such that the prime factorization of ‘q’ is not of the form 2m5n, ‘m’ and ‘n’ being non-
negative integers, then x has a non-terminating repeating decimal expansion.
 23 can be written as: 23 = 2350
 52 can be written as: 52 = 2052
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
1. Express 140 as a product of its prime factors:

2. Find the LCM and HCF of 12, 15, and 21 by applying the prime factorisation method.

3. Check whether 6n can end with the digit 0 for any natural number n.
Solution:
Since prime factorisation of 6n is given by 6n = (2 x 3)n = 2n x 3n
Prime factorisation of 6n contains only prime numbers 2 and 3.
6n may end with the digit 0 for some ‘n’ if 5 must be in its prime factorisation which is not present.
So, there is no natural number VT for which 6n ends with the digit zero.
Alternatively:

4. Prove that √5 is irrational.

Solution:

∴ There exists co-prime integers a and b (b ≠ 0) such that

Let us assume that is rational.

√5 = ab ⇒ √5b= 0
Squaring on both sides, we get

⇒ 5 divides a2 ⇒ 5 divides a
5b2= a2…… (i)

So, we can write a = 5c for some integer c.

From (i) and (ii)

⇒ b2 = 5c2
5b2 = 25c2

⇒ 5 divides b2
⇒ 5 divides b
∴ 5 is a common factor of a and b.
But this contradicts the fact that a and b are co-primes.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that √5 is rational.
Hence, √5 is irrational.
Alternatively:
Let √5 = pq be a rational number, where p and q are co-primes and q ≠ 0.

⇒ p2 – Sq2 … (i)
Then, √5q = p => 5q2=p2

Since 5 divides p2, so it will divide p also.

Let p = 5r

⇒ 5q2 = 25r2 [From(i)]

Then p2 – 25r 2 [Squaring both sides]

⇒ q2 = 5r2
Since 5 divides q2, so it will divide q also. Thus, 5 is a common factor of both p and q.
 This contradicts our assumption that √5 is rational.
Hence, √5 is irrational. Hence, proved.
5. Show that 3 + √5 is irrational.
Solution:

∴ There exists co-prime integers a and b(b ≠ 0) such that:

Let us assume that 3 + 2√5 is rational.

But this contradicts the fact that √5 is irrational.

This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 3 + 2√5 is rational. Hence, we conclude that 3 +
2√5 is irrational.
Alternatively:
Let 3 + 2√5 = pq be a rational number, where p and q are co-prime and q ≠ 0.

⇒ √5 = p–3q/2q
Then, 2√5 = p/q – 3 = (p–3q)/q

since p–3q/2q is a rational number,

therefore, √5 is a rational number. But, it is a contradiction.
Hence, 3 + √5 is irrational. Hence, proved.

CHAPTER 2 POLYNOMIALS
 “Polynomial” comes from the word ‘Poly’ (Meaning Many) and ‘nomial’ (in this case meaning Term)-so it means many
terms.
 A polynomial is made up of terms that are only added, subtracted or multiplied.
 A quadratic polynomial in x with real coefficients is of the form ax² + bx + c, where a, b, c are real numbers with a ≠ 0.
 Degree – The highest exponent of the variable in the polynomial is called the degree of polynomial. Example: 3x3 + 4,
here degree = 3.
 Polynomials of degrees 1, 2 and 3 are called linear, quadratic and cubic polynomial respectively.
 A polynomial can have terms which have Constants like 3, -20, etc., Variables like x and y and Exponents like 2 in y².
 These can be combined using addition, subtraction and multiplication but NOT DIVISION.
 The zeroes of a polynomial p(x) are precisely the x-coordinates of the points, where the graph of y = p(x) intersects the x-
axis.

If α and β are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax² + bx + c, then

Sum of zeros, α+β = − b / a = − coefficient of x / coefficient of x²

Product of zeros, αβ = c / a = constant term / coefficient of x²
If α, β, γ are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial ax3 + bx² + cx + d = 0, then
α + β + γ = −b/a = - coefficient of x² / coefficient of x3
αβ + βγ + γα = c/a = coefficient of x / coefficient of x3
αβγ = −d/a = − constant term / coefficient of x3
Zeroes (α, β, γ) follow the rules of algebraic identities,
(α + β)² = α² + β² + 2αβ
(α² + β²) = (α + β)² – 2αβ

DIVISION ALGORITHM:
If p(x) and g(x) are any two polynomials with g(x) ≠ 0, then
p(x) = g(x) × q(x) + r(x)
Dividend = Divisor x Quotient + Remainder

 If r (x) = 0, then g (x) is a factor of p (x).

 If r (x) ≠ 0, then we can subtract r (x) from p (x) and then the new polynomial formed is a factor of g(x) and q(x).
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
1. Find the zeroes of the following quadratic polynomials and verify the relationship between the zeroes and their
coefficients:
x2 – 2x – 8

2. Find a quadratic polynomial each with the given numbers as the sum and product of zeroes respectively:

3. If the polynomial x4 – 6x3 + 16x2 – 25x + 10 is divided by another polynomial x2 – 2x + k, the remainder comes
out to be x + a, find k and a.
Solution:
 CHAPTER 3 PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES
For any linear equation, each solution (x, y) corresponds to a point on the line. General form is given by ax + by + c = 0.
The graph of a linear equation is a straight line.
Two linear equations in the same two variables are called a pair of linear equations in two variables. The most general form of a
pair of linear equations is: a1x + b1y + c1 = 0; a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
where a1, a2, b1, b2, c1 and c2 are real numbers.
A pair of values of variables ‘x‘ and ‘y’ which satisfy both the equations in the given system of equations is said to be a solution
of the simultaneous pair of linear equations.
A pair of linear equations in two variables can be represented and solved, by
(i) Graphical method
(ii) Algebraic method
(i) Graphical method: The graph of a pair of linear equations in two variables is presented by two lines.
(ii) Algebraic methods: Following are the methods for finding the solutions(s) of a pair of linear equations:
Substitution method
Elimination method
Cross-multiplication method
There are several situations which can be mathematically represented by two equations that are not linear to start with. But we
allow them so that they are reduced to a pair of linear equations.
Consistent system: A system of linear equations is said to be consistent if it has at least one solution.
Inconsistent system: A system of linear equations is said to be inconsistent if it has no solution.
CONDITIONS FOR CONSISTENCY
Let the two equations be:
a1 x + b 1 y + c1 = 0
a2 x + b 2 y + c2 = 0
Then,

Relationship between
Number of Consistency of
coefficients or the pair of Graph
Solutions System
equations

a1 / a2 ≠ b1 / b2 Intersecting lines Unique solution Consistent

a1 / a2 = b1 / b2 ≠ c1 / c2 Parallel lines No solution Inconsistent

a1 / a2 = b1 / b2 = c1 / c2 Co-incident lines Infinite solutions Consistent

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

1. Aftab tells his daughter, “Seven years ago, I was seven times as old as you were then. Also, three years from now, I shall
be three times as old as you will be”. Isn’t this interesting? Represent this situation algebraically and graphically.
Solution:
2. Solve the following pairs of linear equations by the substitution method:

3. A fraction becomes 9/11, if 2 is added to both the numerator and the denominator. If 3 is added to both the numerator
and the denominator, it becomes 5/6. Find the fraction.
 CHAPTER 4 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

A quadratic polynomial of the form ax² + bx + c, where a ≠ 0 and a, b, c are real numbers, is called a quadratic equation
when ax² + bx + c = 0.
Here a and b are the coefficients of x² and x respectively and ‘c’ is a constant term. Any value is a solution of a quadratic
equation if and only if it satisfies the quadratic equation.
Quadratic formula: The roots, i.e., α and β of a quadratic equation ax² + bx + c = 0 are given
by – b ± √D /2a or – b ± √b2−4ac / 2a provided b² – 4ac ≥ 0.
Here, the value b² – 4ac is known as the discriminant and is generally denoted by D. ‘D’ helps us to determine the nature of roots
for a given quadratic equation. Thus D = b² – 4ac.
The rules are:
If D = 0 ⇒ The roots are real and equal.
If D > 0 ⇒ The two roots are real and unequal.
If D < 0 ⇒ No Real roots exist.
If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation, then Quadratic equation is x² – (α + β) x + αβ = 0 Or x² – (sum of roots) x +
product of roots = 0
where, Sum of roots (α + β) = − coefficient of x / coefficient of x2 = −b/a
Product of roots (α x β) = constant term / coefficient of x2 = c/a
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
1. A train travels a distance of 480 km at a uniform speed. If the speed had been 8 km/h less, then it would have taken 3
hours more to cover the same distance. We need to find the speed of the train.
Solution:
2. Find the roots of the following quadratic equations by factorisation:
(i) x2 -3x – 10 = 0
(ii) 2x2 + x – 6 = 0
(iii) √2x2 + 7x + 5√2 = 0

3. A cottage industry produces a certain number of pottery articles in a day. It was observed on a particular day that the
cost of production of each article (in rupees) was 3 more than twice the number of articles produced on that day. If the
total cost of production on that day was ₹90, find the number of articles produced and the cost of each article.
Solution:

4. Find the nature of the roots of the following quadratic equations. If the real roots exist, find them:
(i) 2x² -3x + 5 = 0
(ii) 3x2 – 4√3x + 4 = 0
(iii) 2x2-6x + 3 = 0
Solution:
5. Find the values of k for each of the following quadratic equations, so that they have two equal roots.
(1) 2x2 + kx + 3 = 0
(2) kx (x – 2) + 6 = 0
Solution:
 6. Is the following situation possible? If so, determine their present ages.
The sum of the ages of two friends is 20 years. Four years ago, the product of their ages in years was 48.
Solution:

CHAPTER 5 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS

SEQUENCE:
A sequence is an arrangement of numbers in a definite order and according to some rule.
Example: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … is a sequence where each successive item is 2 greater than the preceding term and 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … is a
sequence where each term is the square of successive natural numbers.
TERMS:
The various numbers occurring in a sequence are called ‘terms’. Since the order of a sequence is fixed, therefore the terms are
known by the position they occupy in the sequence.
Example: If the sequence is defined as

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (A.P.):

An Arithmetic progression is a special case of a sequence, where the difference between a term and its preceding term is always
constant, known as common difference, i.e., d. The arithmetic progression is abbreviated as A.P.
The general form of an A.P. is
a, a + d, a + 2d,… For example, 1, 9, 11, 13.., here the common difference is 2. Hence it is an A.P. In an A.P. with first term a and
common difference d, the nth term (or the general term) is given by
an = a + (n – 1)d where [a = first term, d = common difference, n = term number

∴ a7 = a + (7 – 1)d or a7 = a + 6d
Example: To find seventh term put n = 7

The sum of the first n terms of an A.P. is given by

Sn = n / 2[2a + (n – 1) d] or
Sn = n / 2[a + an]
where, an is the last term of the finite AP.
If a, b, c are in A.P. then 2b = a + c and b is called the arithmetic mean of a and c.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

1. Fill in the blanks in the following table, given that a is the first term, d the common difference and the nth term of the
AP:
 Solution:

2. Check, whether -150 is a term of the AP: 11, 8, 5, 2, ….

Solution:

3. If the 3rd and the 9th term of an AP are 4 and -8 respectively, which term of this AP is zero?
Solution:
 4. The sum of the 4th and 8th terms of an AP is 24 and the sum of the 6th and 10th terms is 44. Find the first three terms
of the AP.
Solution:

5. The houses of a row are numbered consecutively from 1 to 49. Show that there is value of x such that the sum of the
numbers of the houses preceding the house numbered x is equal to the sum of the numbers of the houses following it.
Find this value of x.
Solution:

CHAPTER 6 TRIANGLES
SIMILAR FIGURES
Two figures having the same shape but not necessary the same size are called similar figures.
All congruent figures are similar but all similar figures are not congruent.
SIMILAR POLYGONS
Two polygons are said to be similar to each other, if:
(i) their corresponding angles are equal, and
(ii) the lengths of their corresponding sides are proportional

Example:
Any two line segments are similar since length are proportional
Any two circles are similar since radii are proportional

Any two squares are similar since corresponding angles are equal and lengths are proportional.

Note:
Similar figures are congruent if there is one to one correspondence between the figures.
Any two triangles are similar, if their

∠A = ∠P
(i) Corresponding angles are equal

∠B = ∠Q
∠C = ∠R
(ii) (ii) Corresponding sides are proportional
AB / PQ = AC / PR = BC / QR

THALES THEOREM OR BASIC PROPORTIONALITY THEORY

Theorem 1:
State and prove Thales Theorem.
Statement:
If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in distinct points, the other two sides are
divided in the same ratio.

Given: In ∆ABC, DE || BC.

Const.: Draw EM ⊥ AD and DN ⊥ AE. Join B to E and C to D.

To prove: AD / DB=AE / EC

Proof: In ∆ADE and ∆BDE,

1 1
ar(ΔADE) / ar(ΔBDE) = ×AD×EM / ×DB×EM = AD / DB ……..(i) (Area of ∆ = 1/2 x base x corresponding altitude)
2 2
In ∆ADE and ∆CDE,
1 1
ar(ΔADE) / ar(ΔCDE) = ×AE×DN / ×EC×DN = AE / EC
2 2
∵ DE || BC …[Given]
∴ ar(∆BDE) = ar(∆CDE)
( As on the same base and between the same parallel sides are equal in area)
From (i), (ii) and (iii),
AD / DB=AE / EC

CRITERION FOR SIMILARITY OF TRIANGLES

Two triangles are similar if either of the following three criterions are satisfied:
 AAA similarity Criterion. If two triangles are equiangular, then they are similar.
 Corollary(AA similarity). If two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another triangle, then the
two triangles are similar.
 SSS Similarity Criterion. If the corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional, then they are similar.
 SAS Similarity Criterion. If in two triangles, one pair of corresponding sides are proportional and the included angles are
equal, then the two triangles are similar.

Results in Similar Triangles based on Similarity Criterion:

1. Ratio of corresponding sides = Ratio of corresponding perimeters

2. Ratio of corresponding sides = Ratio of corresponding medians
3. Ratio of corresponding sides = Ratio of corresponding altitudes
4. Ratio of corresponding sides = Ratio of corresponding angle bisector segments.

AREA OF SIMILAR TRIANGLES

Theorem 2.
The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of their corresponding sides.
Given: ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF

Const.: Draw AM ⊥ BC and DN ⊥ EF.

To prove: ar(ΔABC) / ar(ΔDEF) = AB2 / DE2 = BC2 / EF2 = AC2 / DF2

Proof: In ∆ABC and ∆DEF

1 1 1
ar(ΔABC) / ar(ΔDEF)= ×BC×AM / ×EF×DN= BC / EF.AM / DN …(i) ……[Area of ∆ = x base x corresponding altitude
2 2 2
(∆ABC ~ ∆DEF)

∠B = ∠E ……..[∵ ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF]

AB / DE = BC / EF …..(ii) …[Sides are proportional]

∠M = ∠N …..[each 90°]
∴ ∆ABM ~ ∆DEN …………[AA similarity]
∴ AB / DE = AM / DN …..(iii) …[Sides are proportional
From (ii) and (iii), we have: BC / EF = AM / DN …(iv)
From (i) and (iv), we have: ar(ΔABC) / ar(ΔDEF) = BC / EF.BC / EF = BC2 / EF2
Similarly, we can prove that

∴ ar(ΔABC) / ar(ΔDEF) = AB2 / DE2 = BC2 / EF2 = AC2 / DF2

ar(ΔABC) / ar(ΔDEF) = AB2 / DE2 = AC2 / DF2

Results based on Area Theorem:

1. Ratio of areas of two similar triangles = Ratio of squares of corresponding altitudes

2. Ratio of areas of two similar triangles = Ratio of squares of corresponding medians
3. Ratio of areas of two similar triangles = Ratio of squares of corresponding angle bisector segments.

Note:
If the areas of two similar triangles are equal, the triangles are congruent.
PYTHAGORAS THEOREM

Theorem 3:
State and prove Pythagoras’ Theorem.
Statement:
Prove that, in a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Given: ∆ABC is a right triangle right-angled at B.

Const.: Draw BD ⊥ AC
To prove: AB² + BC² = AC²

Proof: In ∆s ABC and ADB,

∠A = ∠A …[common
∠ABC = ∠ADB …[each 90°
∴ ∆ABC ~ ∆ADB …[AA Similarity
∴ AB / AD = AC / AB ………[sides are proportional]
⇒ AB² = AC.AD

∠C = ∠C …..[common]
Now in ∆ABC and ∆BDC

∠ABC = ∠BDC ….[each 90°]

∴ ∆ABC ~ ∆BDC …..[AA similarity]
∴ BC / DC = AC / BC ……..[sides are proportional]
BC² = AC.DC …(ii)
On adding (i) and (ii), we get

⇒ AB² + BC² = AC.(AD + DC)

AB² + BC² = ACAD + AC.DC

AB² + BC² = AC.AC

AB² + BC² = AC²

CONVERSE OF PYTHAGORAS THEOREM

Theorem 4:
State and prove the converse of Pythagoras’ Theorem.
Statement:
Prove that, in a triangle, if square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides, then the angle
opposite the first side is a right angle.

To prove: ∠ABC = 90°

Given: In ∆ABC, AB² + BC² = AC²

Const.: Draw a right angled ∆DEF in which DE = AB and EF = BC

Proof: In ∆ABC,
AB² + BC² = AC² …(i) [given]
In rt. ∆DEF
DE² + EF² = DF² …[by Pythagoras theorem]
AB² + BC² = DF² …..(ii) …[DE = AB, EF = BC]
From (i) and (ii), we get
AC² = DF²
⇒ AC = DF
Now, DE = AB …[by cont]
EF = BC …[by cont]

∴ ∆DEF ≅ ∆ABC ……[sss congruence]

DF = AC …….[proved above]

∴ ∠DEF = ∠ABC …..[CPCT]

∠DEF = 90° … [by cont]
∴ ∠ABC = 90°

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

1.In the given figure, DE || AC and DF || AE.
Prove that BF/FE=BE/EC∙

Solution:

2. In the given figure, altitudes AD and CE of ∆ABC intersect each other at the point P. Show that:
(i) ∆AEP ~ ∆CDP
(ii) ∆ABD ~ ∆CBE
(iii) ∆AEP ~ ∆ADB
(iv) ∆PDC ~ ∆BEC

Solution:
3. Sides AB and AC and median AD of a triangle ABC are respectively proportional to sides PQ and PR and median PM of another
triangle PQR. Show that ∆ABC ~ ∆PQR.
Solution:

4. A vertical pole of length 6 m casts a shadow 4 m long on the ground and at the same time a tower casts a shadow 28 m long.
Find the height of the tower.
Solution:

5. If AD and PM are medians of triangles ABC and PQR respectively, where

∆ABC ~ ∆PQR. Prove that AB/PQ=AD/PM∙
Solution:

CHAPTER 7 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

  Position of a point P in the Cartesian plane with respect to co-ordinate axes is represented by the ordered pair (x, y).

 The line X’OX is called the X-axis and YOY’ is called the Y-axis.
 The part of intersection of the X-axis and Y-axis is called the origin O and the co-ordinates of O are (0, 0).
 The perpendicular distance of a point P from the Y-axis is the ‘x’ co-ordinate and is called the abscissa.
 The perpendicular distance of a point P from the X-axis is the ‘y’ co-ordinate and is called the ordinate.
 Signs of abscissa and ordinate in different quadrants are as given in the diagram:

 Any point on the X-axis is of the form (x, 0).

 Any point on the Y-axis is of the form (0, y).
 The distance between two points P(x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) is given by
PQ = √ (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
Note. If O is the origin, the distance of a point P(x, y) from the origin O(0, 0) is given by
OP = √x2 + y2

Section formula. The coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining the points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) internally
in the ratio m : n are:

The above formula is section formula. The ratio m: n can also be written as mn : 1 or k : 1
The mid-point of the line segment joining the points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is

Here m : n = 1 :1.

Area of a Triangle. The area of a triangle formed by points A(x1 y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) is given by | ∆ |,
1
where ∆ = [x1(y2 − y3) + x2(y3 – y1) + x3(y1 − y2)]
2
where ∆ represents the absolute value.

 Three points are collinear if |A| = 0.

 If P is centroid of a triangle then the median divides it in the ratio 2 :1. Co-ordinates of P are given by
P = [(x1 + x2 + x3) / 3 , (y1 + y2 + y3) / 3]
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

1.Determine if the points (1, 5), (2, 3) and (-2, -11) are collinear.
Solution:

2. Find the point on the x-axis which is equidistant from (2, -5) and (-2, 9).
Solution:

3. To conduct Sports Day activities, in your rectangular shaped school ground ABCD, lines have been drawn with chalk powder at
a distance of 1 m each. 100 flower pots have been placed at a distance of 1 m from each other along AD, as shown in given
figure below. Niharika runs 14 th the distance AD on the 2nd line and posts a green flag. Preet runs 15th distance AD on the
eighth line and posts a red flag. What is the distance between both the flags? If Rashmi has to post a blue flag exactly halfway
between the line segments joining the two flags, where should she post her flag?

Solution:
The blue flag is in the 5th line, at a distance of 22.5 m.

4. Find the ratio in which line segment joining A (1, -5) and B (-4, 5) is divided by the x-axis. Also, find the
coordinates of the point of division.
Solution:

5. Find the coordinates of the points which divide the line segment joining A (-2, 2) and B (2, 8) into four equal parts.
Solution:
 CHAPTER 8 INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY
 Position of a point P in the Cartesian plane with respect to co-ordinate axes is represented by the ordered pair (x, y).
 Trigonometry is the science of relationships between the sides and angles of a right-angled triangle.
 Trigonometric Ratios: Ratios of sides of right triangle are called trigonometric ratios.
Consider triangle ABC right-angled at B. These ratios are always defined with respect to acute angle ‘A’ or angle ‘C.
 If one of the trigonometric ratios of an acute angle is known, the remaining trigonometric ratios of an angle can be easily
determined.
 How to identify sides: Identify the angle with respect to which the t-ratios have to be calculated. Sides are always
labelled with respect to the ‘θ’ being considered.

Let us look at both cases:

In a right triangle ABC, right-angled at B. Once we have identified the sides, we can define six t-Ratios with respect to the sides.

Case I Case II

(i) sine A = perpendicular / hypotenuse = BC / AC (i) sine C = perpendicular / hypotenuse = AB / AC

(ii) cosine A = base / hypotenuse = AB / AC (ii) cosine C = base / hypotenuse = BC / AC

(iii) tangent A = perpendicular / base = BC / AB (iii) tangent C = perpendicular / base = AB / BC

(iv) cosecant A = hypotenuse / perpendicular = (iv) cosecant C = hypotenuse / perpendicular =

AC / BC AC / AB

(v) secant A = hypotenuse / base = AC / AB (v) secant C = hypotenuse / base = AC / BC

(v) cotangent A = base / perpendicular = AB / BC (v) cotangent C = base / perpendicular = BC / AB

cosec A = 1 / sin A, sec A = 1 / cos A, cot A = 1 / tanA

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES - An equation involving trigonometric ratio of angle(s) is called a trigonometric identity, if it is true
for all values of the angles involved. These are:
tan θ = sinθ / cosθ
cot θ = cosθ / sinθ

sin² θ + cos² θ = 1 ⇒ sin² θ = 1 – cos² θ ⇒ cos² θ = 1 – sin² θ

cosec² θ – cot² θ = 1 ⇒ cosec² θ = 1 + cot² θ ⇒ cot² θ = cosec² θ – 1


sec² θ – tan² θ = 1 ⇒ sec² θ = 1 + tan² θ ⇒ tan² θ = sec² θ – 1



sin θ.cosec θ = 1 ⇒ cos θ.sec θ = 1 ⇒ tan θ.cot θ = 1



Value of trigonometry - ratios of specified angles:

∠A 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

sin A 0
1/2 1 / √2 √3 / 2 1

cos A 1 √3 / 2 1 / √2 1/2 0

tan A 0 1 / √3 1 √3 not defined

cosec A not defined 2 √2 2 / √3 1

sec A 1 2 / √3 √2 2 not defined

cot A not defined √3 1 1 / √3 0

The value of sin θ and cos θ can never exceed 1 (one) as opposite side is 1. Adjacent side can never be greater than hypotenuse
since hypotenuse is the longest side in a right-angled ∆.

‘TRIGONOMETRIC - RATIOS’ OF COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES

∠A + ∠C = 90° [∵ ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180° angle-sum-property]

If ∆ABC is a right-angled triangle, right-angled at B, then

or ∠C = (90° – ∠A)

Thus, ∠A and ∠C are known as complementary angles and are related by the following relationships:
sin (90° -A) = cos A; cosec (90° – A) = sec A
cos (90° – A) = sin A; sec (90° – A) = cosec A
tan (90° – A) = cot A; cot (90° – A) = tan A

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

 CHAPTER 9 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY

Line of Sight
When an observer looks from a point E (eye) at object O then the straight line EO between eye E and object O is called the line
of sight.

Horizontal
When an observer looks from a point E (eye) to another point Q which is horizontal to E, then the straight line, EQ between E
and Q is called the horizontal line.

Angle of Elevation
When the eye is below the object, then the observer has to look up from point E to object O. The measure of this rotation (angle
θ) from the horizontal line is called the angle of elevation.

Angle of Depression
When the eye is above the object, then the observer has to look down from point E to the object. The horizontal line is now
parallel to the ground. The measure of this rotation (angle θ) from the horizontal line is called the angle of depression.

How to convert the above figure into the right triangle.

Case I: Angle of Elevation is known

Now ∠OXE = 90°

Draw OX perpendicular to EQ.

ΔOXE is a rt. Δ, where

OE = hypotenuse
OX = opposite side (Perpendicular)
EX = adjacent side (Base)

Case II: Angle of Depression is known

(i) Draw OQ’ parallel to EQ
(ii) Draw perpendicular EX on OQ’.
(iii) Now ∠QEO = ∠EOX = Interior alternate angles
ΔEXO is an rt. Δ. where
EO = hypotenuse
OX = adjacent side (base)
EX = opposite side (Perpendicular)

 Choose a trigonometric ratio in such a way that it considers the known side and the side that you wish to calculate.
 The eye is always considered at ground level unless the problem specifically gives the height of the observer.


The object is always considered a point.

Some People Have
Sin θ = Perpendicular / Hypotenuse
Curly Black Hair
Cos θ = Base / Hypotenuse
Turning Permanent Black.
Tan θ = Perpendicular / Base
 CHAPTER 10 CIRCLES

Circle: A circle is a collection of all points in a plane which are at a constant distance from a fixed point.

Centre: The fixed point is called the centre.

Radius: The constant distance from the centre is called the radius.

Chord: A line segment joining any two points on a circle is called a chord.

Diameter: A chord passing through the centre of the circle is called diameter. It is the longest chord.

Tangent: When a line meets the circle at one point or two coincidings The line is known as points, a tangent.

⇒ OP ⊥ AB
The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.

⇒ AP = PB
The lengths of the two tangents from an external point to a circle are equal.

Length of Tangent Segment

PB and PA are normally called the lengths of tangents from outside point P.

Properties of Tangent to Circle

Theorem 1: Prove that the tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.

To prove: OP ⊥ XY
Given: XY is a tangent at point P to the circle with centre O.

Construction: Take a point Q on XY other than P and join OQ

Proof: If point Q lies inside the circle, then XY will become a secant and not a tangent to the circle
OQ > OP

OP ⊥ XY …[Shortest side is the perpendicular]

This happens with every point on line XY except point P. OP is the shortest of all the distances of point O the points of XY

Theorem 2: A line drawn through the endpoint of a radius and perpendicular to it, is tangent to the circle.
Given: A circle C(O, r) and a line APB is perpendicular to OP, where OP is the radius.
To prove: AB is tangent at P.

Proof: Since OP ⊥ AB
Construction: Take a point Q on line AB, different from P, and join OQ.

OP < OQ ⇒ OQ > OP
Point Q lies outside the circle.
Therefore, every point on AB, other than P, lies outside the circle.
This shows that AB meets the circle at point P.
Hence, AP is tangent to the circle at P.

Theorem 3: Prove that the lengths of tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal
Given: PT and PS are tangents from an external point P to the circle with centre O.
To prove: PT = PS
Construction: Join O to P, T and S.

Proof: In ∆OTP and ∆OSP.

OT = OS …[radii of the same circle]

∠OTP = ∠OSP …[each 90°]

OP = OP …[common]

∆OTP = ∆OSP …[R.H.S.]

PT = PS …[c.p.c.t.]

Note: If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an external point, then:

They subtend equal angles at the centre i.e., ∠1 = ∠2.

They are equally inclined to the segment joining the centre to that point i.e., ∠3 = ∠4.


∠OAP = ∠OAQ

 CHAPTER 11 AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLE
Circumference of a circle = 2πr
Area of a circle = πr2 …[where r is the radius of a circle]
1 2
Area of a semi-circle = πr
2
Area of a circular path or ring:

Let ‘R’ and ‘r’ he radii of two circles

Then area of shaded part = πR2 – πr2 = π(R2 – r2) = π(R + r)(R – r)
Minor arc and Major Arc: An arc length is called a major arc if the arc length enclosed by the two radii is greater than a semi-
circle.

If the arc subtends angle ‘θ’ at the centre, then the

Length of minor arc = θ / 360 × 2πr = θ / 180 × πr
Length of major arc = (360 − θ / 360) × 2πr
Sector of a Circle and its Area
A region of a circle is enclosed by any two radii and the arc intercepted between two radii is called the sector of a circle.
(i) A sector is called a minor sector if the minor arc of the circle is part of its boundary.
OAB^ is minor sector.

Area of minor sector = θ / 360(πr2)

Perimeter of minor sector = 2r + θ / 360(2πr)
A sector is called a major sector if the major arc of the circle is part of its boundary.
OACB^ is major sector
Area of major sector = (360 – θ / 360)(πr2)
Perimeter of major sector = 2r + (360 – θ / 360)(2πr)

Minor Segment: The region enclosed by an arc and a chord is called a segment of the circle. The region enclosed by the chord
PQ & minor arc PRQ is called the minor segment.
Area of Minor segment = Area of the corresponding sector – Area of the corresponding triangle

Major Segment: The region enclosed by the chord PQ & major arc PSQ is called the major segment.
Area of major segment = Area of a circle – Area of the minor segment
Area of major sector + Area of triangle
CHAPTER 12 SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME
 CHAPTER 13 STATISTICS

MEAN (AVERAGE): Mean [Ungrouped Data] – Mean of n observations, x1, x2, x3 … xn, is

MEAN [Grouped Data]: The mean for grouped data can be found by the following three methods:
(i) Direct Mean Method:

1
Class Mark = [Upper Class Limit + Lower Class Limit]
2
Note: Frequency of a class is centred at its mid-point called class mark.

(ii) Assumed Mean Method: In this, an arbitrary mean ‘a’ is chosen which is called, ‘assumed mean’, somewhere in the middle
of all the values of x.

…[where di = (xi – a)]

(iii) Step Deviation Method:

[ui = di / h , where h is a common divisor of di]

MEDIAN: Median is a measure of central tendency that gives the value of the middle-most observation in the data.

[l = Lower limit of median class; n = Number of observations; f = Frequency of median class; c.f. = Cumulative frequency of
preceding class; h = Class size]

(iii) Representing a cumulative frequency distribution graphically as a cumulative frequency curve, or an ogive of the less than
type and of the more than type. The median of grouped data can be obtained graphically as the x-coordinate of the point of
intersection of the two ogives for this data.

Mode:
(i) Ungrouped Data: The value of the observation having maximum frequency is the mode.
(ii) Grouped Data:

[l = Lower limit of modal class; f1 = Frequency of modal class; f0 = Frequency of the class preceding the modal class; f2 =
Frequency of the class succeeding the modal class; h = Size of class interval. c.f. = Cumulative frequency of preceding class; h =
Class size]

Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean

 CHAPTER 14 PROBABILITY
Probability: It is the numerical measurement of the degree of certainty.

 The theoretical probability associated with an event E is defined as “If there are ‘n’ elementary events associated with a
random experiment and m of these are favourable to the event E then the probability of occurrence of an event is
defined by P(E) as the ratio mn “.

 If P(E) = 1, then it is called a ‘Certain Event’ or ‘Sure Event’.

 If P(E) = 0, then it is called an ‘Impossible Event’.
 The probability of an event E is a number P(E) such that: 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
 An event having only one outcome is called an elementary event. The sum of the probabilities of all the elementary
events of an experiment is 1.
 For any event E, P(E) + P(E¯) = 1, where E¯ stands for ‘not E’. E and E¯ is called complementary events.
 Favourable outcomes are those outcomes in the sample space that are favourable to the occurrence of an event.

Sample Space
A collection of all possible outcomes of an experiment is known as sample space. It is denoted by ‘S’ and represented in curly
brackets.
Examples of Sample Spaces:
A coin is tossed = Event
E1 = Getting a head (H) on the upper face
E2 = Getting a tail (T) on the upper face
S = {H, T}
Total number of outcomes = 2

Two coins are tossed = Event = E

E1 = Getting a head on coin 1 and a tail on coin 2 = (H, T)
E2 = Getting a head on both coin 1 and coin 2 = (H, H)
E3 = Getting a tail on coin 1 and a head on coin 2 = (T, H)
E4 = Getting a tail on both, coin 1 and coin 2 = (T, T)
S = {(H, T), (H, H), (T, H), (T, T)}.
Total number of outcomes = 4

Important Tips

 Coin: A coin has two faces termed a Head and Tail.

 Dice: A dice is a small cube that has between one to six spots or numbers on its sides, which is used in games.
 Cards: A pack of playing cards consists of four suits called Hearts, Spades, Diamonds, and Clubs. Each suite consists of 13
cards.