Introduction to

Data Mining

Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign &
Simon Fraser University
©2011 Han, Kamber & Pei. All rights reserved.
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Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

◼ Major Issues in Data Mining

◼ Summary

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 Why Data Mining?

◼ The Explosive Growth of Data: from terabytes to petabytes

◼ Data collection and data availability
◼ Automated data collection tools, database systems, Web,
computerized society
◼ Major sources of abundant data
◼ Business: Web, e-commerce, transactions, stocks, …
◼ Science: Remote sensing, bioinformatics, scientific simulation, …
◼ Society and everyone: news, digital cameras, YouTube
◼ We are drowning in data, but starving for knowledge!
◼ “Necessity is the mother of invention”—Data mining—Automated
analysis of massive data sets

Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

◼ Major Issues in Data Mining

◼ Summary

2
 What Is Data Mining?

◼ Data mining (knowledge discovery from data)

◼ Extraction of interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously
unknown and potentially useful) patterns or knowledge from
huge amount of data
◼ Data mining: a misnomer?
◼ Alternative names
◼ Knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD), knowledge
extraction, data/pattern analysis, data archeology, data
dredging, information harvesting, business intelligence, etc.
◼ Watch out: Is everything “data mining”?
◼ Simple search and query processing
◼ (Deductive) expert systems

Knowledge Discovery (KDD) Process

◼ This is a view from typical
database systems and data
Pattern Evaluation
warehousing communities
◼ Data mining plays an essential
role in the knowledge discovery
process Data Mining

Task-relevant Data

Data Warehouse Selection

Data Cleaning

Data Integration

Databases
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 Data Mining in Business Intelligence

Increasing potential
to support
business decisions End User
Decision
Making

Data Presentation Business

Analyst
Visualization Techniques
Data Mining Data
Information Discovery Analyst

Data Exploration
Statistical Summary, Querying, and Reporting

Data Preprocessing/Integration, Data Warehouses

DBA
Data Sources
Paper, Files, Web documents, Scientific experiments, Database Systems
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Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

◼ Major Issues in Data Mining

◼ Summary

4
 Data Mining: On What Kinds of Data?
◼ Database-oriented data sets and applications
◼ Relational database, data warehouse, transactional database
◼ Advanced data sets and advanced applications
◼ Data streams and sensor data
◼ Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data (incl. bio-sequences)
◼ Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data
◼ Object-relational databases
◼ Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
◼ Spatial data and spatiotemporal data
◼ Multimedia database
◼ Text databases
◼ The World-Wide Web

Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

◼ Major Issues in Data Mining

◼ Summary

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 1. Characterization and Discrimination

◼ Information integration and data warehouse construction

◼ Data cleaning, transformation, integration, and
multidimensional data model
◼ Data cube technology
◼ Scalable methods for computing (i.e., materializing)
multidimensional aggregates
◼ OLAP (online analytical processing)
◼ Multidimensional concept description: Characterization
and discrimination
◼ Generalize, summarize, and contrast data
characteristics, e.g., dry vs. wet region

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2. Association and Correlation Analysis

◼ Frequent patterns are patterns that occure frequently in

data.
◼ Frequent Itemsets
◼ What items are frequently purchased together in
your Walmart?
◼ Frequent Pattern

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 2. Association and Correlation Analysis

◼ Association
◼ A typical association rule
◼ Buys(X, “computer”)→buys(X, “software”)[support=1%,
confidence=50%]
◼ Single-Dimensional Association Rule
◼ Can be written as:
“computer → software [1%,50%]
◼ Multi-Dimensional Association Rule
◼ Age(X, “20..29”) ˄ income(X, “40K..49K”) → buys(X,
“laptop”) [support=2%, confidence=60%]

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3. Classification and Regression

◼ Classification and label prediction

◼ Construct models (functions) based on some training examples
◼ Describe and distinguish classes or concepts for future prediction
◼ E.g., classify countries based on (climate), or classify cars
based on (gas mileage)
◼ Predict some unknown class labels
◼ Typical methods
◼ Decision trees, naïve Bayesian classification, support vector
machines, neural networks, rule-based classification, pattern-
based classification, logistic regression, …
◼ Typical applications:
◼ Credit card fraud detection, direct marketing, classifying stars,
diseases, web-pages, …

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 (a) IF-THEN RULES (b) Decision Trees (c )Neural Networks
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Regression
◼ Is used to predict missing or unavailable numerical data
◼ Models continuous-valued functions
◼ Example:
◼ amount of revenue that each item will generate during an
upcoming sale based on previous sales data

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 4. Cluster Analysis

◼ Unsupervised learning (i.e., Class label is unknown)

◼ Group data to form new categories (i.e., clusters), e.g.,
cluster houses to find distribution patterns
◼ Principle: Maximizing intra-class similarity & minimizing
interclass similarity

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5. Outlier Analysis

◼ Outlier analysis
◼ Outlier: A data object that does not comply with the general
behavior of the data
◼ Noise or exception?
◼ Useful in fraud detection, rare events analysis

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 Chapter 1. Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

◼ What Kind of Applications Are Targeted?

◼ Major Issues in Data Mining

◼ A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society

◼ Summary
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Data Mining: Confluence of Multiple Disciplines

Machine Pattern Statistics

Learning Recognition

Applications Data Mining Visualization

Algorithm Database High-Performance

Technology Computing

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 Chapter 1. Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

◼ Major Issues in Data Mining

◼ Summary

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Major Issues in Data Mining (1)

◼ Mining Methodology
◼ Mining various and new kinds of knowledge
◼ Mining knowledge in multi-dimensional space
◼ Data mining: An interdisciplinary effort
◼ Boosting the power of discovery in a networked environment
◼ Handling noise, uncertainty, and incompleteness of data
◼ Pattern evaluation and pattern- or constraint-guided mining
◼ User Interaction
◼ Interactive mining
◼ Incorporation of background knowledge
◼ Presentation and visualization of data mining results

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 Major Issues in Data Mining (2)

◼ Efficiency and Scalability

◼ Efficiency and scalability of data mining algorithms
◼ Parallel, distributed, stream, and incremental mining methods
◼ Diversity of data types
◼ Handling complex types of data
◼ Mining dynamic, networked, and global data repositories
◼ Data mining and society
◼ Social impacts of data mining
◼ Privacy-preserving data mining
◼ Invisible data mining

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Summary
◼ Data mining: Discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from
massive amount of data
◼ A natural evolution of database technology, in great demand, with
wide applications
◼ A KDD process includes data cleaning, data integration, data
selection, transformation, data mining, pattern evaluation, and
knowledge presentation
◼ Mining can be performed in a variety of data
◼ Data mining functionalities: characterization, discrimination,
association, classification, clustering, outlier and trend analysis, etc.
◼ Data mining technologies and applications
◼ Major issues in data mining

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 Getting to Know Your Data

◼ Data Objects and Attribute Types

◼ Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

◼ Data Visualization

◼ Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

◼ Summary

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Types of Data Sets

◼ Record
◼ Relational records
◼ Data matrix, e.g., numerical matrix,
timeout

season
coach

game
score
team

ball

lost
pla

crosstabs
wi
n
y

◼ Document data: text documents: term-

frequency vector
Document 1 3 0 5 0 2 6 0 2 0 2
◼ Transaction data
◼ Graph and network Document 2 0 7 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0

◼ World Wide Web Document 3 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 0 3 0

◼ Social or information networks
◼ Molecular Structures
◼ Ordered TID Items
◼ Video data: sequence of images 1 Bread, Coke, Milk
◼ Temporal data: time-series
2 Beer, Bread
◼ Sequential Data: transaction sequences
3 Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk
◼ Genetic sequence data
◼ Spatial, image and multimedia: 4 Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk
◼ Spatial data: maps 5 Coke, Diaper, Milk
◼ Image data:
◼ Video data:
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 Data Objects

◼ Data sets are made up of data objects.

◼ A data object represents an entity.
◼ Examples:
◼ sales database: customers, store items, sales
◼ medical database: patients, treatments
◼ university database: students, professors, courses
◼ Also called samples , examples, instances, data points,
objects, tuples.
◼ Data objects are described by attributes.
◼ Database rows -> data objects; columns ->attributes.
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Attributes
◼ Attribute (or dimensions, features, variables):
a data field, representing a characteristic or feature
of a data object.
◼ E.g., customer _ID, name, address
◼ Types:
◼ Nominal
◼ Binary
◼ Numeric: quantitative
◼ Interval-scaled
◼ Ratio-scaled

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 Attribute Types
◼ Nominal: categories, states, or “names of things”
◼ Hair_color = {auburn, black, blond, brown, grey, red, white}
◼ marital status, occupation, ID numbers, zip codes
◼ Binary
◼ Nominal attribute with only 2 states (0 and 1)
◼ Symmetric binary: both outcomes equally important
◼ e.g., gender
◼ Asymmetric binary: outcomes not equally important.
◼ e.g., medical test (positive vs. negative)
◼ Convention: assign 1 to most important outcome (e.g., HIV
positive)
◼ Ordinal
◼ Values have a meaningful order (ranking) but magnitude between
successive values is not known.
◼ Size = {small, medium, large}, grades, rankings
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Numeric Attribute Types

◼ Quantity (integer or real-valued)
◼ Interval
◼ Measured on a scale of equal-sized units
◼ Values have order
◼ E.g., temperature in C˚or F˚, calendar dates
◼ Ratio
◼ Inherent zero-point
◼ We can speak of values as being an order of
magnitude larger than the unit of measurement
◼ e.g., length, counts, monetary quantities

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 Discrete vs. Continuous Attributes
◼ Discrete Attribute
◼ Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values

◼ E.g., zip codes, profession, or the set of words in a

collection of documents
◼ Sometimes, represented as integer variables

◼ Note: Binary attributes are a special case of discrete

attributes
◼ Continuous Attribute
◼ Has real numbers as attribute values

◼ E.g., temperature, height, or weight

◼ Practically, real values can only be measured and

represented using a finite number of digits
◼ Continuous attributes are typically represented as
floating-point variables
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Getting to Know Your Data

◼ Data Objects and Attribute Types

◼ Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

◼ Data Visualization

◼ Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

◼ Summary

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 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
◼ Motivation
◼ To better understand the data: central tendency,
variation and spread
◼ Data dispersion characteristics
◼ median, max, min, quantiles, outliers, variance, etc.
◼ Numerical dimensions correspond to sorted intervals
◼ Data dispersion: analyzed with multiple granularities
of precision
◼ Boxplot or quantile analysis on sorted intervals
◼ Dispersion analysis on computed measures
◼ Folding measures into numerical dimensions
◼ Boxplot or quantile analysis on the transformed cube

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Measuring the Central Tendency

=
Mean (algebraic measure) (sample vs. population): 1 n x
 xi
◼
x=
Note: n is sample size and N is population size. n i =1 N
n
Weighted arithmetic mean:
w x
◼
i i
◼ Trimmed mean: chopping extreme values x= i =1
n
◼ Median: w
i =1
i

◼ Middle value if odd number of values, or average of

the middle two values otherwise

◼ Mode
◼ Value that occurs most frequently in the data
◼ Unimodal, bimodal, trimodal
◼ Empirical formula:

mean− mode = 3 (mean − median)

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 Symmetric vs. Skewed Data

◼ Median, mean and mode of symmetric

symmetric, positively and
negatively skewed data

positively skewed negatively skewed

September 13, 2024 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques

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Measuring the Dispersion of Data

◼ Quartiles, outliers and boxplots
◼ Quartiles: Q1 (25th percentile), Q3 (75th percentile)
◼ Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 – Q1
◼ Five number summary: min, Q1, median, Q3, max
◼ Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles; median is marked; add
whiskers, and plot outliers individually
◼ Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than 1.5 x IQR
◼ Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: σ)
◼ Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation)
n n
1 1
2 =
N
 (x
i =1
i −  )2 =
N
x
i =1
i
2
− 2

◼ Standard deviation s (or σ) is the square root of variance s2 (or σ2)

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 Boxplot Analysis

◼ Five-number summary of a distribution

◼ Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum
◼ Boxplot
◼ Data is represented with a box
◼ The ends of the box are at the first and third
quartiles, i.e., the height of the box is IQR
◼ The median is marked by a line within the
box
◼ Whiskers: two lines outside the box extended
to Minimum and Maximum
◼ Outliers: points beyond a specified outlier
threshold, plotted individually

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Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical

Descriptions

◼ Boxplot: graphic display of five-number summary

◼ Histogram: x-axis are values, y-axis repres. frequencies
◼ Quantile plot: each value xi is paired with fi indicating
that approximately 100 fi % of data are  xi
◼ Quantile-quantile (q-q) plot: graphs the quantiles of
one univariant distribution against the corresponding
quantiles of another
◼ Scatter plot: each pair of values is a pair of coordinates
and plotted as points in the plane
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 Histogram Analysis
◼ Histogram: Graph display of
tabulated frequencies, shown as 40
bars 35
◼ It shows what proportion of cases 30
fall into each of several categories
25
◼ Differs from a bar chart in that it is
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the area of the bar that denotes the
value, not the height as in bar 15
charts, a crucial distinction when the 10
categories are not of uniform width
5
◼ The categories are usually specified
0
as non-overlapping intervals of 10000 30000 50000 70000 90000
some variable. The categories (bars)
must be adjacent

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Histograms Often Tell More than Boxplots

◼ The two histograms

shown in the left may
have the same boxplot
representation
◼ The same values
for: min, Q1,
median, Q3, max
◼ But they have rather
different data
distributions

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 Quantile Plot
◼ Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both
the overall behavior and unusual occurrences)
◼ Plots quantile information
◼ For a data xi data sorted in increasing order, fi
indicates that approximately 100 fi% of the data are
below or equal to the value xi

Q1: 25% of total items have unit

price <60$ approx

50 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques

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Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) Plot

◼ Graphs the quantiles of one univariate distribution against the
corresponding quantiles of another
◼ View: Is there is a shift in going from one distribution to another?
◼ Example shows unit price of items sold at Branch 1 vs. Branch 2 for
each quantile. Unit prices of items sold at Branch 1 tend to be lower
than those at Branch 2.

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 Scatter plot
◼ Provides a first look at bivariate data to see clusters of
points, outliers, etc.
◼ Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and
plotted as points in the plane

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Positively and Negatively Correlated Data

◼ The left half fragment is positively

correlated
◼ The right half is negative correlated

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 Uncorrelated Data

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Getting to Know Your Data

◼ Data Objects and Attribute Types

◼ Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

◼ Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

◼ Data Visualization

◼ Summary

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 Similarity and Dissimilarity
◼ Similarity
◼ Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are

◼ Value is higher when objects are more alike

◼ Often falls in the range [0,1]

◼ Dissimilarity (e.g., distance)

◼ Numerical measure of how different two data objects
are
◼ Lower when objects are more alike

◼ Minimum dissimilarity is often 0

◼ Upper limit varies

◼ Proximity refers to a similarity or dissimilarity

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Data Structures
◼ Data matrix (object-by-attribute structure)  x11 ... x1f ... x1p 
 
◼ n objects and p-variables  ... ... ... ... ... 
◼ two modes x ... xif ... xip 
 i1 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
x ... xnf ... xnp 
 n1 

◼ Dissimilarity matrix (object-by-object structure)

◼ Contains dissimilarities

◼ one mode  0 
 d(2,1) 0 
 
 d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0 
 
 : : : 
d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0

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 Proximity measures for Nominal
or Categorical Variables

◼ A generalization of the binary variable in that it can take more than 2

states, e.g., red, yellow, blue, green
◼ Method: Simple matching

d (i, j) = p −
p
m

◼ m: # of matches i.e. the number of attributes for which i and j are

in the same state,
◼ p: total # of variables

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Example
Ob ID Test-1 Test-2 Test-3
1 Code-A Excellent 445
2 Code-B Fair 22
3 Code-C Good 164
4 Code-A Excellent 1210

0 0
d(2,1) 0 1 0
d(3,1) d(3,2) 0 1 1 0
d(4,1) d(4,2) d(4,3) 0 0 1 1 0

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 Proximity measure for Binary Variables

◼ A contingency table for binary Object j

data 1 0 sum
1 a b a +b
Object i
0 c d c+d
sum a + c b + d p

◼ a = no. of attributes that equal to 1 for both objects

◼ b = no. of attributes that equal to 1 for object i and 0 for object j
◼ c = no. of attributes that equal to 1 for object j and 0 for object i
◼ d = no. of attributes that equal to 0 for both objects

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Proximity measure for Binary Variables

◼ A contingency table for binary data Object j

1 0 sum
1 a b a +b
Object i
0 c d c+d
sum a + c b + d p

◼ Distance measure for symmetric binary variables:

d (i, j) = b+c
a +b+c + d
◼ Distance measure for asymmetric binary variables :

d (i, j) = b+c
a +b+c

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 Proximity measure for Binary Variables

◼ A contingency table for binary data

Object j
1 0 sum
1 a b a +b
Object i
0 c d c+d
sum a+c b+d p

Jaccard coefficient (similarity measure for asymmetric binary variables):

simJaccard (i, j) = a
a +b+c

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Dissimilarity between Binary

Variables
◼ Example
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4
Jack M Y N P N N N
Mary F Y N P N P N
Jim M Y P N N N N

◼ gender is a symmetric attribute

◼ the remaining attributes are asymmetric binary
◼ let the values Y and P be set to 1, and the value N be set to 0

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 Dissimilarity between Binary
Variables
◼ Example
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4
Jack M Y N P N N N
Mary F Y N P N P N
Jim M Y P N N N N
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4 Object j
1 0 sum
Jack M 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 a b a +b
Object i 0 c d c+d
Mary F 1 0 1 0 1 0
sum a+c b+d p
Jim M 1 1 0 0 0 0

0+1 d (i, j) = b+c

d ( jack , mary ) = = 0.33 a +b+c
2+ 0+1
1+1
d ( jack , jim ) = = 0.67
1+1+1
1+ 2
d ( jim, mary ) = = 0.75
1+1+ 2

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Dissimilarity of Numeric Data

◼ Distances are normally used to measure the similarity or
dissimilarity between two data objects
◼ Some popular ones include
◼ Minkowski distance:

d (i, j) = q (| x − x |q + | x − x |q +...+ | x − x |q )
i1 j1 i2 j2 ip jp

where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp) are two p -dimensional
data objects, and q is a positive integer
◼ If q = 1, d is Manhattan distance

d (i, j) =| x − x | + | x − x | +...+ | x − x |
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

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 Dissimilarity of Numeric Data
◼ If q = 2, d is Euclidean distance:

d (i, j) = (| x − x |2 + | x − x |2 +...+ | x − x |2 )
i1 j1 i2 j2 ip jp
◼ Properties
◼ d(i,j)  0; distance is non-negative
◼ d(i,i) = 0; distance of object to itself is 0
◼ d(i,j) = d(j,i); distance is symmetric

◼ Also, one can use weighted distance, parametric Pearson product

moment correlation, or other dissimilarity measures

d (i, j) = w | x − x |2 +w | x − x |2 +...+ w p | x − x |2 )
1 i1 j1 2 i2 j 2 ip jp

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Ordinal Variables

◼ An ordinal variable can be discrete or continuous

◼ Order is important, e.g., rank
◼ Can be treated like interval-scaled
◼ replace xif by their rank rif {1,...,M f }
◼ map the range of each variable onto [0, 1] by replacing
i-th object in the f-th variable by
rif −1
zif =
M f −1
◼ compute the dissimilarity using methods for interval-
scaled variables

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 Example
Ob ID Test-1 Test-2 Test-3
1 Code-A Excellent 445
2 Code-B Fair 22
3 Code-C Good 164
4 Code-A Excellent 1210

Ob ID Rank zif
1 3 1
2 1 0
3 2 0.5 0
4 3 1
1 0
0.5 0.5 0
0 1 0.5 0

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Ratio-Scaled Variables

◼ Ratio-scaled variable: a positive measurement on a

nonlinear scale, approximately at exponential scale,
such as AeBt or Ae-Bt
◼ Methods:
◼ treat them like interval-scaled variables—not a good
choice! (why?—the scale can be distorted)
◼ apply logarithmic transformation
yif = log(xif)

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 Example
Ob ID Test-1 Test-2 Test-3
1 Code-A Excellent 445
2 Code-B Fair 22
3 Code-C Good 164
4 Code-A Excellent 1210

Ob ID Log(xif) 0
1 2.65 1.31 0
2 1.34
3 2.21 0.44 0.87 0
4 3.08 0.43 1.74 0.87 0

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Variables of Mixed Types

◼ A database may contain all the six types of variables
◼ symmetric binary, asymmetric binary, nominal, ordinal, interval
and ratio

◼ One may use a weighted formula to combine their effects

 pf = 1 ij( f ) dij( f )
d (i, j) =
 pf = 1 ij( f )

◼ δij(f) = 0; 1. xif or xjf is missing

2. xif = xjf = 0 and f asymmetric binary
▪ δij(f) = 1
▪ d ij(f) dependent on its type

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 Numeric
Ob ID Test-1 Test-2 Test-3
1 Code-A Excellent 45
2 Code-B Fair 22
3 Code-C Good 64
4 Code-A Excellent 28

0
Max = 64, min = 22,
0.55 0
0.45 1.00 0 d(2,1) = (22-45) = 0.55
0.40 0.14 0.86 0 (64-22)

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Example
Ob ID Test-1 Test-2 Test-3
1 Code-A Excellent 45
2 Code-B Fair 22
3 Code-C Good 64
4 Code-A Excellent 28

0 0
0.55 0 1(1)+1(0.50)+1(0.45) = 0.65
1 0
3
1 1 0 0.45 1.00 0
0 1 1 0 0.40 0.14 0.86 0

0 0
1 0 0.85 0
0.5 0.5 0 0.65 0.83 0
0 1 0.5 0 0.13 0.71 0.79 0

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 Getting to Know Your Data

◼ Data Objects and Attribute Types

◼ Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

◼ Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

◼ Data Visualization

◼ Summary

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Data Visualization
◼ Why data visualization?
◼ Gain insight into an information space by mapping data onto graphical
primitives
◼ Provide qualitative overview of large data sets
◼ Search for patterns, trends, structure, irregularities, relationships among
data
◼ Help find interesting regions and suitable parameters for further
quantitative analysis
◼ Provide a visual proof of computer representations derived
◼ Categorization of visualization methods:
◼ Pixel-oriented visualization techniques
◼ Geometric projection visualization techniques
◼ Icon-based visualization techniques
◼ Hierarchical visualization techniques
◼ Visualizing complex data and relations
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 Pixel-Oriented Visualization Techniques
◼ For a data set of m dimensions, create m windows on the screen, one
for each dimension
◼ The m dimension values of a record are mapped to m pixels at the
corresponding positions in the windows
◼ The colors of the pixels reflect the corresponding values

(a) Income (b) Credit Limit (c) transaction volume (d) age
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Laying Out Pixels in Circle Segments

◼ To save space and show the connections among multiple dimensions,
space filling is often done in a circle segment

(a) Representing a data record

(b) Laying out pixels in circle segment
in circle segment
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 Geometric Projection Visualization
Techniques
◼ Visualization of geometric transformations and projections
of the data
◼ Methods
◼ Direct visualization
◼ Scatterplot and scatterplot matrices
◼ Landscapes
◼ Projection pursuit technique: Help users find meaningful
projections of multidimensional data
◼ Prosection views
◼ Hyperslice
◼ Parallel coordinates
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Direct Data Visualization

Ribbons with Twists Based on Vorticity

79 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques

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 Scatterplot Matrices

Used by ermission of M. Ward, Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Matrix of scatterplots (x-y-diagrams) of the k-dim. data [total of (k2/2-k) scatterplots]

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Landscapes
Used by permission of B. Wright, Visible Decisions Inc.

news articles
visualized as
a landscape

◼ Visualization of the data as perspective landscape

◼ The data needs to be transformed into a (possibly artificial) 2D
spatial representation which preserves the characteristics of the data
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 Parallel Coordinates
◼ n equidistant axes which are parallel to one of the screen axes and
correspond to the attributes
◼ The axes are scaled to the [minimum, maximum]: range of the
corresponding attribute
◼ Every data item corresponds to a polygonal line which intersects each
of the axes at the point which corresponds to the value for the
attribute

• • •

Attr. 1 Attr. 2 Attr. 3 Attr. k

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Parallel Coordinates of a Data Set

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37
 Icon-Based Visualization
Techniques

◼ Visualization of the data values as features of icons

◼ Typical visualization methods
◼ Chernoff Faces
◼ Stick Figures
◼ General techniques
◼ Shape coding: Use shape to represent certain
information encoding
◼ Color icons: Use color icons to encode more information
◼ Tile bars: Use small icons to represent the relevant
feature vectors in document retrieval

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Chernoff Faces
◼ A way to display variables on a two-dimensional surface, e.g., let x be
eyebrow slant, y be eye size, z be nose length, etc.
◼ The figure shows faces produced using 10 characteristics--head
eccentricity, eye size, eye spacing, eye eccentricity, pupil size,
eyebrow slant, nose size, mouth shape, mouth size, and mouth
opening): Each assigned one of 10 possible values, generated using
Mathematica (S. Dickson)

◼ REFERENCE: Gonick, L. and Smith, W. The

Cartoon Guide to Statistics. New York:
Harper Perennial, p. 212, 1993
◼ Weisstein, Eric W. "Chernoff Face." From
MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.
mathworld.wolfram.com/ChernoffFace.html

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 Stick Figure
A census data
figure showing
age, income,
gender,
education, etc.

A 5-piece stick
figure (1 body
and 4 limbs w.
different
angle/length)
86 Two attributes mapped to axes, remaining attributes mapped to angle or length of limbs”. Look at texture pattern

86

Hierarchical Visualization
Techniques

◼ Visualization of the data using a hierarchical

partitioning into subspaces
◼ Methods
◼ Dimensional Stacking
◼ Worlds-within-Worlds
◼ Tree-Map
◼ Cone Trees
◼ InfoCube

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 Dimensional Stacking

attribute 4
attribute 2

attribute 3

attribute 1

◼ Partitioning of the n-dimensional attribute space in 2-D

subspaces, which are ‘stacked’ into each other
◼ Partitioning of the attribute value ranges into classes. The
important attributes should be used on the outer levels.
◼ Adequate for data with ordinal attributes of low cardinality
◼ But, difficult to display more than nine dimensions
◼ Important to map dimensions appropriately

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Dimensional Stacking
Used by permission of M. Ward, Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Visualization of oil mining data with longitude and latitude mapped to the
outer x-, y-axes and ore grade and depth mapped to the inner x-, y-axes
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40
 Worlds-within-Worlds
◼ Assign the function and two most important parameters to innermost
world
◼ Fix all other parameters at constant values - draw other (1 or 2 or 3
dimensional worlds choosing these as the axes)
◼ Software that uses this paradigm
◼ N–vision: Dynamic
interaction through data
glove and stereo
displays, including
rotation, scaling (inner)
and translation
(inner/outer)
◼ Auto Visual: Static
interaction by means of
queries

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Tree-Map
◼ Screen-filling method which uses a hierarchical partitioning
of the screen into regions depending on the attribute values
◼ The x- and y-dimension of the screen are partitioned
alternately according to the attribute values (classes)

MSR Netscan Image

91 Ack.: http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/treemap-history/all102001.jpg

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 Tree-Map of a File System
(Schneiderman)

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InfoCube
◼ A 3-D visualization technique where hierarchical
information is displayed as nested semi-transparent
cubes
◼ The outermost cubes correspond to the top level
data, while the subnodes or the lower level data
are represented as smaller cubes inside the
outermost cubes, and so on

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 Three-D Cone Trees
◼ 3D cone tree visualization technique works
well for up to a thousand nodes or so
◼ First build a 2D circle tree that arranges its
nodes in concentric circles centered on the
root node
◼ Cannot avoid overlaps when projected to
2D
◼ G. Robertson, J. Mackinlay, S. Card. “Cone
Trees: Animated 3D Visualizations of
Hierarchical Information”, ACM SIGCHI'91
◼ Graph from Nadeau Software Consulting
website: Visualize a social network data set
that models the way an infection spreads
from one person to the next
Ack.: http://nadeausoftware.com/articles/visualization
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Visualizing Complex Data and

Relations
◼ Visualizing non-numerical data: text and social networks
◼ Tag cloud: visualizing user-generated tags
◼ The importance of
tag is represented
by font size/color
◼ Besides text data,
there are also
methods to visualize
relationships, such as
visualizing social
networks

Newsmap: Google News Stories in 2005

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